Retraumatization in Literature & Literary Theory

Etymology of Retraumatization

The word “retraumatization” is derived from the combination of two root words:

1. “Re-“: This is a prefix used to indicate repetition or reversal. In the context of “retraumatization,” it implies a repeated or renewed experience of trauma.
2. “Trauma”: This term originates from the Greek word “trauma,” which means “wound” or “injury.” In a psychological context, trauma refers to a deeply distressing or disturbing experience that can have long-lasting emotional and psychological effects on an individual.

When these two root words are combined, “retraumatization” refers to the process of experiencing a traumatic event or the reactivation of trauma-related symptoms and emotions after a person has previously experienced trauma.

It signifies a recurrence or resurgence of trauma-related distress and its associated impacts on an individual’s mental and emotional well-being.

Meanings of Retraumatization

Aspect	Meaning
Re-experiencing Trauma	Recurrence of traumatic events, often triggered by similar situations, memories, or reminders of the initial trauma.
Emotional Resurgence	Resurfacing of intense, distressing emotions from past trauma, leading to heightened emotional distress.
Psychological Triggering	Present events triggering traumatic memories and responses from the past, causing retraumatization.
Secondary Trauma	Emotional impact on those exposed to others’ traumatic experiences, such as therapists or first responders.
Impact on Well-being	Detrimental effects on mental health, including anxiety, depression, and PTSD, resulting from retraumatization.
Recurring Nightmares and Flashbacks	Manifestation as recurrent nightmares, intrusive memories, or flashbacks linked to the initial trauma.
Loss of Coping Mechanisms	Erosion of stress coping abilities, leading to a sense of helplessness or hopelessness.
Relationship Strain	Strain on personal relationships due to distress and symptoms, affecting interactions with others.
Professional Intervention	Need for therapy or counseling to address retraumatization’s effects and develop effective coping strategies.
Complex and Varied	Variability in retraumatization experiences among individuals based on the nature of the initial trauma and its triggers.

Definition of Retraumatization as a Theoretical Term

Retraumatization, as a theoretical term, refers to the phenomenon in which individuals who have previously experienced trauma are exposed to triggers or circumstances that lead to a recurrence of traumatic responses and symptoms. It involves a reactivation of the psychological and emotional distress associated with the initial trauma, often resulting in a heightened state of distress and vulnerability. Retraumatization underscores the enduring impact of trauma and the potential for past experiences to profoundly affect an individual’s well-being when triggered by similar traumatic elements.

Retraumatization: Theorists, Works and Arguments

1. Dori Laub:
   • Key Work: Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis, and History (1992)
   • Dori Laub, a psychoanalyst, has made significant contributions to the study of trauma and testimony in literature. In “Testimony,” he discusses the retraumatization that can occur through the act of bearing witness to traumatic events.
2. Cathy Caruth:
   • Key Work: Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History (1996)
   • Cathy Caruth’s work in trauma theory and literary studies has been instrumental in understanding how trauma is represented in literature. Her book “Unclaimed Experience” examines how traumatic events disrupt conventional storytelling and how literature can convey the experiences of trauma survivors.
3. Shoshana Felman:
   • Key Work: The Juridical Unconscious: Trials and Traumas in the Twentieth Century (2002)
   • Shoshana Felman is known for her contributions to psychoanalytic literary theory and her exploration of trauma in literature. In “The Juridical Unconscious,” she discusses how legal trials can serve as sites of retraumatization for those involved and how this is reflected in literature.
4. Dominik LaCapra:
   • Key Work: Writing History, Writing Trauma (2001)
   • Dominik LaCapra is a prominent scholar in trauma theory and Holocaust studies. His book “Writing History, Writing Trauma” explores the challenges of representing traumatic events in historical and literary narratives and the potential for retraumatization in the process.

These theorists and their works have contributed significantly to the understanding of retraumatization in literature and literary theory, with their insights spanning over several decades.

Retraumatization and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	In psychoanalytic literary theory, retraumatization is often explored in the context of how literature and narrative can mirror the repressed traumatic experiences of characters. Freudian and post-Freudian concepts like the return of the repressed, repetition compulsion, and defense mechanisms are used to analyze how characters in literature may unconsciously relive their traumas or trigger readers’ unresolved traumas.
Feminist Literary Theory	Feminist literary theory often examines the representation of trauma and retraumatization in works that address gender-based violence and discrimination. It emphasizes the importance of giving voice to silenced or marginalized individuals and how reading and writing about trauma can empower both survivors and readers.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	Postcolonial literary theory explores how trauma is intergenerationally transmitted in the aftermath of colonialism, including issues like displacement, cultural erasure, and the effects of colonization on personal and collective identities. Retraumatization can be seen in narratives that engage with the traumatic legacies of colonialism.
Narrative Theory	Narrative theory delves into the structural and thematic aspects of storytelling. Retraumatization is relevant here as it disrupts conventional narrative structures and introduces non-linear or fragmented narratives. The analysis of how trauma narratives depart from traditional storytelling methods is central in this approach.
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theory focuses on the role of the reader in interpreting and co-creating meaning in a literary text. Retraumatization is relevant as it considers the emotional and psychological responses of readers to traumatic narratives. It acknowledges that readers may re-engage with their own traumas or empathize with the traumas of the characters.
Cultural Studies	Cultural studies examine the social and cultural contexts in which literature is produced and consumed. The concept of retraumatization is relevant in understanding how literature reflects and shapes cultural attitudes and responses to trauma, such as how societal trauma is perpetuated or challenged in literary works.
Postmodern Literary Theory	Postmodernism often features fragmented narratives and a blurring of reality and fiction. Retraumatization can be relevant in the context of postmodern literature by further complicating the distinction between past and present, real and imagined traumas, and by emphasizing the instability of meaning.

Retraumatization in Literary Criticism

1. Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut:
   • Retraumatization Analysis: In Slaughterhouse-Five, the protagonist Billy Pilgrim experiences time as non-linear due to his exposure to the traumatic events of World War II, including the firebombing of Dresden. This temporal disorientation is a form of retraumatization, as he continually relives these horrors. Vonnegut’s narrative style disrupts conventional storytelling to reflect the repetitive and inescapable nature of trauma.
2. The Things They Carried by Tim O’Brien:
   • Retraumatization Analysis: Tim O’Brien’s collection of linked short stories explores the burdens carried by soldiers during the Vietnam War. The characters are compelled to recount their traumatic experiences, effectively retraumatizing themselves and the readers. The novel underscores the inescapable cycle of remembering and reliving traumatic events.
3. The Yellow Birds by Kevin Powers:
   • Retraumatization Analysis: In The Yellow Birds, the protagonist Bartle is haunted by his wartime experiences in Iraq. He is unable to escape the memories of his involvement in the death of a fellow soldier. This unceasing mental replay of traumatic events reflects the retraumatization that soldiers often face when confronted with the consequences of their actions on the battlefield.
4. The Book Thief by Markus Zusak:
   • Retraumatization Analysis: Set during World War II, The Book Thief follows the life of Liesel Meminger, who finds solace in stealing and reading books. The novel delves into the retraumatization of individuals living in a war-torn environment. Liesel’s recurring encounters with death, loss, and the destruction around her contribute to her ongoing trauma.

In each of these novels, retraumatization is a central theme, and the authors use various narrative techniques to convey the cyclical and inescapable nature of trauma. These works invite readers to consider the psychological and emotional toll that war and traumatic experiences can have on individuals, emphasizing that the past is not easily left behind and that memory and trauma are inextricably intertwined.

Suggested Readings

1. Caruth, Cathy. Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
2. Felman, Shoshana. The Juridical Unconscious: Trials and Traumas in the Twentieth Century. Harvard University Press, 2002.
3. LaCapra, Dominik. Writing History, Writing Trauma. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.
4. Laub, Dori. Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis, and History. Routledge, 1992.
5. Vonnegut, Kurt. Slaughterhouse-Five. Dell, 1969.
6. O’Brien, Tim. The Things They Carried. Mariner Books, 1990.
7. Powers, Kevin. The Yellow Birds. Little, Brown and Company, 2012.
8. Zusak, Markus. The Book Thief. Alfred A. Knopf, 2005.