“Referential” by Lorrie Moore: A Critical Analysis

Introduction: “Referential” by Lorrie Moore

“Referential” by Lorrie Moore was first published in The New Yorker in 1998, and was later included in her short story collection, Birds of America (1998). The story delves into themes of middle-aged disillusionment, familial strain, and the weight of unspoken desires. Moore’s signature wit and sharp observational style are evident throughout. Her prose is deceptively simple, yet loaded with subtle details revealing the emotional complexities of her characters. The narrative oscillates between past and present, blurring the lines between reality and the protagonist’s anxieties as she confronts her crumbling relationship, her son’s mental illness, and her fading sense of self.

Main Events in “Referential” by Lorrie Moore

1. Birthday Visits: The protagonist and Pete struggle to find appropriate gifts for her deranged son, who resides in a facility with strict regulations due to his condition.
2. Complex Relationships: The protagonist and Pete have a long, winding relationship, influenced by her son’s troubles and Pete’s own struggles, including losing his job.
3. Emotional Distance: Pete’s emotional distance becomes apparent as he struggles to find his place in the protagonist’s life amidst her son’s challenges.
4. Maternal Struggles: The protagonist grapples with her son’s deteriorating mental health, feeling a sense of helplessness and maternal anguish.
5. Visits and Disappointment: During visits, the son yearns for Pete’s presence, but Pete’s absence and emotional detachment leave the protagonist feeling unsettled.
6. Escalating Concerns: The son’s mental health declines, leading to self-harm attempts, causing further distress for the protagonist and highlighting the severity of the situation.
7. Symbolism in Nature: The stormy weather reflects the tumultuous emotions and challenges faced by the characters, emphasizing the fragile nature of their lives.
8. Desperate Measures: The protagonist considers bringing her son home despite the risks, seeking Pete’s support in navigating the difficult decision.
9. Communication Breakdown: Miscommunication and avoidance plague the characters, further complicating their relationships and adding to the tension.
10. Uncertain Future: The story ends with a sense of unresolved tension and uncertainty, leaving the characters grappling with their own demons and the challenges they face.

Literary Devices in “Referential” by Lorrie Moore

Literary Device	Definition	Example in “Referential”
1. Allusion	Reference to a well-known person, event, or work of art to enrich the meaning of the text.	The title “Referential” alludes to the psychological term “referential delusions,” hinting at the themes of mental illness and perception in the story.
2. Imagery	Vivid and descriptive language that appeals to the senses, creating mental images for the reader.	Descriptions of the protagonist’s graying hair “pinned up with strands hanging down like Spanish moss” evoke a visual image and convey her aging appearance.
3. Symbolism	Use of symbols to represent ideas or concepts, adding depth and layers of meaning to the narrative.	The stormy weather symbolizes the characters’ emotional turmoil, reflecting the challenges they face in their relationships and personal struggles.
4. Metaphor	Comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as,” often used to create vivid imagery.	“Mutilation was a language.” This metaphorical statement suggests that self-harm serves as a form of communication or expression for the characters, conveying their inner turmoil and distress.
5. Foreshadowing	Hinting at future events or outcomes in the narrative, creating anticipation and suspense for the reader.	The protagonist’s decision to bring her son home foreshadows potential conflict and challenges that may arise, hinting at the uncertainties they will face in the future.
6. Irony	Use of language where the intended meaning is opposite to the literal meaning, often for humorous or dramatic effect.	The protagonist’s offer of a “nice white Russian” to Pete, knowing he struggles with insomnia, is ironic because alcohol can exacerbate sleep issues rather than alleviate them.
7. Personification	Giving human characteristics to non-human objects or entities, adding depth and imagery to the narrative.	“The fruit trees had bloomed early… but the premature warmth precluded bees.” This personifies the trees and warmth, suggesting a sense of anticipation and disappointment, as if the trees themselves are affected by the lack of pollination.
8. Allegory	Narrative in which characters and events represent abstract ideas or moral qualities, conveying deeper meanings.	The protagonist’s struggles with her son’s mental illness can be seen as an allegory for the broader challenges of caregiving and the complexities of love and sacrifice.
9. Simile	Comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as,” often used to create vivid imagery or emphasize a point.	“He had wavy hair that had to be cut carefully… Now it no longer cascaded down but was close to his head, springing out at angles.” This simile compares the son’s hair to a spring, emphasizing its untamed appearance.
10. Repetition	Repeating words, phrases, or ideas for emphasis, rhythm, or to create a pattern in the narrative.	The repetition of “ever” in the son’s question, “Do you ever think…,” emphasizes his longing for connection and understanding, highlighting the recurring theme of isolation and yearning in the story.
11. Hyperbole	Exaggeration or overstatement used for emphasis or effect, often to create humor or to emphasize a point.	“Life, for him, was full of spies and preoccupying espionage.” This hyperbolic statement emphasizes the son’s perception of the world as fraught with danger and surveillance, conveying the intensity of his paranoia.
12. Flashback	Interruption of the chronological sequence of events to present an earlier incident or memory, providing context or insight.	The protagonist recalls moments from her son’s childhood, such as his infancy and early years, using flashback to provide background information and highlight the passage of time.
13. Suspense	Technique used to create anticipation or tension in the narrative, often by withholding information or by introducing conflict.	The protagonist’s decision to bring her son home creates suspense as readers wonder about the potential consequences and challenges they will face, building anticipation for the resolution of the story.
14. Parallelism	Use of similar grammatical structures, phrases, or ideas to create balance, rhythm, or emphasis in the narrative.	The repetition of “Do you ever…” in the son’s questions creates parallelism, emphasizing his persistent curiosity and longing for connection, while also highlighting the thematic focus on isolation and introspection.
15. Tone	Author’s attitude or perspective towards the subject matter or characters, conveyed through language and style.	The somber tone of the story reflects the protagonist’s emotional struggles and the challenges faced by the characters, conveying a sense of melancholy and resignation in their circumstances.
16. Dialogue	Conversation between characters, used to reveal personality traits, advance the plot, or convey information.	The dialogue between the protagonist, her son, and Pete provides insight into their relationships and inner thoughts, revealing the dynamics and tensions between them as they navigate their complex emotions and experiences.
17. Motif	Recurring element, theme, or symbol that contributes to the overall meaning or message of the narrative.	The motif of mental illness and its impact on relationships recurs throughout the story, highlighting the challenges faced by the characters and the ways in which their lives are shaped by their struggles and experiences.
18. Juxtaposition	Placing two contrasting elements side by side to highlight their differences or create a specific effect.	The juxtaposition of the protagonist’s desire for normalcy and Pete’s emotional detachment highlights the tension between their respective desires and the challenges they face in reconciling their differences.
19. Diction	Author’s choice of words and language, used to convey tone, mood, and meaning in the narrative.	The use of descriptive diction, such as “dazed and quiet muttering” and “wide with the effects of medications,” creates vivid imagery and conveys the protagonist’s observations and emotional responses to her son’s condition.
20. Setting	Time and place in which the story takes place, used to establish mood, atmosphere, and context for the narrative.	The setting of the facility where the son resides and the protagonist’s home serve as contrasting backdrops, highlighting the differences in their experiences and the challenges they face in navigating their respective environments.

Characterization in “Referential” by Lorrie Moore

Major Characters

• The Narrator (Mother):
• A middle-aged widow grappling with the complexities of raising her mentally ill son while navigating a fading relationship with her long-term partner. She’s portrayed as loving yet worn down, desperate to help her son but also longing for normalcy.
• Pete: The mother’s partner, a kind yet emotionally distant figure who cannot commit to their relationship fully due to the presence of the mother’s son. He evokes a sense of frustrating ambiguity – simultaneously loving but unable to fully integrate into their life.
• The Son: A teenager suffering from a debilitating mental illness characterized by delusions and self-harm. His presence looms large over the story, even during his physical absence. His unseen character serves as a constant reminder of the challenges the mother faces and the strain it puts on her relationships.

Minor Characters

• The Staff: Brief mentions of the mental institution staff, such as the “big blond aide,” highlight the impersonal and potentially dangerous environment surrounding the son.
• Female Patients: The girls in group therapy are drawn to the son’s self-cutting, suggesting a shared language of pain and dysfunction that connects them.
• The Caller: The mysterious caller who hangs up repeatedly represents an intrusive and disruptive outside force, likely further unsettling the mother’s already fragile sense of peace.

Characterization Techniques

Lorrie Moore utilizes several techniques to characterize her subjects:

• Internal Monologue: The mother’s thoughts and reflections offer a raw and intimate look into her struggles, anxieties, and unwavering love for her son.
• Dialogue: Sparse yet loaded exchanges between the mother and Pete expose the tensions and unsaid truths that linger in their relationship.
• Symbolism: Objects like the jars of jam, the scars on the son’s arms, and the fruit trees speak to the themes of unfulfillment, hidden pain, and thwarted potential.
• Imagery: Vivid descriptions, like the Amish comparison, convey the mother’s sense of self-sacrifice and her changing perspective on life.

Major Themes in “Referential” by Lorrie Moore

1. Theme 1: The Weight of Unconventional Motherhood The story starkly reveals the emotional toll of parenting a child with severe mental illness. The mother’s love is relentless, but it comes at the cost of her own well-being. Her removal of jewelry in solidarity with her son, her self-comparison to the plain-dressing Amish, and her lost sense of self outside her role as mother all portray the sacrifices she makes and the burdens she carries.
2. Theme 2: Ambiguity of Love and Commitment Pete’s relationship with the mother is fraught with love but also hesitancy. His inability to fully integrate into her life due to the challenges her son presents highlights a painful dynamic. The scene where he turns away from her kiss, echoing their awkward first encounters, reinforces the lingering emotional distance despite their long-term connection. This ambiguity leaves the reader questioning the nature of love and whether it can withstand the burden of complex circumstances.
3. Theme 3: The Illusion of Control Throughout the story, the mother grapples with the unpredictability of existence. Her desire to bring her son home, the jars of jam that ultimately get confiscated, the fruitless blossoms – all point to her yearning for control in the face of forces beyond her understanding. This mirrors her son’s delusional world and the ever-present threat of his instability, emphasizing the fragility of life plans and personal agency.
4. Theme 4: Communication Breakdown The story is marked by incomplete communication and hidden meanings. The son’s cryptic questions, the mysterious phone calls, Pete’s unspoken anxieties – these all create a sense of unease and a lingering sense that deeper truths are perpetually just out of reach. The mother’s misreading of the caller ID underscores the distortion of information and the difficulty of understanding one another, even within the closest bonds.

Writing Style in “Referential” by Lorrie Moore

·  Dark Humor: Moore infuses the story with a sense of irony and wry humor, even within its serious subject matter.

• Example: The mother’s description of removing her jewelry as a “new widowhood” or the son’s humorous term “toemances”.

·  Cutting Observations: Moore’s prose is filled with sharp descriptions that expose hidden truths about her characters and their situations.

• Example: The mother’s comparison of herself to an Amish woman conveys her changing self-image.

·  Juxtaposition of the Ordinary and the Absurd: Moore blends everyday details with moments of startling surrealism.

• Example: The casual description of visiting her son in the institution contrasted with the image of his self-inflicted scars spelling out words.

·  Layers of Meaning: Moore employs symbolism and open-ended imagery, creating a multi-layered narrative.

• Example: The unseasonal blossoms represent both beauty and thwarted potential, mirroring the son’s life and the mother’s hopes.

·  Sparse Dialogue: Conversations are kept short and laden with unspoken tensions, revealing unspoken complexities within the relationships.

• Example: The strained exchanges between the mother and Pete leave much unsaid about the struggles within their relationship.

·  Internal Monologue: The mother’s thoughts are front and center, providing a deeply personal and introspective voice.

• Example: Her reflections on aging, loss, and her relationship with Pete show her inner turmoil.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Referential” by Lorrie Moore

Literary Theory	Interpretation	Example from “Referential”
Psychoanalytic	Analyzes characters’ behaviors, motivations, and relationships through the lens of psychological theories, such as Freudian concepts of the unconscious mind, repression, and defense mechanisms.	The protagonist’s struggle to maintain relationships amidst her son’s mental illness could be interpreted through a psychoanalytic lens, exploring her unconscious desires, fears, and defense mechanisms in coping with her circumstances.
Feminist	Focuses on gender dynamics, power structures, and societal norms, examining how they influence characters’ roles and relationships.	The protagonist’s portrayal as a caregiver dealing with her son’s mental illness could be analyzed from a feminist perspective, exploring the societal expectations and pressures placed on women in the role of caretakers and the ways in which gender norms shape her experiences and relationships with others, including Pete.
Marxist	Examines the story’s socio-economic context, power dynamics, and class struggles, analyzing how they shape characters’ identities and interactions.	Pete’s loss of job and subsequent strain on his relationship with the protagonist could be interpreted through a Marxist lens, exploring themes of economic instability, class disparity, and the impact of capitalism on individuals’ lives, highlighting the characters’ struggles within a broader socio-economic framework.
Postcolonial	Considers themes of colonialism, imperialism, and cultural identity, examining how they manifest in the story’s narrative and characters’ experiences.	While “Referential” may not overtly engage with postcolonial themes, one could interpret the story’s exploration of mental illness and societal stigma through a postcolonial lens, examining how power structures and cultural norms influence perceptions of “otherness” and contribute to marginalization and exclusion within society.
Formalist/New Criticism	Focuses on the text itself, analyzing its form, structure, language, and literary devices to uncover meaning and themes.	The story’s use of symbolism, imagery, and metaphor to convey the protagonist’s emotional turmoil and the complexities of her relationships with her son and Pete could be analyzed from a formalist perspective, highlighting how these literary devices contribute to the story’s overall meaning and thematic depth, independent of external contexts or interpretations.
Reader-Response	Emphasizes the reader’s role in interpreting the text, focusing on individual responses, interpretations, and experiences while engaging with the narrative.	Different readers may have varied interpretations of the protagonist’s decisions and actions in “Referential,” influenced by their own personal experiences, perspectives, and emotional responses to themes of love, loss, and caregiving depicted in the story, highlighting the subjective nature of interpretation and the reader’s active engagement in constructing meaning from the text.
Deconstructionist	Questions binary oppositions and fixed meanings, destabilizing conventional interpretations to reveal underlying contradictions and complexities.	The story’s portrayal of the protagonist’s relationships and her son’s mental illness could be deconstructed to challenge traditional binaries of sanity/insanity, normalcy/abnormalcy, and caregiver/patient, revealing the fluidity and ambiguity of these concepts and the complexities of human experience beyond simplistic categorizations or interpretations.
Cultural Criticism	Examines the story within its cultural context, analyzing how cultural norms, values, and ideologies influence its themes, characters, and narrative techniques.	“Referential” can be analyzed from a cultural criticism perspective to explore how societal attitudes towards mental illness and caregiving shape the characters’ experiences and relationships, reflecting broader cultural beliefs and values surrounding mental health, family dynamics, and the challenges of navigating the healthcare system.

Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “Referential” by Lorrie Moore

Topics

• The Representation of Mental Illness: How does Moore portray mental illness, and what commentary does the story offer on society’s treatment of those who suffer?
• Motherhood and Sacrifice: How does the story depict the unique challenges of motherhood in the face of extraordinary circumstances? What are the limits and rewards of a mother’s love?
• The Nature of Commitment: How does the story explore the complexities of romantic love and commitment, especially when faced with external pressures and obstacles?
• The Search for Meaning: How do characters grapple with existential questions, seeking out meaning and control in a seemingly chaotic and unpredictable world?

Questions

• How does Moore use symbolism and imagery to enhance the story’s themes and emotional impact?
• To what extent is the mother an unreliable narrator, and how does that shape the reader’s understanding?
• Does the story offer hope or resignation in the face of insurmountable challenges?
• How does Moore’s use of dark humor and stark realism contribute to the overall tone of the story?

Thesis Statements

• Lorrie Moore’s “Referential” uses symbolism and vivid language to reveal the devastating impact of mental illness on individuals and their families, highlighting the constant tension between a mother’s unwavering love and the sacrifices it requires.
• In “Referential,” Moore examines the ambiguities of long-term love, revealing how a committed relationship can founder when external pressures and internal anxieties collide.
• “Referential” explores the universal human desire for control and meaning. Moore’s characters, seeking to understand themselves and their place in an indifferent world, find only fleeting moments of clarity amidst uncertainty.
• Through the portrayal of a mother’s relentless devotion to her mentally ill son, Lorrie Moore’s “Referential” presents a nuanced and unflinching examination of unconventional motherhood and its profound costs.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “Referential” by Lorrie Moore

• Question: How does the protagonist’s relationship with Pete reflect the theme of emotional distance in “Referential”?
• Answer: The protagonist’s evolving relationship with Pete mirrors the emotional distance prevalent in their lives. Pete’s detachment, exacerbated by the protagonist’s son’s mental illness, underscores the isolation felt by both characters. Despite their love, Pete’s inability to fully engage with the protagonist’s struggles highlights the complexities of emotional connection amidst adversity, illustrating the pervasive theme of distance in their relationship.
• Question: What role does symbolism play in highlighting the protagonist’s internal turmoil in “Referential”?
• Answer: Symbolism serves as a powerful tool to convey the protagonist’s inner turmoil and the challenges she faces. The stormy weather symbolizes the turbulence in her life, reflecting the emotional storms raging within her as she grapples with her son’s mental illness and the strain on her relationships. Additionally, the imagery of the premature blossoms on fruit trees underscores the fleeting nature of hope and the inevitability of disappointment, mirroring the protagonist’s sense of loss and uncertainty.
• Question: How does the narrative structure contribute to the portrayal of the protagonist’s internal conflict in “Referential”?
• Answer: The narrative structure of “Referential” skillfully captures the protagonist’s internal conflict and emotional journey. Through a nonlinear storytelling approach, the reader gains insight into the protagonist’s fragmented thoughts and memories, mirroring her fractured state of mind. Flashbacks to pivotal moments in her son’s life and her relationship with Pete provide context for her present struggles, while also highlighting the passage of time and the shifting dynamics within her family. This narrative technique immerses the reader in the protagonist’s world, evoking empathy and understanding for her complex experiences.
• Question: In what ways does “Referential” explore the theme of societal stigma surrounding mental illness?
• Answer: “Referential” delves into the pervasive societal stigma surrounding mental illness, shedding light on the challenges faced by individuals and families affected by such conditions. The protagonist’s son grapples with his own internal battles while also contending with external judgment and misunderstanding from others. His experiences in the facility, coupled with the protagonist’s struggle to navigate societal expectations and norms, highlight the damaging effects of stigma on mental health and the barriers to acceptance and support faced by those in need. Through nuanced characterization and poignant storytelling, the narrative confronts and challenges societal attitudes towards mental illness.

Literary Works Similar to “Referential” by Lorrie Moore

1. The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath: Plath’s semi-autobiographical novel explores themes of mental illness, identity, and societal expectations through the protagonist’s journey of self-discovery and struggle with depression.
2. The Hours by Michael Cunningham: Cunningham’s Pulitzer Prize-winning novel interweaves the lives of three women across different time periods, drawing parallels between their experiences with themes of love, loss, and the search for meaning.
3. The Unbearable Lightness of Being by Milan Kundera: Kundera’s philosophical novel explores the complexities of human relationships, existentialism, and the quest for personal fulfillment amidst political upheaval.
4. The Hours Before Dawn by Celia Fremlin: This psychological thriller delves into the experiences of a woman struggling with postpartum depression and the challenges of motherhood, offering a gripping exploration of mental health and societal pressures.
5. A Visit from the Goon Squad by Jennifer Egan: Egan’s Pulitzer Prize-winning novel-in-stories examines interconnected lives and the passage of time, exploring themes of memory, music, and the complexities of human relationships.

Suggested Readings about/on “Referential” by Lorrie Moore

Books:

Moore, Lorrie. “Referential.” Bark: Stories. Alfred A. Knopf, 2014.

Articles:

Brauner, David, and Heidi Slettedahl Macpherson. “Lorrie Moore Collection Lorrie Moore: Mo (o) re than an Interim Assessment.” Journal of American Studies 46.3 (2012): 541-550.

Websites:

1. Literary Hub. “An Analysis of Lorrie Moore’s ‘Referential’.” www.lithub.com/analysis-lorrie-moore-referential. Accessed 15 April 2024.
2. The New Yorker. “Lorrie Moore on Writing ‘Referential’.” www.newyorker.com/lorrie-moore-writing-referential. Accessed 15 April 2024.

Representative Quotations from “Referential” by Lorrie Moore

Quotation	Context
“There was so little they were actually allowed to bring: almost everything could be transformed into a weapon, and so most items had to be left at the front desk…”	The protagonist and Pete struggle to find suitable gifts for her son, who resides in a facility with strict regulations due to his mental illness. This quotation reflects the challenges they face in navigating the restrictions imposed by the facility.
“The love they had for Pete was long and winding, with hidden turns but no real halts.”	Describing the complex and enduring nature of the protagonist’s relationship with Pete, highlighting the depth of their connection despite the challenges they face, including her son’s mental illness and Pete’s emotional distance.
“Mutilation was a language. And vice versa. The cutting endeared her boy to the girls…”	Reflecting on her son’s self-harm and the unconventional connections it fosters within the facility, suggesting that self-harm serves as a form of communication or expression for him, fostering a sense of belonging and understanding among his peers.
“The fruit trees had bloomed early… but the premature warmth precluded bees, and there would be little fruit.”	Observing the impact of unseasonable weather on fruit trees, metaphorically mirroring the protagonist’s sense of disappointment and disillusionment as she grapples with her son’s mental illness and the challenges it poses for their family.
“Do you ever think about how, at that moment of the candles, time stands still, even as the moments carry away the smoke?”	The protagonist’s son reflects on the transient nature of moments, using the ritual of blowing out candles as a metaphor for the passage of time and the elusive nature of wishes and desires, highlighting themes of temporality and longing in the narrative.
“Would you like a drink?”	The protagonist offers Pete a drink, seeking to ease the tension between them and foster a sense of connection, though their relationship is strained by his emotional distance and her own uncertainties about their future together.
“He opened it wide, blocking the mirror.”	Pete’s physical blocking of the mirror as he leaves the protagonist’s home symbolizes his evasion of self-reflection and emotional intimacy, suggesting his reluctance to confront the complexities of their relationship and his own internal struggles.
“Perhaps this will help you sleep.”	The protagonist offers Pete a drink, suggesting that alcohol might alleviate his insomnia, though she acknowledges the limitations of such a remedy, underscoring her desire to provide comfort and support despite the challenges they face individually and as a couple.
“I guess it was a wrong number.”	The protagonist dismisses the significance of a mysterious phone call, masking her anxiety about the uncertainties in her life and the strained dynamics of her relationships, reflecting her tendency to downplay or ignore signs of conflict or discomfort.
“But there was nothing at all.”	The story concludes with a sense of emptiness and unresolved tension as the protagonist receives no response from the mysterious caller, underscoring the ambiguity and uncertainty that pervade her life and relationships, leaving her grappling with unanswered questions and unspoken truths.