Romanticism in Literature and Literary Theory

Romanticism: Etymology, Meanings and Concept

Etymology

Romanticism has its roots in the Latin word “Romanicus,” meaning “of or pertaining to Rome,” and the French word “Romantique,” which referred to medieval romances, stories of chivalry, and adventure. The term “Romantic” was first used in English in the 17th century to describe something as “romance-like,” and by the late 18th century, it had evolved to describe a cultural and artistic movement that emphasized emotion, imagination, and individualism.

Meanings and Concept

• Emphasis on Emotion: Romantics valued strong emotions, intuition, and the personal experience over rationality and logic.
• Imagination and Creativity: Romantics believed in the power of imagination and creativity, often exploring themes of fantasy, myth, and the supernatural.
• Individualism and Nonconformity: Romantics celebrated the individual and the unique, often rejecting societal norms and conventions.
• Nature and the Sublime: Romantics saw nature as a source of inspiration, beauty, and the sublime, often exploring themes of the natural world and humanity’s place within it.
• Nationalism and Folk Culture: Romantics often drew inspiration from folk culture, mythology, and national identity, celebrating the unique characteristics of their own cultures.
• Reaction against Enlightenment Values: Romantics rejected the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason, order, and control, seeking a more emotional and intuitive approach to life and art

Romanticism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

A cultural and artistic movement that emerged in the late 18th century, characterized by an emphasis on emotion, imagination, and individualism, and a rejection of Enlightenment values and societal norms. It celebrates the beauty and power of nature, the importance of personal experience and intuition, and the value of folk culture and national identity. Through literature, art, music, and other creative expressions, Romanticism seeks to evoke feelings, spark imagination, and challenge conventional thinking.

Romanticism: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorists	Works	Argument
Immanuel Kant	Critique of Judgment (1790)	Emphasized the sublime and the role of imagination in experiencing nature and art. Argued that beauty and taste are subjective, and that art should be judged on its ability to evoke feelings rather than its adherence to rules.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau	Emile (1762), Social Contract (1762)	Argued that emotions, individualism, and the natural world are essential to shaping human experience. Believed that society corrupts humanity and that we should return to a more natural state.
William Wordsworth	Lyrical Ballads (1798), Prelude (1850)	Focused on the power of nature, the importance of personal experience, and the role of the poet as a visionary. Argued that poetry should be accessible and that the poet’s role is to express the universal emotions and experiences of humanity.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge	Lyrical Ballads (1798), “Kubla Khan” (1816)	Explored the supernatural, the role of imagination, and the importance of the individual’s emotional response to art. Argued that the imagination is a divine gift and that art should be a reflection of the artist’s inner world.
John Keats	“Ode to a Nightingale” (1819), “Ode on a Grecian Urn” (1819)	Celebrated beauty, the senses, and the transience of life, with an emphasis on the importance of the individual’s emotional experience. Argued that beauty is truth and that art should be a sensual and emotional experience.
Mary Wollstonecraft	A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)	Argued for women’s rights, education, and individuality, challenging societal norms and gender roles. Believed that women should be treated as equals and that they have the same capacity for reason and emotion as men.
Percy Bysshe Shelley	Prometheus Unbound (1820), “Ozymandias” (1818)	Emphasized the power of imagination, the importance of individual freedom, and the role of the poet as a social critic. Argued that poetry is a powerful tool for social change and that the poet has a responsibility to challenge injustice and oppression.
Lord Byron	Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (1812-1818), Don Juan (1819-1824)	Explored the human condition, the importance of individualism, and the tension between reason and emotion. Argued that the individual is paramount and that we should embrace our passions and emotions rather than trying to suppress them.

Romanticism: Major Characteristics

• Emphasis on Emotion and Imagination: Romanticism championed the power of feelings and individual perception.
• Example: John Keats’ poem “Ode on a Nightingale” explores the speaker’s emotional response to a bird’s song, using vivid imagery to capture the beauty and fleeting nature of the experience.
• Celebration of Nature: Nature was seen as a source of inspiration, awe, and even spiritual connection.
• Example: William Wordsworth’s poem “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” describes the speaker’s encounter with a field of daffodils, highlighting the power of nature to uplift and inspire.
• Individualism and the Cult of the Hero: Romantics valued personal expression and unconventional individuals who dared to be different.
• Example: Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein features a protagonist, Victor Frankenstein, who defies the boundaries of science and creation, highlighting the potential dangers of unchecked ambition.
• Idealization of the Past: The Romantics looked back on certain historical periods, particularly the Middle Ages, with a sense of nostalgia and admiration for their perceived simplicity and heroism.
• Example: Sir Walter Scott’s historical novels, like Ivanhoe, are set in medieval times and often depict chivalrous knights and damsels in distress, romanticizing a bygone era.
• The Sublime and the Power of Nature: Romantics were fascinated by the awe-inspiring and potentially frightening aspects of nature’s power.
• Example: Lord Byron’s poem “Manfred” explores the protagonist’s struggle against the overwhelming forces of nature and his own internal demons.
• Focus on the Supernatural and the Uncanny: Romanticism embraced the mysterious and otherworldly, often incorporating elements of folklore and gothic themes.
• Example: Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein not only explores scientific ambition but also delves into the fear of the unknown and the potential consequences of tampering with life and death.

Romanticism: Relevance in Literary Theories

• Enduring Focus on Individualism:
• The Romantic emphasis on individual experience and expression resonates with reader-response theory, which acknowledges the role of the reader in constructing meaning from a text.
• Exploration of the Unconscious: The Romantic interest in dreams, imagination, and the exploration of emotions foreshadowed psychoanalytic criticism, which analyzes texts through the lens of the unconscious mind.
• Nature as a Complex Symbol: The multifaceted portrayal of nature in Romanticism (both beautiful and terrifying) laid the groundwork for ecocriticism, which examines the relationship between literature and the environment.
• Challenging Established Norms: The Romantic rebellion against social and artistic conventions continues to inspire various critical approaches, such as Marxist and feminist criticism, which challenge dominant ideologies within literature.
• The Power of Emotion: The focus on emotions in Romanticism remains valuable for various theories that explore the affective dimension of literature, analyzing how texts evoke feelings in readers.
• Legacy of Gothic and Fantasy: The exploration of the supernatural and the macabre in Romanticism continues to influence Gothic criticism and the study of fantasy literature.

Romanticism: Application in Critiques

Literary Work	Romantic Characteristic
Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë	Individualism and the Cult of the Hero * Defiance of Social Norms: Heathcliff and Catherine’s passionate love affair transcends societal boundaries. Their disregard for class difference and social expectations reflects the Romantic emphasis on individual desires and defying convention. * Outsiders and Rebels: Both Heathcliff and Catherine are outsiders in their respective social circles. Heathcliff’s rise from poverty and Catherine’s strong will challenge the established order, highlighting the Romantic fascination with nonconformist figures. * The Power of Passion: The novel explores the all-consuming nature of Heathcliff and Catherine’s love, even in the face of tragedy. This intense emotionality aligns with the Romantic valuing of individual passions over social constraints.
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley	The Sublime and the Power of Nature * Awe-Inspiring Landscapes: The unforgiving landscapes of Switzerland, where Victor Frankenstein creates his monster, contribute to the sense of the sublime. The vastness and power of nature dwarf human ambition, foreshadowing the potential dangers of Victor’s creation. * Nature’s Uncontrollable Forces: The uncontrollable storms and harsh environment mirror the chaos unleashed by Victor’s experiment. Nature is presented as a powerful force beyond human control, which Victor ultimately underestimates. * Man vs. Nature: Frankenstein can be read as a cautionary tale about the dangers of human interference with the natural order. The sublime power of nature serves as a reminder of humanity’s limitations in the face of its vastness.
Ode to a Nightingale by John Keats	Emphasis on Emotion and Imagination * Sensory Details: Keats uses vivid imagery to evoke the speaker’s emotional response to the nightingale’s song. Descriptions of the “soft-dying day” and the “embalmed darkness” create a rich sensory experience that heightens the speaker’s melancholic mood. * Transcendence Through Imagination: The speaker longs to escape the limitations of mortality and join the eternal song of the nightingale. This desire for escape underscores the transformative power of imagination in Romantic literature. * Beauty and Mortality: The poem explores the fleeting beauty of the nightingale’s song, highlighting the inevitable passage of time and the impermanence of all things. This melancholy awareness is a recurring theme in Romanticism.
Leaves of Grass by Walt Whitman	Celebration of Nature * Nature as a Unifying Force: Whitman’s poems celebrate the interconnectedness of nature and humanity. He describes the natural world using expansive language, emphasizing its democratic spirit that transcends social divisions. * Catalogues of Nature’s Beauty: Whitman employs extensive catalogues of natural elements, from the “tall grass” to the “ocean’s roar,” creating a sense of awe and wonder for the natural world’s vastness and diversity. * Nature as Inspiration for Individuality: Whitman embraces nature as a source of inspiration for personal growth and self-discovery. His poems encourage readers to connect with the natural world and find meaning within its beauty and complexity.

Romanticism: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Imagination	The faculty of creating mental images or scenarios.
Nature	The natural world, seen as a source of beauty and inspiration.
Emotion	Strong feelings, often prioritized over reason.
Individualism	Emphasis on individual experience and uniqueness.
Sublime	The experience of awe and wonder in response to nature or art.
Folk Culture	Traditional customs, stories, and beliefs of ordinary people.
Nationalism	Pride and loyalty to one’s country and cultural heritage.
Romantic Hero	A protagonist who embodies the values of Romanticism.
Gothic	A genre characterized by elements of horror, mystery, and the supernatural.
Pastoral	A genre depicting an idealized rural life and natural setting.

Romanticism: Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford University Press, 2011.
2. Mellor, Anne K. Romanticism and Gender. Routledge, 2000.
3. Wu, Duncan. Romanticism: An Anthology. Blackwell Publishing, 1994.
4. Butler, Marilyn. Romantics, Rebels, Revolutionaries: From Blake to Shelley. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2004.
5. Mulvey-Roberts, Marie, ed. The handbook of the Gothic. NYU Press, 2009.. (While not solely focused on Romanticism, this book provides valuable context for the Gothic elements within Romanticism)

Articles:

6. Gorodeisky, Keren. “19th century romantic aesthetics.” (2016). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, plato.stanford.edu/entries/romanticism/.

Websites:

8. The Keats-Shelley Association of America. https://www.k-saa.org/ This website offers a wealth of resources on Romantic poets, including biographies, critical essays, and online editions of their works.
9. The William Blake Archive. https://www.blakearchive.org/ This website provides access to digital images of William Blake’s illuminated works, paintings, and drawings, alongside critical essays and information about his life and work.
10. The Romantic Studies Association. https://www.rsaa.online/ This website offers information about the Romantic Studies Association, including upcoming conferences, publications, and resources for scholars of Romanticism.

Representative Quotes for Romanticism

Quote	Author	Source (Year)	Explanation
“I wandered lonely as a Cloud…”	William Wordsworth	I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud (1804)	This evocative description of encountering a field of daffodils reflects the Romantic emphasis on nature’s beauty and its ability to inspire awe and joy.
“Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness…”	John Keats	To Autumn (1819)	This rich imagery celebrates the bounty and beauty of autumn, showcasing the Romantic appreciation for nature’s cyclical process.
“Nature never did betray…”	William Wordsworth	Tintern Abbey (1798)	This passage expresses the belief that nature offers solace, wisdom, and a connection to something greater than oneself, a core Romantic theme.
“Ozymandias king of kings…”	Percy Bysshe Shelley	Ozymandias (1818)	This sonnet explores themes of power, hubris, and the inevitable decay of empires, reflecting the Romantic fascination with history and the passage of time.
“The reason why all good poetry is always melancholy…”	John Keats	Letter to Fanny Brawne (1818)	This quote reveals the Romantic association of beauty with a sense of longing or melancholy, often arising from the fleeting nature of experience.
“Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus”	Mary Shelley	(1818)	The title itself is a Romantic reference. Prometheus, a mythological figure who stole fire from the gods, embodies the Romantic fascination with defying established order and the potential dangers of unchecked ambition.
“I slept and dreamed that life was Beauty…”	Lord Byron	Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (1812-1818)	This line captures the tension between Romantic ideals and the harsh realities of life, often marked by disappointment and disillusionment.
“The child is father of the man.”	William Wordsworth	My Heart Leaps Up (1802)	This quote highlights the Romantic belief that childhood experiences significantly shape who we become, emphasizing the importance of innocence and wonder.
“A thing of beauty is a joy forever…”	John Keats	Endymion (1817)	This line emphasizes the enduring power of beauty in the Romantic worldview. Art and nature provide a source of solace and inspiration that transcends the limitations of time.
“And what is freedom but the unfettered use…”	Lord Byron	Manfred (1817)	This quote exemplifies the Romantic ideal of individual freedom and self-expression. It reflects the yearning to break free from societal constraints and explore one’s full potential.