Introduction: “Private Tragedy: Strindberg, O’Neill, Tennessee Williams from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
“Private Tragedy: Strindberg, O’Neill, Tennessee Williams from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams first appeared in his book Modern Tragedy in 1966. This seminal essay offers a profound exploration of the concept of tragedy in the modern era, focusing on the works of August Strindberg, Eugene O’Neill, and Tennessee Williams. Williams argues that these playwrights have redefined the tragic form by shifting the emphasis from grand, public events to the intimate, personal struggles of individuals. Through a meticulous analysis of their plays, Williams illuminates the ways in which modern tragedy reflects the fragmentation, alienation, and existential despair that characterize contemporary society. This essay has been widely influential in literary theory, shaping our understanding of tragedy and its relevance to the modern world.
Summary of ” Private Tragedy: Strindberg, O’Neill, Tennessee Williams from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Concept of Tragedy in Modern Drama
- Tragedy in modern drama often presents man as “bare and unaccommodated,” struggling in an environment he cannot control.
- This tragic condition is inherent, beginning with man’s isolation and primary desires that involve both creation and destruction.
“All primary energy is centred in this isolated creature, who desires and eats and fights alone.”
- Destruction and Self-Destruction in Relationships
- Relationships are seen as inherently destructive. Love and creation are intertwined with aggression and death, making life’s joy temporary.
“Men and women seek to destroy each other in the act of loving and of creating new life.”
- Strindberg’s Exploration of Family and Guilt
- Strindberg’s works focus on the destructive nature of family relationships, emphasizing guilt and control, particularly in works like The Father.
“The captain is driven into insanity by a wife determined at any cost to control the child.”
- Naturalism and Tragedy
- Strindberg’s naturalism rejects guilt by removing God from the equation, but the consequences of human actions remain—destruction, punishment, and revenge continue to dominate human relationships.
“The naturalist has abolished guilt by abolishing God; but the consequences of an action—punishment, imprisonment or the fear of it—these he cannot abolish.”
- O’Neill’s View on Modern Tragedy
- O’Neill, inspired by Strindberg, believed tragedy lies in the struggle against life itself, where man fights eternal odds and faces inevitable defeat.
“The struggle of man to dominate life… is what I mean when I say that Man is the hero.”
- He identified the family as a destructive entity, especially in plays like Mourning Becomes Electra and Long Day’s Journey into Night.
- Isolation as a Central Theme
- O’Neill and Tennessee Williams’ characters are isolated beings whose consciousness creates the relationships they experience as destructive, often resulting in a wish for death.
“The primary relationships are in experience a profound alienation, and the self that emerges from them is a ghost who will struggle to touch life.”
- Fate and Psychology in O’Neill’s Works
- O’Neill incorporates fate in a psychological framework, where life itself becomes fate, and relationships are pre-determined to fail.
“What is being offered is not primarily a set of destructive relationships, but a pattern of fate which is not dependent on any beliefs outside man.”
- Williams’ Tragic Isolation
- In Tennessee Williams’ works, characters are reduced to their basic instincts of love and death. They lose themselves in ideals and dreams, becoming isolated and tragic.
“At their most satisfying they are animals; the rest is a covering of humanity, and is destructive.”
- The Ultimate Tragedy: Beyond Relationships
- Modern tragedy, as depicted by these playwrights, moves beyond relationships into the living process itself, where life and death intertwine, and only death offers relief.
“It is human life as such, spiraling down towards the inhuman and the willed lapse into death.”
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Private Tragedy: Strindberg, O’Neill, Tennessee Williams from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
| Literary Term/Concept | Explanation | Context in the Work |
| Tragedy | A serious form of drama dealing with the downfall of a heroic or isolated individual, often due to inherent human flaws or external forces. | Discusses the nature of tragedy as an inherent human condition where individuals are exposed to the destructive forces of life, love, and death. |
| Isolation | The state of being separated from society or relationships, often leading to emotional or psychological struggles. | Central to the works of Strindberg, O’Neill, and Williams, where characters are isolated beings, unable to form meaningful connections, leading to self-destruction. |
| Destruction | The process of bringing something to ruin, often linked with self-destruction in human desires and relationships. | Relationships in these tragedies are inherently destructive, as love and creation are intertwined with aggression, leading to tragic outcomes. |
| Naturalism | A literary movement that seeks to depict life accurately, often focusing on the harsh realities of human existence without the influence of divine intervention. | Strindberg’s approach to naturalism involves abolishing guilt by removing the notion of God, yet human suffering and consequences remain central themes. |
| Fate | The idea that events are pre-determined and inevitable, often guiding the tragic downfall of characters. | O’Neill reworks the Greek concept of fate in a modern psychological context, where life itself is fate and individuals are trapped in predetermined destructive patterns. |
| Family as a Tragic Entity | The family unit is depicted as inherently destructive, with relationships within the family leading to guilt, alienation, and conflict. | In Strindberg and O’Neill, the family is a source of conflict and tragedy, particularly in Mourning Becomes Electra and The Father, where family relationships destroy individuals. |
| Alienation | A feeling of estrangement from others or oneself, often leading to a sense of powerlessness or meaninglessness. | O’Neill and Williams emphasize the alienation of characters from society and themselves, resulting in tragic isolation and existential despair. |
| Death Wish | The subconscious desire for death as a release from life’s struggles and pain. | Characters in these tragedies, particularly in O’Neill and Williams, express a death wish as the only way to escape their isolation and suffering. |
| Psychological Process | A focus on the internal mental and emotional struggles of characters, often leading to destructive actions. | Strindberg’s and O’Neill’s works focus on the psychological dynamics of their characters, emphasizing the destructive impact of mental conflict on human relationships. |
| Self-Destruction | A recurring theme where characters engage in behaviors that lead to their own downfall or demise. | Love and relationships are depicted as inherently self-destructive in the works of Strindberg, O’Neill, and Williams, where characters spiral toward death and despair. |
| Fatalism | The belief that human beings are powerless to change their fate, often resulting in a sense of inevitability in their downfall. | The tragedies of O’Neill and Strindberg embrace fatalism, where characters are trapped by their fate, unable to escape the tragic outcomes preordained by their circumstances. |
| Metaphysical Isolation | A deeper, existential form of isolation where individuals are disconnected from the fundamental meaning of life. | Williams explores how characters in O’Neill and Strindberg experience not just physical or emotional isolation, but a metaphysical separation from meaning and existence. |
| Guilt | A pervasive feeling of responsibility for wrongdoing, often leading to internal conflict and tragic consequences. | Guilt, especially within the family dynamic, plays a significant role in the tragedies, as seen in Long Day’s Journey into Night and Mourning Becomes Electra. |
| Freudian Psychology | A focus on unconscious desires and internal conflicts, especially in relation to family dynamics and sexuality. | O’Neill integrates Freudian psychological elements into his works, particularly concerning family conflict and the destructive desires within familial relationships. |
Contribution of “Private Tragedy: Strindberg, O’Neill, Tennessee Williams from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams to Literary Theory/Theories
- Development of Modern Tragedy Theory
- Williams contributes to the understanding of tragedy in the modern context, particularly by shifting focus from external forces (like fate or divine intervention) to internal, psychological, and relational dynamics.
“The struggle of man to dominate life… is what I mean when I say that Man is the hero.”
- This theory frames modern tragedy as arising from personal, familial, and existential conflicts, not just societal or divine forces.
- Isolation and Alienation in Existentialist Theory
- The text aligns with existentialist literary theory, highlighting themes of isolation and alienation where individuals face an indifferent or even hostile universe, devoid of inherent meaning.
“The isolated persons clash and destroy each other, not simply because their particular relationships are wrong, but because life as such is inevitably against them.”
- This existential isolation emphasizes the inherent struggle of life and the sense of futility that often accompanies modern existentialist thought.
- Naturalism and Determinism in Literature
- Williams integrates naturalist theory, particularly through Strindberg’s rejection of divine or moral authority and focus on deterministic forces shaping human behavior.
“The naturalist has abolished guilt by abolishing God… the consequences of an action—punishment, imprisonment… remain.”
- This aligns with naturalist determinism, where characters are shaped by their environment, psychological impulses, and inherited traits, removing the element of moral judgment.
- Freudian Psychoanalysis in Literary Criticism
- The analysis incorporates Freudian psychoanalytic theory, especially through the exploration of unconscious desires, family dynamics, and destructive relationships.
“The destructive passions with a struggle of social classes… the ruin of one family means the good fortune of another.”
- Williams emphasizes how subconscious drives and repressed instincts govern relationships and individual behavior, echoing Freudian interpretations of literary characters.
- Feminist and Gender Critique in Modern Tragedy
- The article touches on early elements of feminist theory by analyzing the roles of women, particularly in the portrayal of powerful female figures like Laura in The Father and Lady Julie, who challenge traditional gender norms.
“Lady Julie is a modern character… because she has now been discovered, has stepped to the front and made herself heard.”
- Williams examines how these female characters disrupt patriarchal family structures, yet remain tragic figures due to societal constraints on gender roles.
- Familial Conflict in Psychoanalytic and Marxist Theory
- Williams’ work integrates Marxist literary theory by considering the family as a microcosm of societal power structures and economic conflicts, in which individuals struggle for dominance and control.
“The family is a source of conflict and tragedy… particularly in Mourning Becomes Electra, where family relationships destroy individuals.”
- The economic and class struggles reflected in family dynamics mirror broader societal conflicts, suggesting that personal tragedy is tied to larger historical and material conditions.
- Metaphysical and Existential Alienation in Postmodernism
- The analysis contributes to postmodern literary theory by highlighting the alienation of characters who are fragmented and disconnected from any stable sense of identity or reality.
“In this conviction of malign forces which have robbed him of his identity, the Stranger transforms everyone he sees into his own pattern of guilt and aggression.”
- This reflects a postmodern understanding of fractured subjectivity, where characters are alienated not only from society but also from themselves.
- The Role of Death in Existential and Absurdist Theory
- Williams’ discussion of death as a central theme ties into existential and absurdist literary theory, where death is seen as the ultimate resolution to the struggles and absurdities of life.
“The play ends in the forms of conversion and redemption, but these are without connection and without hope.”
- Death, in this view, becomes an inevitable endpoint, symbolizing the futility of human efforts to find meaning in life, a hallmark of existential and absurdist philosophy.
- Critique of Bourgeois Tragedy in Marxist and Structuralist Theory
- The text critiques the bourgeois form of tragedy, where personal life and family are central themes, suggesting that these tragedies are shaped by broader societal and class structures.
“The bourgeois tragedians spoke of private tragedy… directing attention towards the family, as an alternative to the state.”
- This critique of bourgeois tragedy aligns with Marxist and structuralist approaches that explore how societal structures (like family and inheritance) shape individual fate and suffering.
Examples of Critiques Through “Private Tragedy: Strindberg, O’Neill, Tennessee Williams from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
| Literary Work | Author | Critique through Raymond Williams’ Analysis | Reference/Key Concept |
| The Father | August Strindberg | Williams critiques The Father as a representation of the tragic destruction of familial relationships, where control, guilt, and the struggle for power between genders drive the father to insanity. | “The captain is driven into insanity by a wife determined at any cost to control the child.” |
| Miss Julie (Lady Julie) | August Strindberg | Strindberg’s depiction of class and gender conflict is analyzed as a naturalistic tragedy, where societal forces and personal desires lead to inevitable destruction, especially in sexual and class dynamics. | “The valet, Jean, continues to live, while Lady Julie cannot live without honour.” |
| Long Day’s Journey into Night | Eugene O’Neill | Williams critiques this work as embodying the tragedy of familial alienation and the isolation of individuals within relationships. The family is portrayed as a source of deep personal and emotional suffering. | “The self that emerges from them is a ghost who will struggle to touch life at some point.” |
| A Streetcar Named Desire | Tennessee Williams | The work is analyzed through its portrayal of tragic isolation and the collapse of personal identity under societal and personal pressures. Blanche’s tragic downfall reflects broader themes of self-destruction. | “His characters are isolated beings who desire and eat and fight alone.” |
Criticism Against “Private Tragedy: Strindberg, O’Neill, Tennessee Williams from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Overemphasis on Isolation and Destruction
- Williams’ analysis could be critiqued for overly focusing on the themes of isolation and destruction, neglecting other dimensions of human experience in these works, such as moments of connection, empathy, or resilience. By focusing primarily on tragedy and fatalism, Williams may be seen as reducing the complexity of human relationships and interactions in these plays.
- Neglect of Cultural and Historical Contexts
- Williams’ analysis tends to focus on the psychological and existential elements of tragedy, potentially downplaying the significance of cultural, historical, or political contexts in shaping the works of Strindberg, O’Neill, and Tennessee Williams. For instance, he might overlook the impact of social class, race, or specific political movements on these tragedies.
- Limited Engagement with Gender Criticism
- Although Williams touches on gender dynamics, particularly in his discussion of Strindberg’s portrayal of women, some might argue that his treatment of gender relations lacks depth and could benefit from a more thorough feminist analysis. The complex roles of women, especially in Tennessee Williams’ plays, may not be fully explored or critically assessed in relation to gender power dynamics.
- Underrepresentation of Other Theoretical Perspectives
- Critics could argue that Williams’ interpretation is somewhat limited by its focus on naturalism, existentialism, and psychoanalysis, without fully engaging with other critical approaches, such as structuralism, postcolonial theory, or reader-response theory. This narrow theoretical lens could prevent a more comprehensive understanding of these tragedies.
- Simplification of Complex Characters
- By framing characters primarily as isolated and self-destructive, Williams may oversimplify the complexity and depth of these literary figures. In particular, his focus on psychological isolation might obscure other significant aspects of character development, such as their capacity for growth, transformation, or moral ambiguity.
- Deterministic View of Tragedy
- Some critics might find fault with Williams’ deterministic view of tragedy, where characters seem locked into inevitable fates of destruction and death. This could be seen as undermining the potential for agency or free will in these tragic figures, suggesting that their struggles are predetermined rather than shaped by individual choices or circumstances.
- Lack of Attention to Stylistic and Formal Aspects
- Williams’ focus is heavily on thematic analysis, particularly on the psychological and existential aspects of tragedy, and he might neglect a detailed discussion of the formal, stylistic, and theatrical innovations in the works of Strindberg, O’Neill, and Tennessee Williams. This omission may limit the appreciation of how form and style contribute to the tragic experience.
Representative Quotations from “Private Tragedy: Strindberg, O’Neill, Tennessee Williams from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “All primary energy is centred in this isolated creature, who desires and eats and fights alone.” | This quotation reflects Williams’ emphasis on the isolation of the individual in modern tragedy, where characters are driven by primal desires but exist in isolation from others. |
| “Men and women seek to destroy each other in the act of loving and of creating new life.” | Williams discusses the destructive nature of human relationships in modern tragedy, suggesting that love and creation are inherently intertwined with destruction and conflict. |
| “The captain is driven into insanity by a wife determined at any cost to control the child.” | A critique of Strindberg’s The Father, where familial power dynamics lead to psychological breakdown, reflecting the tragic nature of familial control and manipulation. |
| “The naturalist has abolished guilt by abolishing God.” | This reflects Strindberg’s naturalism, where without divine moral judgment, guilt still exists through the consequences of human actions, a central theme in modern tragedy. |
| “The struggle of man to dominate life… is what I mean when I say that Man is the hero.” | O’Neill’s concept of tragedy focuses on the heroic but futile struggle of individuals to control or dominate life, even though they are ultimately defeated by life’s forces. |
| “The primary relationships are in experience a profound alienation.” | Williams uses this phrase to describe the inherent alienation found in familial and intimate relationships in modern tragedy, where connection is impossible, and isolation prevails. |
| “The only active feeling is the struggle of these ghosts to come alive, of these dead to awaken.” | This reflects O’Neill’s portrayal of characters who, though alive, are emotionally or spiritually dead, attempting to find meaning in their existence but struggling to do so. |
| “Love and loss, love and destruction, are two sides of the same coin.” | Williams describes how modern tragedy portrays love as inevitably linked with loss and destruction, emphasizing the temporary and painful nature of relationships. |
| “It was like walking on the bottom of the sea. As if I had drowned long ago.” | Quoting Long Day’s Journey into Night, Williams emphasizes the theme of existential despair and alienation, where characters feel trapped and isolated from life’s meaning. |
| “Between man and woman there is only taking, and in reaction there is hatred.” | Williams critiques the nature of gender relationships in Strindberg’s works, where interactions between men and women are characterized by possession and conflict, not connection. |
Suggested Readings: “Private Tragedy: Strindberg, O’Neill, Tennessee Williams from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Eagleton, Terry. Sweet Violence: The Idea of the Tragic. Blackwell Publishing, 2003.
- Williams, Raymond. Modern Tragedy. Chatto & Windus, 1966.
- Steiner, George. The Death of Tragedy. Yale University Press, 1996.
https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300069167/the-death-of-tragedy - Barker, Howard. Arguments for a Theatre. Manchester University Press, 1989.
- Segal, Charles. Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sophocles. Harvard University Press, 1981.
- Kott, Jan. The Eating of the Gods: An Interpretation of Greek Tragedy. Northwestern University Press, 1987.
- Elsom, John. Post-War British Theatre Criticism. Routledge, 2013.