Positivism in Literature & Literary Theory

Positivism: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Table of Contents

Etymology:

The term “positivism” comes from the French philosopher Auguste Comte, who believed scientific methods were the only reliable source of knowledge. The Latin word “positum” means “laid down” or “affirmed”, reflecting the emphasis on observable facts and verifiable data.

Meanings and Concept:

Focus on verifiable knowledge: Positivism emphasizes gaining knowledge through objective observations, measurements, and scientific methods. It prioritizes data and evidence over introspection, speculation, or subjective interpretations.

Distrust of metaphysics and theology: Positivists generally reject knowledge claims based on faith, intuition, or supernatural beliefs, deeming them outside the realm of scientific verification.
Progress through science and reason: Positivism often portrays science and technology as key drivers of progress and societal improvement. It promotes rational thinking and problem-solving based on empirical evidence.
Stages of human development: Comte theorized societies progress through three stages: theological, metaphysical, and positive. The positive stage represents the pinnacle, characterized by scientific thinking and technological advancement.

Limitations and critiques: Critics argue that positivism oversimplifies knowledge acquisition, neglecting social, cultural, and historical contexts. It may also overlook ethical considerations and subjective experiences in its pursuit of objectivity.

Remember: While positivism has significantly influenced various fields, it’s crucial to engage critically with its limitations and consider alternative perspectives on knowledge and social progress.

Positivism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Positivism, though often presented as a unified philosophy, unfolds as a multifaceted tapestry woven from threads of empirical data, scientific supremacy, and the pursuit of value-neutral objectivity. At its core, it elevates scientific methods as the sole arbiter of reliable knowledge, relegating intuition, faith, and even metaphysical inquiries to the shadows of unreliability. Its promise lies in a linear progression towards societal improvement driven by technological advancements, but critics point to its inherent limitations, namely the silencing of subjective experiences and the potential for biased interpretations within seemingly “objective” data. Therefore, understanding positivism necessitates embracing its nuances, acknowledging its contributions and limitations, and engaging in critical dialogue with its evolving legacy.

Positivism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist	Key Work	Core Arguments
Auguste Comte	Cours de Philosophie Positive (1830-1842)	– Proposed three stages of human development: theological, metaphysical, and positive. – Advocated for science as the foundation of all knowledge and the driving force behind progress.
John Stuart Mill	A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (1843)	– Emphasized empiricism and inductive reasoning as the basis for scientific knowledge. – Promoted logic and clear thinking as essential tools for understanding the world.
Emile Durkheim	The Rules of Sociological Method (1895)	– Applied positivist principles to the study of social phenomena, advocating for objectivity and quantitative methods. – Founded the discipline of sociology as a distinct academic field.
Karl Popper	The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1934)	– Proposed falsificationism as a demarcation criterion for scientific theories, emphasizing the importance of rigorous testing and refutation. – Distinguished science from pseudoscience and metaphysics.
Harriet Martineau	Illustrations of Political Economy (1832-1834)	– Advocated for the use of statistical methods and data analysis in social reform efforts. – Challenged traditional gender roles and advocated for women’s participation in scientific inquiry.

Key Arguments:

Empiricism: Knowledge based on verifiable observations and data.
Science as the ideal method: Scientific methods as the most reliable path to knowledge and progress.
Objectivity and value neutrality: Striving for objectivity and removing subjective biases in knowledge acquisition.

Rejection of metaphysics and theology: Dismissing non-empirical claims as unreliable.
Social progress through science: Science and technology driving societal advancements.

Points to Consider:

Positivism is not a monolithic concept, with variations and internal debates.

The table presents major positivist thinkers, but others like Charles Sanders Peirce and Ludwig Wittgenstein contributed to its evolution.
Critics highlight limitations like neglecting social context, subjective experiences, and potential biases within seemingly objective data.
Examining specific historical contexts and variations is crucial for a nuanced understanding of positivism.

Positivism: Major Characteristics

Epistemology:

Empiricism: Knowledge comes solely from verifiable observations and sensory experiences. Intuition, faith, and subjective interpretations are unreliable.
Scientific method: The most reliable method for acquiring knowledge, emphasizing controlled experiments, data collection, and analysis.
Objectivity: Striving for value-neutral observations and interpretations, minimizing personal biases and subjective influences.

Logical reasoning: Utilizing logic and deductive reasoning to draw conclusions from observations and test theories.

Metaphysics:

Materialism: Focuses on the physical world and observable phenomena, rejecting metaphysical inquiries into non-material realms.
Determinism: Belief that all events have a cause and can be explained through natural laws, emphasizing predictability and causality.

Reductionism: Complex phenomena are explained by breaking them down into simpler, measurable components.

Social and Political Implications:

Progress through science and technology: Science and technological advancements are key drivers of societal progress and improvement.
Social Darwinism: Applying evolutionary principles to society, justifying social inequalities and competition.

Scientism: Overreliance on scientific methods and neglecting the role of ethics, values, and social context in decision-making.

Limitations and Critiques:

Neglects subjective experiences and social context: Ignores the role of culture, history, and individual perspectives in shaping knowledge.
Potential for bias: Even seemingly objective data can be influenced by researchers’ biases and the selection of research methods.

Reductionism may oversimplify complex phenomena: Breaking down complex systems into smaller parts can distort their interconnectedness and emergent properties.
Limited ability to address ethical and value-based questions: Science alone cannot provide answers to all questions, particularly those concerning morality and social justice.

Positivism: Relevance in Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance of Positivism	Examples
Formalism	– Emphasizes objective analysis of literary texts based on their internal structures and linguistic features. – Connects with positivist focus on observable elements and detachment from subjective interpretations.	Analyzing a poem’s meter, rhyme scheme, and word choice without considering external context or authorial intention.
New Criticism	– Similar to formalism, focuses on close reading and objective analysis of literary texts based on inherent structures and symbols. – Resonates with the positivist pursuit of objectivity and disregard for emotional responses or external influences.	Examining recurring metaphors in a novel without exploring social or historical context.
Marxist Criticism	– Can adopt a positivist approach in its historical materialism, analyzing literature as reflecting socioeconomic structures and deterministic forces. – Connects with the positivist interest in cause-and-effect relationships and social progress.	Interpreting a novel’s characters and plot through the lens of class conflict and economic determinism, neglecting authorial subjectivity or individual agency.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	– While focusing on the subconscious, sometimes utilizes positivist methodology by seeking universal psychological truths through textual analysis. – Connects with the positivist desire for generalizable findings and objective interpretations.	Identifying archetypal symbols and applying Freudian concepts to characters without considering cultural context or individual psychology.

Important Notes:

These are just a few examples, and the relevance of positivism can vary depending on the specific theory, literary work, and critic’s approach.

Not all applications of these theories embrace positivism entirely, and many incorporate insights from other perspectives.
It’s crucial to critically analyze how positivist elements are used within literary theories, considering their potential limitations and overlooking of subjective experiences or historical context.
Contemporary literary theories often move beyond a strict positivist framework, acknowledging the interplay of social, cultural, and subjective factors in shaping meaning and interpretation.

By examining the connection between positivism and literary theories, we gain a deeper understanding of how different approaches analyze and interpret literature, fostering further reflection on the potential strengths and weaknesses of each perspective.

Positivism: Application in Critiques

Jekyll and Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson:

Positivist Application: Analyze Jekyll’s transformation into Hyde as a strictly clinical case study, employing precise anatomical and physiological descriptions to depict his physical mutations and emphasizing observable behavioral changes. This approach could delink Hyde’s actions from any moral judgments, instead focusing solely on the empirical manifestations of Jekyll’s experiments.

Limitations: While offering intriguing insights into Jekyll’s scientific obsession and its tangible consequences, this approach risks neglecting the subjective experiences, moral ambiguities, and symbolic dimensions woven into Stevenson’s narrative. The novel’s deeper critique of Victorian morality, the duality of human nature, and the dangers of unchecked ambition might be overlooked.

2. Sunset Song by Lewis Grassic Gibbon:

Positivist Application: Examine the hardships faced by Chris Guthrie and her community through a socioeconomic lens, utilizing data and factual descriptions to depict poverty, harsh labor conditions, and rigid social hierarchies. This analysis could involve studying historical records, demographic statistics, and economic factors contributing to the harsh realities of rural Scottish life depicted in the novel.

Limitations: While valuable in highlighting the socio-economic factors shaping Chris’s struggles, this approach might overshadow the individual narrative. Chris’s internal conflicts, emotional journey, and the psychological impact of societal pressures would be minimized. Additionally, Gibbon’s critique of societal injustices and power dynamics might be reduced to mere statistics, neglecting the novel’s emotional intensity and its poignant commentary on human resilience.

3. Trainspotting by Irvine Welsh:

Positivist Application: Explore the cycle of addiction and social dysfunction portrayed in the novel through a detached, data-driven lens, focusing on crime statistics, drug use patterns, and economic factors contributing to poverty and inequality. This could involve analyzing sociological studies, research on addiction, and government reports exploring the socio-economic context of addiction and crime.

Limitations: While offering insight into the broader societal issues intertwined with substance abuse, this approach might dehumanize the characters, reducing them to mere data points or case studies. The novel’s dark humor, its critique of consumerism and societal hypocrisy, and the individual motivations and vulnerabilities driving the characters’ actions would be overlooked.

4. The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie by Muriel Spark:

Positivist Application: Analyze Miss Brodie’s behavior and its impact on her students through a clinical, psychological framework, focusing on specific manipulation techniques, power dynamics, and potential long-term psychological effects. This approach could utilize established psychological theories and observational data to dissect Miss Brodie’s actions and their measurable consequences.

Limitations: While providing a structured framework for understanding Miss Brodie’s manipulative influence, this approach might oversimplify the characters’ inner lives and agency. The subjective perspectives, evolving personalities, and individual choices of the students, as well as the novel’s exploration of themes like conformity, rebellion, and the complexity of personal relationships, could be lost.

Remember, while a positivist approach can offer valuable insights, it’s crucial to engage critically with its limitations and recognize the multiple layers of meaning and subjective experiences present within literary works.

Positivism: Relevant Terms

Term

Empiricism: Knowledge based on sensory experience and observation.

Rationalism: Knowledge based on reason and logic, not faith or emotions.

Scientism: Uncritical belief that science is the only valid source of knowledge.

Logical Positivism: Emphasizes logical analysis and verification of statements.

Social Positivism: Applies positivist principles to study social phenomena.

Materialism: Focuses on the physical world and rejects metaphysical inquiries.

Determinism: Belief that all events have a cause and are predictable.

Reductionism: Explains complex phenomena by breaking them down into simpler parts.

Objectivism: Strives for value-neutral interpretations, minimizing subjectivity.

Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behavior and rejects mentalistic concepts.

Positivism: Suggested Readings

Ayer, A. J. Language, Truth and Logic. Dover Publications, 1952. Image of Language, Truth and Logic book: https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/57339/language-truth-and-logic-by-aj-ayer-intro-ben-rogers/9780141186047

Comte, Auguste. Cours de Philosophie Positive. Translated by Harriet Martineau. Positive Publications, 1853. Image of Cours de Philosophie Positive book: http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/31881
Durkheim, Emile. The Rules of Sociological Method. Translated by Sarah A. Solovay and James H. Turner. The Free Press, 1982. Image of The Rules of Sociological Method book: https://www.amazon.com/Rules-Sociological-Method-Emile-Durkheim/dp/0029079403
Feyerabend, Paul. Against Method. Verso Books, 1975. Image of Against Method book: https://www.amazon.com/Against-Method-Paul-Feyerabend/dp/1844674428

Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press, 1970. Image of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions book: https://www.amazon.com/Structure-Scientific-Revolutions-Thomas-Kuhn/dp/0226458083
Mill, John Stuart. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive. Longman, Green, and Roberts, 1843. Image of A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive book: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/27942/27942-h/27942-h.html
Popper, Karl R. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. Basic Books, 2002. Image of The Logic of Scientific Discovery book: https://www.amazon.com/Logic-Scientific-Discovery-Routledge-Classics-ebook/dp/B000OT7WLC

Ritzer, George. The Social Logic of Positivism. Palgrave Macmillan, 1975. Image of The Social Logic of Positivism book: https://www.amazon.com/Logical-Positivism-Library-Philosophical-Movements/dp/0029011302
Stumpf, Samuel Enoch. Philosophy of Science: An Introduction. Routledge, 2009. Image of Philosophy of Science: An Introduction book: https://www.amazon.com/Philosophy-Science-Very-Short-Introduction/dp/0192802836
Wray, Kevin W., and Randall D. Goodwin. Doing Science, Understanding Science: Social Studies of Science. Sage Publications, 2000. Image of Doing Science, Understanding Science: Social Studies of Science book: https://www.amazon.com/Doing-Science-Analysis-Communication-Scientific/dp/019538573X