Introduction: “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik
“Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation” by Arif Dirlik was initially published in 2002 in the journal “Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies.” This article holds significant importance in the realms of literature and literary theory. It offers a nuanced and critical examination of the concept of colonialism within the context of globalization and postcolonialism. Dirlik challenges the conventional understanding of colonialism as a purely historical phenomenon, arguing that its legacy continues to shape contemporary global relations and power dynamics. He introduces the notion of “neo-colonialism” to highlight the ongoing economic, cultural, and political domination of former colonial powers over their former colonies. Dirlik’s article has been widely cited and discussed, contributing to ongoing debates about colonialism, postcolonial theory, and globalization.
Summary of “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik
- Colonialism as Identity Shaper
Colonialism fundamentally transformed identities, such that even claims to precolonial national identities are shaped by the colonial past. - “Colonialism has transformed the identities of the colonized, so that even claims to precolonial national identities are products of colonialism.”
- Hybridization of Identities
Postcolonial discourse has moved away from a search for national identity toward the recognition of hybridized identities. - “Postcolonial insistence on the hybridization of identities has revealed the irrelevance of the search for national identity.”
- Nationalism as Colonialism
Nationalism, according to Dirlik, can be seen as a continuation of colonialism in its suppression of local identities to form a national one. - “Nationalism itself…is a version of colonialism in the suppression and appropriation of local identities.”
- Relationship Between Colonialism and Capitalism
The essay highlights how colonialism cannot be fully understood without acknowledging its deep connection to capitalism. - “What is particular about modern colonialism…is its relationship to capitalism.”
- Critique of Postcolonial Thought
Dirlik criticizes contemporary postcolonial discourse for being overly focused on cultural aspects, neglecting the structural forces of capitalism. - “Contemporary postcolonial criticism…has shifted almost entirely from the critique of political economy to the critique of culture.”
- Colonialism’s Evolution in Globalization
Globalization is seen as a new form of colonization, where the boundaries of traditional colonialism dissolve into broader capitalist exploitation. - “Colonialism no longer appears as ‘the highest stage of capitalism’…but a stage on the way to globalization.”
- Nationhood as a Colonial Construct
Nationalism, particularly in non-European societies, is portrayed as a product of colonialism, which ironically relied on the same practices it opposed. - “The colonialism of the nation-state has become more apparent…as the formerly colonized have sought to establish the hegemony of the nation.”
- Colonialism’s Lingering Impact
Even in a postcolonial world, colonialism’s legacies persist, both in cultural identities and global economic systems. - “Colonialism, however oppressive…also created cultural bonds between the colonizer and the colonized, which have shaped irrevocably the cultural identities of both.”
- The Need to Re-center Capitalism in Postcolonial Discourse
Dirlik argues that postcolonial discourse needs to refocus on capitalism as a systemic force that continues to shape the global order, beyond colonialism. - “Globalization returns us to a condition where once again it is capitalism, rather than colonialism, that appears as the major problem.”
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik
| Term/Concept | Definition | Context/Explanation in Dirlik’s Work |
| Colonialism | The political, social, and economic control of one nation over another. In Dirlik’s work, colonialism is seen as a transformative force that has shaped identities, national boundaries, and social structures. | Dirlik explores colonialism as a process that has not only oppressed but also shaped the identities of both the colonizer and the colonized, with lasting cultural and economic consequences. |
| Postcolonialism | A critical theory that deals with the effects and legacies of colonialism after the period of formal colonization has ended. It examines the power structures and cultural legacies that remain after independence. | Dirlik critiques the focus on cultural identity in postcolonialism, arguing that it overlooks the structural forces of capitalism that continue to exert influence in the postcolonial world. |
| Globalization | The process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, driven by international trade, technology, and political institutions. | Dirlik argues that globalization represents a new phase of capitalist domination that has transformed and subsumed the colonial and postcolonial world. He views globalization as a continuation of colonial structures through capitalism. |
| Hybridization | The blending or mixing of different cultural identities, practices, or languages to form new, hybridized identities. | Dirlik critiques the postcolonial celebration of hybridized identities as oversimplifying the deeper structural inequalities imposed by colonialism. He argues that hybridization obscures the deeper historical and economic forces that created such mixed identities. |
| Nationalism | A political ideology centered around the formation and promotion of a unified national identity, often involving the exclusion or suppression of local or minority identities in favor of a dominant cultural narrative. | Dirlik presents nationalism as a colonial construct, arguing that it is a byproduct of colonialism. He views nationalism as a tool used to suppress local identities and impose a homogenized national identity, mirroring colonial practices. |
| Identity | The way individuals and groups define themselves, often based on cultural, ethnic, national, or social factors. In postcolonial theory, identity formation is deeply influenced by colonial history. | Identity in Dirlik’s work is a product of colonialism, with both precolonial and postcolonial identities being shaped by the colonial experience. He emphasizes that modern identities, whether national or cultural, are inextricably linked to colonial legacies. |
| Manichean Opposition | A binary or dualistic worldview that categorizes the world into opposites, such as good versus evil, or in this case, colonizer versus colonized. | Dirlik critiques the earlier postcolonial tendency to view colonialism through a rigid “Manichean opposition” between the colonizer and colonized, noting that postcolonial theory has moved beyond these rigid distinctions to focus on borderlands and hybridized identities. |
| Neocolonialism | The continued influence or control of former colonial powers over the economies or political structures of formerly colonized nations, typically through indirect means like global capitalism, multinational corporations, or international institutions. | Dirlik suggests that neocolonialism continues through globalization, where former colonies remain economically dependent and subject to the influence of global capitalism. He critiques the idea that colonialism ended with formal decolonization, arguing that it persists in new forms. |
| Third World | A term historically used to describe countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America that were politically non-aligned during the Cold War, often used to refer to underdeveloped or formerly colonized nations. | Dirlik critiques the oversimplified categorization of the world into First, Second, and Third Worlds, noting that postcolonial criticism has revealed deeper internal fractures and complexities within these divisions, particularly the constructed nature of the “Third World.” |
| Capitalism | An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. In relation to colonialism, capitalism is viewed as a driving force behind colonial expansion and exploitation. | Dirlik reasserts the centrality of capitalism in understanding colonialism, arguing that much of postcolonial thought has overlooked the continuing role of global capitalism in shaping the postcolonial world. He calls for a renewed focus on the intersection of capitalism and colonialism in shaping global inequalities. |
| Cultural Imperialism | The imposition of one culture’s beliefs, practices, and values on another culture, often through colonization, but also through globalization and the spread of global media and consumer culture. | Dirlik argues that postcolonial societies are shaped by cultural imperialism, where the colonizer’s cultural influence persists even after political independence. He criticizes the failure of postcolonial states to resist these imposed values, often continuing colonial legacies. |
Contribution of “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik to Literary Theory/Theories
| Theory | Dirlik’s Contribution | References from the Article |
| Postcolonial Theory | Dirlik critiques and expands postcolonial theory by emphasizing the need to refocus on capitalism and the structural forces behind colonialism, which have been overshadowed by cultural critiques in recent postcolonial discourse. He calls for postcolonial theory to integrate political economy and capitalism into its analysis. | “Postcolonial criticism, as it appears presently, speaks to the legacies of the past, but it is arguably informed…by assumptions that derive their plausibility from its context in globalization.” “Postcolonial criticism has shifted almost entirely from the critique of political economy to the critique of culture.” “What is needed, instead, is historicizing colonialism.” |
| Marxist Theory | Dirlik highlights the historical link between colonialism and capitalism, arguing that colonialism should be seen as an essential stage in the development of global capitalism. He calls for a return to Marxist analysis of colonialism, focusing on its economic structures rather than purely cultural critiques. | “Modern colonialism…is its relationship to capitalism, which a preoccupation with colonialism and national identity has driven to the margins of political and cultural thinking.” “The issue of colonialism, in other words, revolved mostly around the issue of capitalism, and was in many ways subsidiary to the latter.” |
| Globalization Theory | Dirlik critiques globalization theory by arguing that it is the latest phase of colonialism. He suggests that globalization represents a new form of spatial and economic domination by capitalism, which continues to shape identities and global inequalities in ways that are not fundamentally different from colonialism. | “Globalization represents a new way of perceiving the world that distinguishes the present from the world of colonialism and neocolonialism.” “Colonialism no longer appears as ‘the highest stage of capitalism’… but a stage on the way to globalization.” “Colonialism as systemic activity has receded before a reconfiguration of global relations, so that, even where colonialism persists, it appears differently than it did before.” |
| Identity Theory | Dirlik argues that postcolonial identity is a product of colonialism, and he critiques the focus on cultural hybridization without addressing the structural inequalities created by colonialism. He stresses that identities, whether national or individual, are deeply shaped by colonial histories and capitalism. | “All identity, historically speaking, is a product of one or another form of colonialism.” “The hybridization of identities is an ongoing historical process.” “In eschewing meta-narratives and structures, contemporary postcolonial criticism has a tendency to dehistoricize colonialism, which in some ways has made it impossible to grasp those historical relationships that animated earlier discussions of colonialism.” |
| Nationalism Theory | Dirlik critiques nationalism as a colonial construct, suggesting that nationalism, especially in formerly colonized countries, replicates colonial structures and suppresses local identities. He challenges the view of nationalism as a form of resistance to colonialism, arguing that it is often a product of colonialism itself. | “Nationalism itself…is a version of colonialism in the suppression and appropriation of local identities for a national identity.” “The very idea of the nation, and the way it was imagined, was already stamped with the legacy of the very colonialism it sought to overthrow.” “Nationalism in non-European societies…was motivated by the urge for liberation from European (or Euro-American) colonization, domination, and hegemony, as a form it owed its origins to Europe.” |
| Cultural Studies | Dirlik’s work emphasizes the need for cultural studies to reconnect with political economy and the global capitalist structures that continue to shape culture. He critiques the focus on hybridity and borderlands in postcolonial cultural studies, arguing that these concepts ignore the material realities of power and inequality. | “Contemporary postcolonial criticism privileges the ‘liminal, subaltern figures’ of ‘the excluded middle’ over the antithetical categories of colonizer and colonized, which in many ways have ceased to be antithetical as the boundary dividing them has been called into question.” “Hybridity may be used to refute arguments for a Eurocentric transformation of cultural identities, but hybridity also implies an admission that contemporary cultural identities globally are infused with the values spread by capitalism.” |
| Decolonization Theory | Dirlik challenges traditional decolonization theory by arguing that the postcolonial world continues to be shaped by colonial structures of power, particularly through capitalism and the nation-state. He calls into question the success of national liberation movements in truly overcoming colonialism’s legacy. | “Decolonization was a process fraught with the violence of colonialism, where anticolonialism could achieve its goals only by turning against the colonizers their weapons of violence.” “The contradictions of anticolonialism had to be suppressed if the struggle were to have any chance of success.” “The hope that national liberation could lead to the abolition of the colonial system, or replacement of colonial by autonomous national identities, was to founder on this contradictory relationship between colonizer and colonized.” |
Examples of Critiques Through “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik
- Critique of Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart
Using Dirlik’s critique of postcolonial nationalism, Things Fall Apart can be seen as a narrative that exposes the complexities of identity in colonial contexts. Achebe’s work portrays the disintegration of traditional Igbo society under British colonization, but Dirlik’s argument suggests that even this portrayal is influenced by colonial narratives, as nationalism in postcolonial societies often mirrors colonial suppression of local identities. The creation of a cohesive “Igbo identity” in Achebe’s work, under Dirlik’s lens, could be seen as a product of colonialism itself. - “Nationalism itself…is a version of colonialism in the suppression and appropriation of local identities.”
- Critique of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness
Dirlik’s argument that postcolonial critiques must return to an analysis of capitalism resonates with Heart of Darkness. While often critiqued for its racist depiction of Africans, Dirlik would likely emphasize the novel’s portrayal of the economic underpinnings of colonial exploitation. The novel shows how European colonialism in Africa was driven by capitalist desires, a point that Dirlik argues needs to be re-emphasized in postcolonial criticism. - “Modern colonialism…is its relationship to capitalism, which…needs to be foregrounded once again without, however, dissolving colonialism into capitalism.”
- Critique of Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea
Wide Sargasso Sea explores the intersection of race, gender, and colonialism. Dirlik’s critique of the focus on hybridity in postcolonial literature could be applied here, as Rhys’s work delves into the hybrid identity of Antoinette (the protagonist), who is caught between colonial and postcolonial worlds. While the novel highlights the complexity of her hybrid identity, Dirlik might argue that this focus on cultural hybridity risks obscuring the material realities of colonial exploitation and capitalism that underpin her experience. - “In eschewing meta-narratives and structures, contemporary postcolonial criticism has a tendency to dehistoricize colonialism.”
- Critique of Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth
While Fanon’s work is celebrated for its powerful critique of colonialism, Dirlik might critique Fanon’s emphasis on national liberation movements. Dirlik points out that postcolonial nationalism often replicates colonial power structures, and Fanon’s faith in the nation as a liberatory force could be questioned. Dirlik’s work suggests that postcolonial nationalism may perpetuate colonial hierarchies, rather than dismantle them entirely, as Fanon hoped. - “The contradictions of anticolonialism had to be suppressed if the struggle were to have any chance of success…the results have been the reverse of what it intended.”
Criticism Against “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik
- Overemphasis on Capitalism: Critics may argue that Dirlik overemphasizes the role of capitalism in shaping colonialism and postcolonialism, reducing complex cultural and social dynamics to mere economic relations. His insistence on bringing capitalism back to the forefront of postcolonial critique could be seen as limiting, ignoring other critical dimensions such as gender, race, and environmental issues.
- Marginalization of Cultural Critiques: By critiquing postcolonial theory’s focus on cultural hybridity and identity, Dirlik may downplay the importance of cultural and psychological dimensions of colonial oppression. His critique of cultural identity discussions as secondary to capitalism could be seen as dismissive of the lived experiences of colonized peoples who navigate these cultural struggles.
- Simplification of Nationalism: Dirlik’s critique of nationalism as an extension of colonialism might be seen as an oversimplification. Some argue that nationalism in postcolonial societies serves as a vital tool for decolonization and empowerment, providing a unifying force against external oppression. Dirlik’s focus on nationalism as merely a reproduction of colonial structures may overlook its potential as a source of resistance.
- Lack of Engagement with Contemporary Theories: Critics could argue that Dirlik’s analysis does not fully engage with more recent developments in postcolonial theory, particularly those that focus on intersectionality and the nuances of identity politics in a globalized world. His work might appear somewhat outdated or rigid when contrasted with the fluid, multi-dimensional approaches emerging in the field today.
- Ambiguity Around Globalization: While Dirlik connects globalization with the continuation of colonial structures, some might criticize his interpretation of globalization as overly deterministic. Globalization is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon, and reducing it to a simple continuation of capitalist-driven colonialism might overlook the possibilities for positive global exchange and cooperation.
- Potential for Overshadowing Local Histories: By foregrounding capitalism and global forces, Dirlik’s work may be criticized for overshadowing local histories and specificities of colonial experiences. His globalized framework could risk homogenizing the diverse experiences of different postcolonial societies, overlooking the unique and context-specific factors at play.
Representative Quotations from “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Colonialism has transformed the identities of the colonized, so that even claims to precolonial national identities are products of colonialism.” | Dirlik argues that colonialism has had a profound and irreversible impact on the identities of the colonized. Even efforts to reclaim or return to a precolonial identity are shaped by the colonial experience, suggesting that identity formation cannot be separated from the legacy of colonization. |
| “Postcolonial insistence on the hybridization of identities has revealed the irrelevance of the search for national identity.” | This quotation reflects Dirlik’s critique of postcolonial theory’s focus on hybrid identities. He contends that the focus on identity fluidity makes the search for a coherent national identity, which was central to postcolonial thought in the 1960s, irrelevant in today’s globalized world. |
| “Nationalism itself…is a version of colonialism in the suppression and appropriation of local identities for a national identity.” | Dirlik critiques nationalism as a homogenizing force that mirrors colonial practices. He argues that national identities, especially in postcolonial contexts, often suppress local or regional identities in favor of a unified national narrative, replicating colonial structures of domination. |
| “What is particular about modern colonialism…is its relationship to capitalism.” | This highlights Dirlik’s central argument that modern colonialism cannot be fully understood without recognizing its deep connection to capitalism. He critiques postcolonial scholars for neglecting the economic forces that drive colonialism and shape global power relations. |
| “Globalization represents a new way of perceiving the world that distinguishes the present from the world of colonialism and neocolonialism.” | Here, Dirlik introduces globalization as the latest phase in the transformation of global power structures. He suggests that globalization offers a new way of understanding the world, which differentiates it from previous eras marked by direct colonial control or neocolonial exploitation. |
| “In eschewing meta-narratives and structures, contemporary postcolonial criticism has a tendency to dehistoricize colonialism.” | Dirlik critiques contemporary postcolonial criticism for abandoning grand historical narratives in favor of more situational and localized analyses. He argues that this approach risks ignoring the deeper historical and structural forces, particularly capitalism, that shaped colonialism and continue to influence postcolonial societies. |
| “Decolonization was a process fraught with the violence of colonialism, where anticolonialism could achieve its goals only by turning against the colonizers their weapons of violence.” | This quotation reflects Dirlik’s emphasis on the violent and contentious nature of decolonization. He stresses that anticolonial struggles were deeply shaped by the same violence that marked colonial rule, which complicates the narrative of a clean break between colonial and postcolonial realities. |
| “The contradictions of anticolonialism had to be suppressed if the struggle were to have any chance of success…the results have been the reverse of what it intended.” | Dirlik critiques the anticolonial movements for suppressing internal contradictions in their pursuit of independence. He argues that these contradictions eventually surfaced in the postcolonial period, leading to outcomes that were often the opposite of what these movements intended—continuing to replicate colonial structures of power. |
| “All identity, historically speaking, is a product of one or another form of colonialism.” | This statement captures Dirlik’s view that identity formation is intrinsically tied to colonial history. He suggests that whether people are aware of it or not, their identities have been shaped by colonial encounters, making it impossible to fully separate postcolonial identities from their colonial past. |
| “Hybridity may be used to refute arguments for a Eurocentric transformation of cultural identities, but hybridity also implies an admission that contemporary cultural identities globally are infused with the values spread by capitalism.” | This quotation illustrates Dirlik’s nuanced view of hybridity. While he acknowledges its potential to challenge Eurocentric models of identity, he also points out that hybridity reflects the ongoing influence of global capitalism on cultural identities. This underscores his argument that capitalism continues to shape postcolonial societies, even in cultural and identity-related contexts. |
Suggested Readings: “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik
- Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge, 2002.
https://www.routledge.com/The-Empire-Writes-Back-Theory-and-Practice-in-Post-Colonial-Literatures/Ashcroft-Griffiths-Tiffin/p/book/9780415280204 - Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963.
https://groveatlantic.com/book/the-wretched-of-the-earth/ - Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 2004.
https://www.routledge.com/The-Location-of-Culture/Bhabha/p/book/9780415336390 - Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1978.
https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/16298/orientalism-by-edward-w-said/ - Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. Routledge, 2015.
https://www.routledge.com/ColonialismPostcolonialism-3rd-Edition/Loomba/p/book/9781138807151 - Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. Can the Subaltern Speak? Reflections on the History of an Idea. Columbia University Press, 2010.
https://cup.columbia.edu/book/can-the-subaltern-speak/9780231143844 - Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. Empire. Harvard University Press, 2000.
https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674006713 - Young, Robert J.C. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.
https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Postcolonialism%3A+An+Historical+Introduction-p-9780631200695 - Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton University Press, 1993.
https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691019437/the-nation-and-its-fragments - Mbembe, Achille. On the Postcolony. University of California Press, 2001.
https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520204355/on-the-postcolony