“Racism and Nationalism” by George L. Mosse: Summary and Critique

Main Ideas:

• Distinction Between Racism and Nationalism:
  • Racism and nationalism are often linked, but nationalism is a flexible ideology that can exist without racism. However, when the two align, “nationalism made racism a reality, and racism came to dominate nationalism” (Mosse, 1995, p. 163).
• Racism as an Ideology and a Totality:
  • Racism is a distinct, self-sustaining ideology that “encompasses the whole human personality—its looks, behavior, and intellect” (p. 164).
  • It is a “worldview as complete as other ideologies which evolved during the nineteenth century, such as socialism or conservatism” (p. 165).
• The Role of Aesthetics and Anthropology in Racism:
  • Racism was reinforced by scientific disciplines such as anthropology, history, and physiognomy, creating rigid standards of human appearance and superiority. “Anthropology, history, and this new aesthetic consciousness were all concerned with the search for roots, they could fulfill a longing for immutability and certainty in a world of rapid social change” (p. 164).
• The Symbolism of the Human Body in Racism:
  • Unlike nationalism, which relied on abstract symbols like flags or anthems, racism used “the human body itself as its most potent symbol” (p. 163).
  • Racial aesthetics borrowed heavily from classical Greek ideals, where “harmony, proportion, and ‘quiet greatness’ were seen as the ultimate expressions of racial superiority” (p. 166).
• Racism’s Need for a Counter-Type:
  • Racism constructs an “ideal type” and a “counter-type” (p. 169).
  • The racial enemy, whether Jews, Blacks, or other marginalized groups, was depicted as the antithesis of the racial ideal. “Through the counter-image, we obtain the greatest clarity of what our own ideals should be” (p. 171).
• Gender and Racism:
  • Racism was deeply gendered, with the male body serving as the primary symbol of racial superiority. “Masculinity symbolized the active life, the hope for the victory of the race over its enemies and the subsequent construction of the ideal racist society” (p. 167).
  • Women were depicted as either mothers of the race or the nation, reinforcing strict gender roles (p. 167).
• The Political Implications of Racism and Nationalism:
  • Nationalism is flexible and has been linked with various ideologies (liberalism, conservatism, socialism), while racism is an “uncompromising worldview that does not tolerate ambiguity” (p. 165).
  • The alliance between nationalism and racism often led to extreme political movements, most notably in Nazi Germany: “Racism was the catalyst which pushed German nationalism over the edge, from discrimination to mass extermination” (p. 171).
• Racism as a Civic Religion:
  • Racism functioned as a “civic religion” with its own myths, symbols, and rituals (p. 165).
  • It promised “immutability and redemption, much like traditional religious belief” (p. 165).
• The Danger of Trivializing Racism:
  • The contemporary misuse of the term “racism” dilutes its historical significance. “A tendency to trivialize racism has been much more common; to make use of the term in contemporary polemics in order to designate all those acts which create or maintain disadvantage” (p. 164).
• Conclusion: Nationalism Can Resist Racism:
  • While nationalism has historically aligned with racism, it does not have to be racist. “Coming to understand the relationship between racism and nationalism should lead us to build upon the fact that nationalism, as patriotism, always managed to resist the racist temptation” (p. 173).

Key Takeaways:

• Racism is a rigid, totalizing ideology, while nationalism is more flexible.
• The human body serves as the primary symbol in racist ideology, reinforcing stereotypes of superiority and inferiority.
• Racism constructs a “counter-type” as a necessary enemy to its racial ideal.
• While nationalism and racism have often merged, nationalism is not inherently racist and has alternative, more inclusive traditions.
• Understanding the distinction between the two is essential to resisting racism’s influence in nationalist movements.

1. Postcolonial Theory

• Influence on the Representation of the Other:
  • Mosse explores how racism constructs the “counter-type” as an enemy figure, a central concern in postcolonial studies.
  • “Racism depended upon the existence of its enemies, it had always defined itself as at war against hostile and inferior races” (Mosse, 1995, p. 169).
• Racial Stereotyping and Colonial Discourse:
  • His analysis of bodily aesthetics in racial ideology parallels colonial narratives that portray the colonized as inferior based on physical features.
  • “The very construction of the human body, its size, sinews, muscles and bones, were made to bear witness to the superiority or inferiority of a race and its culture” (p. 165).

2. Structuralism and Semiotics

• Symbolism in National and Racial Identity:
  • Mosse highlights how nationalism and racism use symbols to construct meaning, resonating with semiotic analyses of cultural narratives.
  • “Nationalism could annex many of the ideas and the stereotype I have discussed because it too was based upon the principle of separateness” (p. 168).
• Binary Oppositions in Racial Ideology:
  • The racial “ideal type” versus “counter-type” functions as a binary structure akin to Levi-Strauss’s structuralist oppositions (e.g., civilized vs. uncivilized).
  • “Through the counter-image we obtain the greatest clarity of what our own ideals should be” (p. 171).

3. Feminist Literary Theory & Gender Studies

• Masculinity as a National and Racial Ideal:
  • Mosse examines how racial ideology constructs masculinity as an active, dominant force while relegating women to reproductive roles.
  • “Masculinity symbolized the active life, the hope for the victory of the race over its enemies and the subsequent construction of the ideal racist society” (p. 167).
• Gendered Nationalism and the Role of Women:
  • Women in nationalist discourse are depicted either as “mothers of the nation” or passive figures, reinforcing patriarchal ideals in literature and cultural narratives.
  • “Women as public symbols were either mothers of the family or mothers of the nation, such as Germania, Britannia or the sedate Marianne” (p. 167).

4. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory

• Racial Stereotypes and Projection:
  • The racial counter-type functions as a projection of societal fears, similar to Freud’s theory of the “Other” as a repressed desire or anxiety.
  • “The racial myths are familiar enough, they concern the faraway origins, the hardships and triumphs of the race, leading to redemption when the race wars are won” (p. 165).
• Racism as an Unconscious Collective Desire:
  • The need for absolute racial purity mirrors psychoanalytic anxieties about contamination, reflecting the superego’s imposition of rigid ideological purity.
  • “Racism leaves nothing to chance. Whether it legitimizes itself through science or through pseudo-historical scholarship, it does not tolerate what Ezra Pound once called an ‘Indeterminate Wobble’” (p. 165).

5. Critical Race Theory (CRT)

• Racism as a Socially Constructed Ideology:
  • Mosse’s work supports CRT’s assertion that race is not biologically determined but a social construct shaped by historical narratives.
  • “Racism as a political slogan could lead to such absurdities as the United Nations first declaring that Zionism is racism, and then repealing this assertion, as if racism’s finality was not one of its chief and most fateful characteristics” (p. 164).
• The Institutionalization of Racism Through Nationalism:
  • His analysis of how nationalism made racism operational aligns with CRT’s focus on systemic racism.
  • “Nationalism made racism a reality, and racism came to dominate nationalism once an alliance between the two movements had been consummated” (p. 163).

6. Cultural Studies & Identity Theory

• The Construction of National Identity Through Aesthetic Ideals:
  • Mosse shows how national identity is shaped through visual and literary representations, influencing cultural studies’ analysis of media and literature.
  • “Anthropology, history, and this new aesthetic consciousness were all concerned with the search for roots, they could fulfill a longing for immutability and certainty in a world of rapid social change” (p. 164).
• Populism and the Role of Nationalism in Culture:
  • His analysis of nationalist movements as populist forces informs cultural studies on how political ideologies manipulate cultural identity.
  • “The racist utopia was populist, it stood outside the present political system” (p. 172).

1. Overemphasis on European Context

• Mosse’s analysis is heavily Eurocentric, focusing primarily on racism and nationalism in Europe while neglecting parallel developments in colonial and postcolonial settings.
• Critics argue that his framework does not fully account for non-Western experiences of racism and nationalism, such as in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

2. Underestimation of Economic Factors

• Mosse emphasizes cultural and aesthetic elements of racism but does not sufficiently engage with economic motivations behind racist ideologies.
• Some scholars argue that racism was not just about aesthetics and nationalism but was deeply tied to economic exploitation, capitalism, and colonial labor systems.

3. Lack of Intersectional Analysis

• His work does not engage deeply with intersectionality, particularly how race interacts with class, gender, and sexuality.
• While he discusses gendered aspects of nationalism, some feminist scholars believe his analysis lacks depth in examining how women of different races experienced racism differently.

4. Limited Discussion on Resistance and Counter-Narratives

• The book focuses on how racism and nationalism became dominant ideologies but offers little analysis of anti-racist movements, resistance literature, or alternative nationalist movements that opposed racism.
• Critics argue that he does not sufficiently discuss figures and movements that challenged racist nationalism from within their own national traditions.

5. Ambiguous Stance on Nationalism

• Mosse acknowledges that nationalism does not necessarily have to be racist, but he does not provide a clear theoretical framework for distinguishing between inclusive and exclusive forms of nationalism.
• Some critics argue that this ambiguity leaves room for misinterpretation and fails to fully address how nationalism can be reformed to resist racism.

6. Oversimplification of Racist Ideology

• Some scholars believe Mosse portrays racism as a rigid and self-contained ideology without fully exploring its fluidity and adaptability in different historical and political contexts.
• The book does not explore how contemporary forms of racism have evolved beyond 19th and 20th-century frameworks.

7. Insufficient Engagement with Contemporary Theories of Race

• Since Mosse’s work was published in 1995, it does not engage with more recent developments in critical race theory, postcolonial theory, and decolonial studies.
• Some scholars argue that his analysis, while insightful, does not incorporate more recent critiques of Eurocentrism and white supremacy in global contexts.