Introduction: “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats
“Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats, first published in 1928 in the collection “The Tower,” is renowned for its exploration of aging and mortality, as well as its yearning for a timeless, spiritual realm. Yeats’ use of intricate imagery and symbolism, particularly his comparison of the human body to a decaying vessel, creates a powerful and haunting atmosphere. The poem’s rhythmic structure and rich language contribute to its enduring appeal.
Text: “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats
I
That is no country for old men. The young
In one another’s arms, birds in the trees,
—Those dying generations—at their song,
The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas,
Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long
Whatever is begotten, born, and dies.
Caught in that sensual music all neglect
Monuments of unageing intellect.
II
An aged man is but a paltry thing,
A tattered coat upon a stick, unless
Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing
For every tatter in its mortal dress,
Nor is there singing school but studying
Monuments of its own magnificence;
And therefore I have sailed the seas and come
To the holy city of Byzantium.
III
O sages standing in God’s holy fire
As in the gold mosaic of a wall,
Come from the holy fire, perne in a gyre,
And be the singing-masters of my soul.
Consume my heart away; sick with desire
And fastened to a dying animal
It knows not what it is; and gather me
Into the artifice of eternity.
IV
Once out of nature I shall never take
My bodily form from any natural thing,
But such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make
Of hammered gold and gold enamelling
To keep a drowsy Emperor awake;
Or set upon a golden bough to sing
To lords and ladies of Byzantium
Of what is past, or passing, or to come.
Annotations: “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats
| Line Number | Text | Annotation |
| 1 | That is no country for old men. | Yeats suggests that the natural world, with its youth and vitality, is not suitable for the elderly. |
| 2 | The young | Referring to the younger generation, full of energy and life. |
| 3 | In one another’s arms, birds in the trees, | Imagery of youthful love and the natural world’s vitality. |
| 4 | —Those dying generations—at their song, | A reference to the passing of time and the inevitability of death. |
| 5 | The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas, | Images of natural abundance and vitality. |
| 6 | Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long | A celebration of the natural world and its reproductive cycle. |
| 7 | Whatever is begotten, born, and dies. | The cycle of life and death. |
| 8 | Caught in that sensual music all neglect | The speaker suggests that people are too absorbed in the sensual pleasures of life to appreciate intellectual pursuits. |
| 9 | Monuments of unageing intellect. | A metaphor for timeless wisdom and knowledge. |
| 10 | An aged man is but a paltry thing, | A description of the physical decline of old age. |
| 11 | A tattered coat upon a stick, unless | A metaphor for the physical frailty of the elderly. |
| 12 | Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing | A call for spiritual vitality and a refusal to succumb to the limitations of old age. |
| 13 | For every tatter in its mortal dress, | A reference to the physical signs of aging. |
| 14 | Nor is there singing school but studying | A suggestion that spiritual growth requires intellectual pursuits. |
| 15 | Monuments of its own magnificence; | A reference to the timeless works of art and literature. |
| 16 | And therefore I have sailed the seas and come | The speaker’s journey to Byzantium, a symbol of a timeless, spiritual realm. |
| 17 | To the holy city of Byzantium. | A place associated with eternal beauty and wisdom. |
| 18 | O sages standing in God’s holy fire | A reference to the wise and immortal beings of Byzantium. |
| 19 | As in the gold mosaic of a wall, | A metaphor for the eternal beauty and wisdom of Byzantium. |
| 20 | Come from the holy fire, perne in a gyre, | A request for guidance and wisdom from the immortal beings. |
| 21 | And be the singing-masters of my soul. | A desire to be transformed by the wisdom and beauty of Byzantium. |
| 22 | Consume my heart away; sick with desire | A passionate longing for spiritual transformation. |
| 23 | And fastened to a dying animal | A reference to the speaker’s mortal body. |
| 24 | It knows not what it is; and gather me | A plea to be freed from the limitations of mortality. |
| 25 | Into the artifice of eternity. | A desire to be transformed into something eternal and artificial. |
| 26 | Once out of nature I shall never take | A rejection of the natural world and its limitations. |
| 27 | My bodily form from any natural thing, | A desire for an artificial, timeless form. |
| 28 | But such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make | A reference to the beauty and craftsmanship of ancient Greek art. |
| 29 | Of hammered gold and gold enamelling | A description of a beautiful and enduring object. |
| 30 | To keep a drowsy Emperor awake; | A metaphor for the eternal vigilance required for spiritual enlightenment. |
| 31 | Or set upon a golden bough to sing | A vision of the speaker as a timeless and beautiful being. |
| 32 | To lords and ladies of Byzantium | A reference to the immortal beings of Byzantium. |
| 33 | Of what is past, or passing, or to come. | A suggestion that the speaker will possess timeless wisdom and knowledge. |
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats
| Literary/Poetic Device | Definition | Explanation | Function in “Sailing to Byzantium” |
| Alliteration | Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words | Example: “Fish, flesh, or fowl” | Emphasizes the connection between nature’s creations and the transient nature of life. |
| Allusion | Reference to another work of literature, person, or event | Example: “Byzantium” refers to the ancient city of Byzantium | Creates a symbolic representation of a spiritual and eternal realm, contrasting with the mortal world. |
| Anaphora | Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses | Example: “Nor is there singing school but studying” | Reinforces the idea of the soul’s journey toward eternal wisdom and knowledge. |
| Assonance | Repetition of vowel sounds within non-rhyming words | Example: “That is no country for old men” | Creates a musical quality and emphasizes the contrast between youth and age. |
| Caesura | A pause in a line of poetry, often marked by punctuation | Example: “An aged man is but a paltry thing,” | Adds a dramatic pause, emphasizing the insignificance of the aging body without the soul’s vitality. |
| Consonance | Repetition of consonant sounds within words | Example: “Soul clap its hands and sing” | Enhances the rhythm and musicality of the poem, reinforcing its themes of vitality and eternity. |
| Enjambment | The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line | Example: “Caught in that sensual music all neglect / Monuments of unageing intellect.” | Reflects the ongoing nature of life and the soul’s journey, creating a flow between lines. |
| Epiphora | Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses | Example: “And louder sing / For every tatter in its mortal dress” | Emphasizes the soul’s desire for transcendence and spiritual expression. |
| Imagery | Descriptive language that appeals to the senses | Example: “The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas” | Vividly depicts the natural world and its temporal beauty, contrasting with the eternal city of Byzantium. |
| Irony | A contrast between expectation and reality | Example: The idea of an “aged man” being “a paltry thing” | Highlights the paradox of aging, where physical decline contrasts with the potential for spiritual growth. |
| Metaphor | A figure of speech comparing two unlike things without using “like” or “as” | Example: “A tattered coat upon a stick” | Compares an old man to a scarecrow, illustrating the physical decay of aging. |
| Metonymy | A figure of speech where something is referred to by the name of something closely associated with it | Example: “Monuments of unageing intellect” | Represents cultural and intellectual achievements that transcend time. |
| Oxymoron | A figure of speech that combines contradictory terms | Example: “Monuments of unageing intellect” | Highlights the contrast between the temporal physical world and the eternal world of intellect and art. |
| Personification | Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities | Example: “Soul clap its hands and sing” | Gives human qualities to the soul, illustrating its active pursuit of eternal knowledge. |
| Repetition | Repeating a word or phrase for emphasis | Example: “Sing, and louder sing” | Reinforces the idea of spiritual awakening and the soul’s relentless pursuit of eternal truths. |
| Simile | A figure of speech comparing two unlike things using “like” or “as” | Example: “As in the gold mosaic of a wall” | Compares the sages to figures in a mosaic, emphasizing their permanence and divine wisdom. |
| Symbolism | The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities | Example: “Byzantium” symbolizes a place of eternal art and intellect | Represents the spiritual journey and the quest for immortality through art and intellect. |
| Synecdoche | A figure of speech where a part is made to represent the whole | Example: “Fish, flesh, or fowl” | Represents all living beings, emphasizing the transient nature of life. |
| Tone | The attitude or approach that the author takes toward the work’s central theme or subject | Example: Reflective and somber | The tone reflects the speaker’s contemplation of mortality and the desire for spiritual transcendence. |
| Verse | A single line of poetry or a specific section of a poem | Example: “That is no country for old men. The young / In one another’s arms” | Each verse contributes to the overall structure and thematic development of the poem, with varying line lengths reflecting the complexity of the speaker’s thoughts. |
Themes: “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats
- Aging and Mortality: “Sailing to Byzantium” grapples with the inevitability of aging and the decline of the human body. In the opening stanza, the speaker laments that “That is no country for old men,” highlighting a world preoccupied with youth, vitality, and the sensual pleasures of life, leaving little space for the elderly. The phrase “An aged man is but a paltry thing, / A tattered coat upon a stick” in the second stanza vividly depicts the physical decay associated with aging, likening the old man to a scarecrow, devoid of vigor unless animated by the soul’s aspirations. This theme reflects Yeats’ meditation on the tension between the ephemeral nature of human life and the desire for something more enduring.
- The Quest for Immortality: The poem explores the theme of seeking immortality, particularly through art and intellectual achievements. The speaker desires to escape the cycle of birth, life, and death, expressing this in the lines, “And therefore I have sailed the seas and come / To the holy city of Byzantium.” Byzantium symbolizes a realm of timeless art and intellectual transcendence, where the soul can achieve immortality. The speaker yearns to be gathered “Into the artifice of eternity,” suggesting that through the creation of enduring art, one can achieve a form of immortality, beyond the limitations of the physical body.
- The Contrast Between the Physical and the Spiritual: The poem presents a stark contrast between the physical world, characterized by sensuality and decay, and the spiritual realm, which is associated with eternal truth and beauty. In the first stanza, the physical world is depicted as full of life but ultimately transient, as “Whatever is begotten, born, and dies.” In contrast, the spiritual realm of Byzantium, described in the third and fourth stanzas, is eternal, where the sages stand “in God’s holy fire,” representing divine wisdom. The speaker’s desire to leave behind the “dying animal” of the body and be transformed into a form of spiritual art underscores this dichotomy between the fleeting nature of physical existence and the permanence of the spiritual.
- The Role of Art and the Artist: “Sailing to Byzantium” also reflects on the role of art and the artist in transcending the limitations of human existence. The speaker imagines becoming a form of art, “such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make / Of hammered gold and gold enamelling,” which would allow him to escape the cycle of life and death. The artifice of eternity mentioned in the poem suggests that art has the power to capture and preserve human experiences, emotions, and intellect long after the artist’s physical death. This theme emphasizes Yeats’ belief in the enduring power of art to convey deeper truths and to offer a pathway to immortality for both the artist and the subject.
Literary Theories and “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats
| Literary Theory | Explanation | Application to “Sailing to Byzantium” | References from the Poem |
| New Criticism | Focuses on close reading of the text, emphasizing the unity of form and content. | New Criticism would analyze the poem’s use of symbolism, imagery, and structure to explore its themes of aging, mortality, and immortality. | The repetition of words like “sing” and “monuments” and symbols like “Byzantium” and “gold” contribute to the poem’s unified exploration of transcending the physical world through art and intellect. |
| Psychoanalytic Theory | Analyzes the unconscious desires, fears, and motivations of the characters or speaker. | From a psychoanalytic perspective, the poem can be seen as an exploration of the speaker’s unconscious fear of death and aging, and a desire for immortality. The journey to Byzantium can be interpreted as a symbolic attempt to transcend these fears by seeking solace in the eternal. | The speaker’s description of the aging body as a “tattered coat upon a stick” reflects a deep-seated fear of physical decay. The desire to be “gathered into the artifice of eternity” suggests a longing to escape mortality. |
| Mythological/Archetypal Criticism | Focuses on the use of universal symbols, myths, and archetypes in the text. | Mythological criticism would analyze Byzantium as a symbol of an idealized, eternal world, drawing on archetypes of the journey, transformation, and the pursuit of spiritual wisdom. | Byzantium is portrayed as a mythical city representing an eternal realm of art and intellect. The speaker’s journey symbolizes a quest for spiritual enlightenment, akin to archetypal journeys found in myths and religious texts. |
Critical Questions about “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats
- How does “Sailing to Byzantium” reflect Yeats’ views on aging and the role of the elderly in society?
- The poem opens with the line, “That is no country for old men,” immediately setting the tone for a reflection on the place of the elderly in a world dominated by youth and physical vitality. Yeats contrasts the vibrancy of the young with the perceived insignificance of the old, who are described as “a tattered coat upon a stick.” This imagery suggests that, without intellectual or spiritual engagement, the elderly are reduced to mere shadows of their former selves. The poem raises questions about how society values or devalues its older members and whether there is a place for them in a world focused on the sensual and the immediate. By seeking refuge in Byzantium, a city symbolizing eternal wisdom and artistic achievement, the speaker suggests that true fulfillment for the elderly lies in the realm of the mind and spirit, rather than in the physical world.
- What role does the concept of immortality play in “Sailing to Byzantium,” and how does Yeats envision achieving it?
- Immortality is a central theme in the poem, with the speaker expressing a deep yearning to transcend the limitations of the mortal body and achieve a state of eternal existence. Byzantium, the “holy city,” represents a place where the soul can escape the cycle of birth and death and attain immortality through art and intellect. The speaker’s desire to be transformed into a golden bird, “set upon a golden bough to sing,” symbolizes a wish to become an eternal artifact, free from the ravages of time. This transformation reflects Yeats’ belief in the power of art to outlast the physical body and preserve the essence of the soul for eternity. The poem prompts readers to consider whether immortality is attainable through creative expression and whether the pursuit of eternal life diminishes the value of the temporal, physical world.
- How does Yeats use symbolism in “Sailing to Byzantium” to convey the tension between the physical and spiritual realms?
- Symbolism is heavily employed in the poem to explore the dichotomy between the transient, physical world and the eternal, spiritual realm. The “young in one another’s arms, birds in the trees” symbolizes the vitality and sensual pleasures of the physical world, which are fleeting and ultimately unsatisfying in the face of mortality. In contrast, Byzantium represents the spiritual world, a place of “monuments of unageing intellect,” where art and wisdom are eternal. The speaker’s journey from the physical world to Byzantium symbolizes a shift from a focus on the sensual and material to the intellectual and spiritual. This journey reflects the tension between the desire to remain connected to the physical world and the longing to transcend it in pursuit of something more permanent and meaningful.
- In what ways does “Sailing to Byzantium” explore the theme of artistic creation and its relationship to the human experience?
- The poem delves into the idea that artistic creation is a means of transcending the human experience and achieving a form of immortality. The speaker’s wish to be transformed into a golden artifact, crafted by “Grecian goldsmiths,” symbolizes the desire to become part of an eternal artistic tradition, one that outlasts the physical body. By envisioning himself as a work of art, the speaker seeks to escape the inevitability of aging and death, suggesting that art has the power to preserve the essence of the human spirit beyond the confines of time. The poem raises questions about the role of the artist in society and whether the creation of art can provide a means of overcoming the limitations of the human condition. It also reflects Yeats’ own concerns with the enduring value of his work and the possibility of achieving lasting significance through artistic expression.
Literary Works Similar to “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats
- “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: Both poems explore themes of aging, mortality, and the limitations of human existence.
- “Ode on a Grecian Urn” by John Keats: Both poems celebrate the beauty and permanence of art, contrasting it with the fleeting nature of human life.
- “The Second Coming” by W.B. Yeats: Both poems express a sense of impending doom and a longing for a new order.
- “To Autumn” by John Keats: Both poems celebrate the beauty and richness of the natural world, while also acknowledging the inevitability of change.
- “Dover Beach” by Matthew Arnold: Both poems explore themes of disillusionment, despair, and the search for meaning in a world devoid of spiritual certainty.
Suggested Readings: “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats
- Jeffares, A. Norman, and W. B. Yeats. “The Byzantine Poems of W. B. Yeats.” The Review of English Studies, vol. 22, no. 85, 1946, pp. 44–52. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/509327. Accessed 25 Aug. 2024.
- Johnson, Anthony L. “SIGN, STRUCTURE AND SELF-REFERENCE IN W. B. YEATS’S ‘SAILING TO BYZANTIUM.’” Annali Della Scuola Normale Superiore Di Pisa. Classe Di Lettere e Filosofia, vol. 8, no. 1, 1978, pp. 213–47. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24304059. Accessed 25 Aug. 2024.
- Winters, Yvor. “The Poetry of W. B. Yeats.” Twentieth Century Literature, vol. 6, no. 1, 1960, pp. 3–24. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/440954. Accessed 25 Aug. 2024.
- Pruitt, Virginia. “Return from Byzantium: W. B. Yeats and ‘The Tower.’” ELH, vol. 47, no. 1, 1980, pp. 149–57. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2872443. Accessed 25 Aug. 2024.
- Watkins, Vernon. “W. B. YEATS—THE RELIGIOUS POET.” Texas Studies in Literature and Language, vol. 3, no. 4, 1962, pp. 475–88. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40753564. Accessed 25 Aug. 2024.
Representative Quotations of “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats
| Quotation | Context | Theoretical Perspective |
| “That is no country for old men.” | This line opens the poem, setting the stage for the speaker’s reflection on aging and the youthful world that neglects the elderly. | New Criticism: Analyzes the contrast between youth and age, highlighting the poem’s exploration of life’s temporal nature. |
| “An aged man is but a paltry thing, / A tattered coat upon a stick.” | The speaker laments the physical decay that accompanies aging, using vivid imagery to convey the frailty of the elderly. | Psychoanalytic Theory: Reflects the speaker’s fear of aging and the loss of vitality, suggesting a deep-seated anxiety about mortality. |
| “Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing / For every tatter in its mortal dress.” | The speaker emphasizes the importance of the soul’s vitality over the body’s decline, seeking spiritual fulfillment. | Spiritual/Metaphysical Criticism: Focuses on the soul’s quest for eternal life, transcending the limitations of the physical body. |
| “Monuments of unageing intellect.” | The speaker contrasts the fleeting nature of physical life with the eternal legacy of intellectual and artistic achievements. | Archetypal Criticism: Considers the symbolic significance of eternal monuments as representing humanity’s collective quest for immortality through art and knowledge. |
| “Once out of nature I shall never take / My bodily form from any natural thing.” | The speaker expresses a desire to escape the cycle of birth and death by becoming an eternal artistic creation in Byzantium. | Mythological/Archetypal Criticism: Interprets the speaker’s transformation as part of the archetypal hero’s journey, seeking transcendence in a mythical, eternal realm. |