“Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe: A Critical Analysis

"Refugee Mother and Child" by China Achebe: A Critical Analysis

Introduction: “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe

Table of Contents

“Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe first appeared in 1971 in his poetry collection Beware, Soul Brother, which was later published in the United States under the title Christmas in Biafra and Other Poems. The poem reflects Achebe’s profound humanism and his deep empathy for the victims of the Biafran War (1967–1970), particularly mothers and children suffering in refugee camps. Its popularity lies in the tender yet tragic portrayal of maternal love amid despair. Achebe juxtaposes the sanctified image of the “Madonna and Child” with a refugee mother, creating a stark contrast between divine serenity and human suffering: “No Madonna and Child could touch / that picture of a mother’s tenderness.” Through vivid sensory imagery—“the air was heavy with odours / of diarrhoea of unwashed children”—Achebe captures the degradation of war, yet the poem’s emotional power rests in the quiet dignity of the mother who “held a ghost smile between her teeth.” This balance between love and loss, beauty and decay, renders the poem universally moving and timeless, ensuring its enduring resonance in postcolonial and humanitarian literature.

Text: “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe

No Madonna and Child could touch
that picture of a mother’s tenderness
for a son she soon would have to forget.
The air was heavy with odours

of diarrhoea of unwashed children
with washed-out ribs and dried-up
bottoms struggling in laboured
steps behind blown empty bellies. Most

mothers there had long ceased
to care but not this one; she held
a ghost smile between her teeth
and in her eyes the ghost of a mother’s
pride as she combed the rust-coloured
hair left on his skull and then –

singing in her eyes – began carefully
to part it… In another life this
would have been a little daily
act of no consequence before his
breakfast and school; now she

Annotations: “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe

Stanza / Lines	Simple Meaning / Annotation	Detailed Explanation	Key Literary Devices
Stanza 1 (Lines 1–3) “No Madonna and Child could touch / that picture of a mother’s tenderness / for a son she soon would have to forget.”	Achebe compares the refugee mother and child to the famous Christian image of Madonna and Child but says this real scene of love and suffering surpasses it.	The poem opens with an allusion to the Madonna and Child, symbolizing divine motherhood. Achebe elevates the unnamed refugee mother’s love as purer and more moving than religious iconography. The phrase “she soon would have to forget” foreshadows the child’s death, showing how war has turned maternal love into anticipated grief.	Allusion (to Madonna and Child); Contrast (divine vs. human suffering); Foreshadowing (child’s death); Imagery (emotional picture); Pathos (evoking pity).
Stanza 2 (Lines 4–8) “The air was heavy with odours / of diarrhoea of unwashed children / with washed-out ribs and dried-up / bottoms struggling in laboured / steps behind blown empty bellies.”	The poet describes the terrible condition of children in the refugee camp—sick, starving, weak, and dirty.	This stanza creates a vivid and distressing sensory image of famine and disease. The “heavy odours” and “blown empty bellies” reveal the physical toll of war and hunger. The repetition of “washed” in “washed-out ribs” and “unwashed children” emphasizes decay and helplessness. Achebe uses harsh realism to expose human suffering.	Olfactory and Visual Imagery (smells, sights); Symbolism (swollen bellies = starvation); Alliteration (“washed… ribs”); Tone (somber, realistic); Irony (emptiness despite fullness).
Stanza 3 (Lines 9–15) “Most mothers there had long ceased / to care but not this one; she held / a ghost smile between her teeth / and in her eyes the ghost of a mother’s / pride as she combed the rust-coloured / hair left on his skull and then – / singing in her eyes – began carefully / to part it…”	Most mothers have lost hope, but one mother still shows love by combing her dying son’s hair.	Achebe contrasts collective despair with individual resilience. The “ghost smile” and “ghost of a mother’s pride” reflect faded vitality and strength. “Rust-coloured hair” indicates malnutrition (kwashiorkor), but the act of combing shows dignity and devotion. “Singing in her eyes” symbolizes spiritual endurance—the mother’s love transcends misery.	Metaphor (“ghost smile,” “singing in her eyes”); Symbolism (hair = life, care); Contrast (apathy vs. affection); Tone (tender, mournful); Imagery (visual and emotional).
Stanza 4 (Lines 16–20) “In another life this / would have been a little daily / act of no consequence before his / breakfast and school; now she—”	The poet reflects that this ordinary act of care, like combing hair before school, now becomes sacred because the child is dying.	Achebe draws attention to the loss of normal life. The mother’s small act once symbolized routine love; now it represents final devotion. The poem ends abruptly on “now she—,” a broken line that mirrors death’s suddenness and leaves readers in suspended grief. The unfinished syntax becomes an elegy to all lost children.	Juxtaposition (ordinary life vs. death); Irony (routine act now sacred); Enjambment & Caesura (interrupted line for emotional effect); Symbolism (broken syntax = broken life); Elegiac tone.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe

🌿 Device	💬 Example from Poem	📘 Definition & Detailed Explanation
🕊️ Allusion	“No Madonna and Child could touch that picture”	Reference to the Christian Madonna and Child highlights the contrast between divine purity and earthly suffering. Achebe elevates the refugee mother’s love to something sacred yet tragic.
🎵 Assonance	“ghost smile between her teeth”	Repetition of vowel sounds like /o/ creates a soft, mournful echo. It slows reading pace, mirroring the mother’s quiet grief and emotional exhaustion.
⚖️ Contrast	“In another life this would have been a little daily act of no consequence”	Achebe contrasts normal motherhood with the horror of refugee life. The difference between past comfort and present despair highlights lost innocence.
➿ Enjambment	“and in her eyes the ghost of a mother’s / pride as she combed the rust-coloured / hair”	Sentences flow beyond line breaks, mimicking continuous motion of the mother’s care. It reflects tenderness uninterrupted by hardship.
💥 Hyperbole	“The air was heavy with odours of diarrhoea”	Exaggeration intensifies the sensory horror of the camp. The “heavy air” suggests unbearable human suffering that burdens even nature.
🌅 Imagery	“washed-out ribs and dried-up bottoms”	Achebe paints vivid sensory pictures appealing to sight and smell, immersing readers in the harsh realities of famine and disease.
🔄 Irony	“singing in her eyes”	The phrase is tragically ironic — her eyes “sing,” but with sorrow, not joy. It shows love enduring amid despair, blending tenderness with pain.
🧩 Juxtaposition	“Most mothers there had long ceased to care but not this one”	Placing apathy beside devotion highlights exceptional maternal love. Achebe contrasts collective numbness with one mother’s unyielding affection.
🌻 Metaphor	“ghost smile between her teeth”	The mother’s fading smile is compared to a ghost, symbolizing her dying hope and the shadow of impending death over her child.
🌧️ Mood	Entire poem	The atmosphere is mournful, tender, and tragic. Achebe’s tone immerses readers in emotional depth, evoking empathy and sorrow for the refugees.
🌀 Paradox	“singing in her eyes”	A statement that seems contradictory but holds truth — her eyes sing though filled with grief. Achebe merges beauty and pain in one image of motherhood.
🕯️ Personification	“singing in her eyes”	The eyes are personified, expressing emotions as if alive and vocal. It intensifies empathy by humanizing silent suffering.
🔁 Repetition	“ghost smile… ghost of a mother’s pride”	Repetition of “ghost” reinforces the theme of fading vitality and spiritual emptiness, echoing death’s silent presence.
👃 Sensory Imagery	“The air was heavy with odours of diarrhoea”	Appeals to smell and feeling of suffocation, deepening realism. The physical discomfort makes the tragedy visceral and unforgettable.
🌸 Simile	(Implied) “No Madonna and Child could touch that picture”	Though indirect, the comparison elevates her love as equal to sacred figures. Achebe implies holiness through ordinary motherhood.
🔮 Symbolism	“rust-coloured hair”	The rust color symbolizes malnutrition and decay — a visual reminder of poverty and slow death within innocence.
🎭 Tone	Throughout poem	Achebe’s tone is tender yet sorrowful. It shifts from reverence for motherhood to the agony of death, balancing affection and despair.
⚰️ Tragic Realism	Entire poem	Achebe fuses poetic beauty with grim reality. The poem’s realism portrays suffering authentically, compelling moral and emotional reflection.
👁️ Visual Imagery	“washed-out ribs… dried-up bottoms… blown empty bellies”	Vivid visual detail captures frailty and starvation. These stark images force readers to witness the human cost of war and displacement.

Themes: “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe

🌸 Theme 1: Maternal Love and Sacrifice: In “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe, the poet portrays a mother’s unwavering love amidst despair, elevating ordinary maternal affection to sacred devotion. Achebe opens with an allusion to the “Madonna and Child,” yet asserts that no divine image “could touch that picture of a mother’s tenderness,” emphasizing the purity of human love over idealized holiness. Even in starvation and grief, the mother remains tender, holding “a ghost smile between her teeth” while combing her dying son’s “rust-coloured hair.” This simple act—once routine before “breakfast and school”—becomes a sacred ritual of love and loss. Through delicate imagery and quiet pathos, Achebe presents motherhood not as passive suffering but as an enduring gesture of love that persists even when hope has vanished. The poem thus becomes a timeless tribute to the sacred resilience of mothers in war-torn realities.

💔 Theme 2: Suffering, Death, and the Brutality of War: In “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe, the poet exposes the cruel aftermath of war—the slow decay of both body and spirit. Achebe’s stark imagery of “odours of diarrhoea of unwashed children” and “washed-out ribs and dried-up bottoms” captures the physical degradation caused by famine and displacement. These descriptions reflect the horrors of the Biafran War, where human suffering became routine. The “blown empty bellies” symbolize hunger and the grotesque irony of starvation. Achebe’s tone remains deeply empathetic yet brutally honest, showing how prolonged agony has made many mothers numb—“Most mothers there had long ceased to care.” Yet, the persistence of one mother’s tenderness amidst universal despair becomes a striking contrast. The poem, therefore, serves as a haunting reminder that the violence of war destroys not only lives but also the tender emotions that define humanity.

🕊️ Theme 3: Dignity and Resilience Amid Despair: In “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe, the poet shows that dignity can survive even within complete hopelessness. The mother’s “ghost smile” and “ghost of a mother’s pride” reflect fading vitality yet undying emotional strength. Achebe’s compassionate tone transforms her act of combing her child’s hair into a symbolic act of quiet resistance—“singing in her eyes – began carefully to part it….” Through this gesture, she retains her humanity despite living among decay and death. Achebe contrasts her quiet endurance with the apathy of others who “had long ceased to care,” suggesting that true strength lies in emotional resilience, not physical survival. The mother’s tenderness becomes an emblem of moral courage—her love a final assertion of dignity against suffering. Achebe thus portrays resilience as a sacred quality that restores meaning even in desolation.

⏳ Theme 4: Loss, Memory, and the Fragility of Life: In “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe, the poet meditates on the transient nature of life and the pain of impending loss. The mother, aware that she “soon would have to forget” her son, continues to express her love through tender gestures, preserving memory in the face of death. The poem’s abrupt ending—“In another life this would have been… now she—”—captures the sudden silence of death and the incompleteness of human grief. Achebe uses this broken line to symbolize a life cut short, an act unfinished, and emotions left unspoken. The simple image of combing her son’s “rust-coloured hair” becomes both a farewell and a preservation of love. Through this poignant portrayal, Achebe reveals how memory sanctifies even the smallest acts, giving them eternal meaning as life fades into silence.

Literary Theories and “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe

🌟 Literary Theory	📜 References from the Poem	🔍 Explanation / Critical Interpretation
🧠 1. Feminist Theory	“No Madonna and Child could touch that picture of a mother’s tenderness”“she held a ghost smile between her teeth”	From a feminist lens, Achebe portrays the mother’s endurance and agency amid suffering. She becomes a symbol of female strength and silent resistance, transcending traditional gender roles. The allusion to Madonna and Child equates her compassion to divine femininity, celebrating women’s emotional resilience even in patriarchal and dehumanizing spaces like refugee camps.
🌍 2. Postcolonial Theory	“The air was heavy with odours of diarrhoea of unwashed children with washed-out ribs”	Through postcolonial eyes, the poem critiques colonial legacies of displacement, poverty, and war that led to refugee crises in Africa. Achebe humanizes the colonized and displaced, exposing how imperialism’s aftermath strips people of dignity. The visceral imagery of suffering bodies reflects the continuing exploitation and neglect of postcolonial societies.
💔 3. Psychoanalytic Theory	“she held a ghost smile between her teeth and in her eyes the ghost of a mother’s pride”	A psychoanalytic reading reveals repressed emotions, trauma, and grief. The “ghost smile” and “ghost of pride” show denial and emotional numbness—her love persists even as her psyche tries to shield itself from loss. The act of combing her son’s hair becomes a ritual of coping and symbolic farewell, embodying Freud’s notion of mourning and melancholia.
💡 4. Humanist / Moral-Philosophical Theory	“In another life this would have been a little daily act of no consequence before his breakfast and school”	The poem foregrounds human compassion, moral worth, and shared suffering. Achebe appeals to readers’ empathy, showing that love persists even amid dehumanization. This theory emphasizes the universal moral truth that dignity, care, and affection are intrinsic to humanity, regardless of status or suffering. The mother’s tender act becomes a symbol of enduring human goodness in a world of decay.

Critical Questions about “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe

💔 1. How does Achebe depict motherhood amid suffering in “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe?

In “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe, motherhood is portrayed as both sacred and tragic. The poem opens with the line “No Madonna and Child could touch that picture of a mother’s tenderness”, immediately elevating the mother’s love to a divine status while grounding it in human pain. Unlike the serene and idealized image of the Madonna, Achebe’s mother exists in a world of decay and despair—“The air was heavy with odours of diarrhoea.” Yet, amid this horror, she holds onto the final gestures of maternal care—“she held a ghost smile between her teeth”—a faint but persistent sign of love. Achebe’s portrayal reveals that motherhood, even in death’s shadow, remains a sanctuary of dignity. Her tender act of combing her dying child’s “rust-coloured hair” becomes a silent resistance against hopelessness.

🌍 2. What does the poem reveal about the human cost of displacement and war in “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe?

In “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe, the poet lays bare the devastating human consequences of war and displacement through sensory and emotional imagery. The setting of a refugee camp—“The air was heavy with odours of diarrhoea of unwashed children”—presents a grim picture of collective suffering. The “washed-out ribs” and “blown empty bellies” signify starvation and neglect, stripping individuals of their identity and humanity. Achebe’s use of contrast—between divine imagery (“No Madonna and Child could touch that picture”) and human tragedy—underscores the loss of innocence and sanctity in times of war. By focusing on a single mother and her dying child, Achebe universalizes the plight of refugees everywhere. The poem becomes a humanitarian plea, reminding readers that beyond statistics and conflict narratives, the true cost of war lies in the silenced suffering of ordinary lives.

🕯️ 3. How does Achebe use imagery and symbolism to convey emotional depth in “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe?

In “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe, imagery and symbolism form the backbone of its emotional intensity. Achebe’s visual imagery—“washed-out ribs and dried-up bottoms struggling in laboured steps”—forces readers to visualize starvation in its rawest form. The mother’s act of combing “the rust-coloured hair left on his skull” symbolizes both care and decay—the color “rust” linking the child’s hair to corrosion and death. Similarly, the “ghost smile” and “ghost of a mother’s pride” evoke fading vitality and spiritual exhaustion, symbolizing the erosion of hope in a dying world. The sensory richness—especially the olfactory imagery of “odours of diarrhoea”—creates an immersive emotional experience. Achebe’s symbolic contrasts between sacred and profane images transform the scene into an icon of love surviving in desolation, giving poetic dignity to human endurance.

🕊️ 4. How does the tone evolve throughout the poem, and what does it reveal about Achebe’s purpose in “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe?

In “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe, the tone moves from reverence to mourning, reflecting the inevitability of loss and the sanctity of love. The poem begins with admiration—“No Madonna and Child could touch that picture of a mother’s tenderness”—establishing a tone of awe and tenderness. However, as the poem progresses, this tone darkens into solemn grief—“she held a ghost smile between her teeth”—revealing the slow surrender to death. Achebe’s diction shifts from divine imagery (“Madonna and Child”) to visceral reality (“odours of diarrhoea”), guiding readers from idealism to raw truth. The final lines—“In another life this would have been a little daily act of no consequence”—carry an elegiac resignation. Through this tonal evolution, Achebe urges readers to confront the fragility of life and the quiet heroism embedded in ordinary human gestures.

Literary Works Similar to “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe

🌹 “Mother to Son” by Langston Hughes – Both poems depict a mother’s love and endurance amid suffering; Hughes’s mother encourages resilience through hardship, much like Achebe’s mother shows strength in despair.

💔 “War Photographer” by Carol Ann Duffy – Like Achebe, Duffy portrays the silent tragedy of war’s human cost, focusing on the emotional scars behind images of suffering and death.
🔥 “Requiem” by Anna Akhmatova – Akhmatova’s elegy for the victims of Stalinist terror resonates with Achebe’s lament for the Biafran refugees, uniting themes of motherhood, mourning, and human endurance in suffering.

Representative Quotations of “Refugee Mother and Child” by Chinua Achebe

Quotation	Context / Meaning	Theoretical Perspective
1. “No Madonna and Child could touch that picture of a mother’s tenderness.”	Achebe begins with a sacred comparison, elevating the refugee mother’s love above the divine image of Mary and Jesus.	Humanism: celebrates real human compassion over idealized religious imagery.
2. “For a son she soon would have to forget.”	Foreshadows the child’s death and the mother’s forced detachment in a cruel world.	Existentialism: explores emotional suffering and the inevitability of loss.
3. “The air was heavy with odours of diarrhoea of unwashed children.”	Establishes the harsh, unhygienic atmosphere of the refugee camp, evoking sensory realism.	Realism: exposes physical degradation and human misery without sentimentality.
4. “With washed-out ribs and dried-up bottoms struggling in laboured steps.”	Depicts emaciated, malnourished children struggling to survive amid famine.	Postcolonialism: critiques the socio-political neglect and colonial legacy causing African suffering.
5. “Behind blown empty bellies.”	Symbolizes starvation and the grotesque irony of famine — bloated yet empty.	Symbolism / Marxist Lens: highlights economic inequality and systemic injustice.
6. “Most mothers there had long ceased to care but not this one.”	Contrasts apathy and despair with one mother’s enduring love and moral courage.	Feminist Humanism: portrays the mother as an emblem of emotional strength and resilience.
7. “She held a ghost smile between her teeth.”	The faint smile represents vanishing hope and dignity amid hopelessness.	Psychological Realism: explores trauma, endurance, and the will to maintain humanity.
8. “And in her eyes the ghost of a mother’s pride.”	Despite suffering, she retains a trace of pride in motherhood, even as death nears.	Humanist Feminism: affirms womanhood and motherhood as sources of strength and identity.
9. “As she combed the rust-coloured hair left on his skull.”	“Rust-coloured hair” signifies malnutrition (kwashiorkor), while combing symbolizes care and memory.	Postcolonial Humanism: unites physical decay and moral beauty to reveal colonial aftermath and spiritual endurance.
10. “In another life this would have been a little daily act… now she—”	The unfinished line mirrors life’s sudden end, symbolizing loss and silence.	Modernist / Existential Lens: expresses fragmentation, incompletion, and the absurdity of human suffering.

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