Repression: Etymology, Meanings, and Concept
Etymology and Term: The word “repression” stems from the Latin reprimere meaning “to press back” or “hold back.” In psychology, it gained prominence through Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, denoting the unconscious process of keeping unacceptable thoughts, desires, or impulses out of conscious awareness.
Meanings and Concepts:
- Psychological Defense Mechanism: In psychoanalytic theory, repression is a primary defense mechanism used to shield the ego from anxiety-provoking material.
- Unconscious Process: Repression operates largely unconsciously – the person is often unaware of what is being kept from their awareness.
- Potential Return of the Repressed: Repressed material can re-emerge in disguised forms, such as through dreams, slips of the tongue, or neurotic symptoms.
- Societal Repression: The concept extends beyond individual psychology to describe suppression of groups or ideas within a society by those in power.
Repression: Definition of a Theoretical Term
Repression is a theoretical term in psychology that describes a defense mechanism by which distressing thoughts, memories, or impulses are unconsciously pushed out of conscious awareness. It involves the exclusion of these troubling mental contents from immediate consciousness in an attempt to avoid or reduce psychological discomfort. Repression operates to keep unacceptable desires or experiences out of conscious awareness, often leading to their manifestation through alternative behaviors or symptoms.
Repression: Theorists, Works and Arguments
| Theorist | Works | Arguments |
| Sigmund Freud | Studies on Hysteria (with Josef Breuer), The Interpretation of Dreams, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, Civilization and Its Discontents | * Repression is a key defense mechanism protecting the ego from anxiety caused by unacceptable impulses (often rooted in sexuality or aggression). * Repressed content, while unconscious, doesn’t disappear. It impacts our behavior indirectly (dreams, slips, symptoms). * Repression is necessary for civilization, but comes at a psychological cost. |
| Anna Freud | The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense | * Systematized and expanded upon her father’s work on defense mechanisms, outlining repression in more detail. * Emphasized that repression is a normal part of development. |
| Carl Jung | Psychology of the Unconscious, Symbols of Transformation | * Agreed with the existence of an unconscious but disagreed with its solely sexual nature. * Saw repression as a broader process, including suppression of creativity, spirituality, and aspects of the self deemed unacceptable by society. |
| Political and Social Theorists (e.g., Marxist, Feminist, Critical Race) | Various (see works by Foucault, Marcuse, hooks, etc.) | * Argue that repression operates on a societal level, with power structures suppressing certain groups, knowledge, or expressions to maintain control. * Emphasize that what is deemed “acceptable” is determined by those in power, and this repression can lead to social injustice. |
Repression: Major Characteristics
- Unconscious Defense Mechanism: Repression involves the unconscious exclusion of distressing thoughts, memories, or impulses from conscious awareness, serving as a defense mechanism against psychological discomfort. (Literary Reference: In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the character Hamlet represses his feelings of anger and desire for revenge, leading to psychological turmoil.)
- Manifestation of Alternative Behaviors or Symptoms: Repressed thoughts or emotions may manifest indirectly through alternative behaviors, emotions, or physical symptoms, often without the individual’s awareness of their true origin. (Literary Reference: In Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper, the narrator’s repressed desires and emotions manifest as hallucinations and obsessive behavior.)
- Impact on Mental Health and Functioning: Repression can have significant implications for mental health and functioning, potentially leading to unresolved conflicts, emotional distress, and maladaptive coping strategies. (Literary Reference: In Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment, the protagonist Raskolnikov’s repression of guilt and moral conflict contributes to his psychological deterioration.)
- Potential for Psychological Resilience or Dysfunction: While repression may offer temporary relief from distressing thoughts or emotions, it can also contribute to long-term psychological dysfunction if unresolved issues continue to influence behavior and mental well-being. (Literary Reference: In Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar, the protagonist’s repression of her inner turmoil ultimately leads to a breakdown and struggles with mental illness.)
- Therapeutic Exploration and Resolution: Addressing repression often involves therapeutic exploration of unconscious conflicts and emotions, aiming to bring repressed material into conscious awareness for processing and resolution. (Literary Reference: In Sigmund Freud’s case studies, such as Dora and The Rat Man, psychoanalytic therapy is employed to uncover and resolve repressed memories and conflicts.)
Repression: Relevance in Literary Theories
| Literary Theory | How Repression is Used |
| Psychoanalytic Criticism | * Analyzes texts for signs of unconscious desires and conflicts of characters, authors, and even implied readers. * Explores how symbolism, dreams, and narrative patterns might reveal repressed elements. * Focuses on how repression shapes plot, character development, and the overall meaning of the work. |
| Feminist Criticism | * Examines how patriarchal societies repress female voices, experiences, and perspectives within literary texts. * Analyzes how women characters might internalize societal repression, impacting their actions and self-expression. . * Seeks to uncover how repressed female desires can manifest symbolically in literature. |
| Marxist Criticism | * Explores how dominant ideologies repress class consciousness and awareness of economic exploitation within texts. * Investigates how literature can both reinforce and challenge the repression of working-class perspectives. * Analyzes how characters may internalize the repressive attitudes of the ruling class. |
| Postcolonial Criticism | * Focuses on the repression of colonized voices, experiences, and histories in literature. Examines how texts may perpetuate harmful stereotypes and erase the realities of the colonized. * Explores how literature may subvert colonial repression through symbolism and alternative narratives. |
| New Historicism | * Examines how power structures and social norms in a particular historical period led to repression within literary works. * Explores how texts reflect and reinforce the social and political anxieties of their time. * Highlights how literature can both challenge and participate in the repression of certain ideas or groups. |
Repression: Application in Critiques
- “Dubliners” by James Joyce”: In Joyce’s collection of short stories, it is a pervasive theme as characters grapple with the constraints of social expectations and cultural norms in early 20th-century Dublin. Stories like “The Dead” and “Eveline” illustrate how characters repress their desires, aspirations, and true selves due to familial duties, religious influences, and societal pressures. Joyce critiques the stifling atmosphere of Dublin society and the consequences of repressing individual identity and autonomy.
- “The Picture of Dorian Gray” by Oscar Wilde”: Wilde’s novel explores it through the titular character, Dorian Gray, who represses his immoral actions and their consequences by transferring them onto his portrait. Dorian’s pursuit of hedonistic pleasures and his refusal to acknowledge the moral consequences of his actions represent a form of psychological repression. Wilde critiques Victorian society’s obsession with appearances and its repression of individual desires and impulses.
- “The Plough and the Stars” by Sean O’Casey”: O’Casey’s play delves into such themes amidst the backdrop of the Easter Rising in Dublin. Characters such as Nora Clitheroe and Jack Clitheroe experience repression in various forms, including economic oppression, political suppression, and societal constraints. O’Casey critiques the forces that oppress the working class and the consequences of repressing revolutionary fervor and dissent.
- “The Country Girls Trilogy” by Edna O’Brien”: O’Brien’s trilogy explores it in the lives of its protagonists, Caithleen Brady and Baba Brennan, as they navigate the repressive Catholic society of mid-20th-century Ireland. The characters grapple with societal expectations of female purity, obedience, and submission, leading to internalized guilt, shame, and self-repression. O’Brien critiques the patriarchal structures that repress women’s autonomy and agency, highlighting the struggles of women to break free from societal constraints.
Repression: Relevant Terms
| Term | Definition |
| Defense Mechanism | An unconscious psychological strategy used to manage anxiety or internal conflict. |
| Unconscious | The part of the mind holding thoughts, feelings, and memories outside of conscious awareness. |
| Suppression | The conscious, intentional pushing down of unwanted thoughts or feelings. |
| Dissociation | A mental process disconnecting thoughts, memories, feelings, sense of identity, or perception of surroundings to cope with trauma or stress. |
| Sublimation | Channeling unacceptable impulses or desires into socially acceptable activities or behaviors. |
| Catharsis | The release of strong or repressed emotions, often leading to relief. |
| Trauma | A deeply distressing experience that can overwhelm an individual’s coping mechanisms. |
| Censorship | The suppression of information or ideas deemed objectionable by those in power. |
| Propaganda | Information, often biased or misleading, spread to promote a particular political cause or ideology. |
| Social Control | Mechanisms society employs to maintain order and conformity, potentially involving the repression of certain behaviors or perspectives. |
Repression: Suggested Readings
- Breuer, Josef, and Sigmund Freud. Studies on Hysteria. Beacon Press, 1957.
- Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction. Vintage, 1990.
- Freud, Anna. The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense. Karnac Books, 1992.
- Herman, Judith Lewis. Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence. Basic Books, 1997.
- Loftus, Elizabeth, and Katherine Ketcham. The Myth of Repressed Memory. St. Martin’s Griffin, 1996.