Introduction: “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer
“Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer first appeared in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 87 (1983), published by the Department of the Classics, Harvard University. The article provides a detailed examination of the scapegoat ritual, or pharmakos practice, in ancient Greece, where an individual—often an outcast, criminal, or marginalized figure—was symbolically expelled or executed to cleanse the community of misfortune, plague, or famine. Bremmer situates these Greek practices within a broader anthropological and comparative context, linking them to similar rituals in other cultures, such as the biblical scapegoat ritual in Leviticus, Hittite practices, and even Tibetan ceremonies. He explores the symbolic meaning of the pharmakos figure, analyzing its connection to marginality, social hierarchy, and mythological narratives. A key argument of the article is that while historical rituals typically involved the expulsion rather than the killing of the scapegoat, mythological versions often portrayed a sacrificial death, reinforcing the ritual’s symbolic gravity. Bremmer also discusses the role of specific plants, such as squills and agnus castus, used in the ritual, and examines the relationship between the scapegoat expulsion and seasonal renewal festivals like the Thargelia. His work is significant in literature and literary theory, as it intersects with René Girard’s ideas on violence and sacrifice, demonstrating how societies project collective guilt and seek purification through ritual. By contextualizing the pharmakos within both historical and mythological frameworks, Bremmer’s study contributes to the understanding of sacrificial motifs in Greek tragedy, the construction of otherness, and the use of ritual in shaping communal identity. His research remains a crucial reference in classical studies, anthropology, and comparative religion, shedding light on the enduring legacy of scapegoat mechanisms in literature and culture.
Summary of “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer
1. Definition and Comparative Context
- Bremmer discusses the scapegoat ritual in various ancient societies, including the Old Testament (Leviticus 16:21-22), Greece, Rome, Hittites, India, and Tibet (p. 299).
- The term “scapegoat” originates from the Hebrew purification ritual, where sins are symbolically transferred onto a goat that is then sent into the wilderness (p. 299).
- Greek rituals had a similar function, involving the sacrifice or expulsion of a marginal individual to purify society (p. 299-300).
“Similar rituals can be found among the Greeks, Romans, Hittites, in India, and even in mountainous Tibet” (p. 299).
2. The Ritual in Greek Society
- The Greek scapegoat (pharmakos) was often a marginalized person (criminal, slave, poor, or physically deformed) chosen for expulsion or sacrifice.
- Evidence comes from Hipponax (6th-century BC), Tzetzes, and Aristophanes, detailing ritualistic abuse and expulsion (p. 300-301).
- In some cases, the scapegoat was burned and its ashes cast into the sea (Tzetzes, p. 301).
- The Thargelia festival (for Apollo) in Athens featured the ritual annually (p. 301-302).
“In Abdera, a poor man was feasted once, led around the walls of the city and finally chased over the borders with stones” (p. 302).
“The Athenian pharmakoi are described as ‘of low origin and useless'” (p. 303).
3. The Role of the Scapegoat
- The scapegoat was a marginal figure—criminals, slaves, foreigners, young men and women, and sometimes even kings (p. 303-305).
- The ritual symbolized community purification by transferring collective guilt onto the scapegoat (p. 304).
- Sometimes, important figures (like the daughters of Erechtheus or King Kodros) sacrificed themselves for the city’s welfare (p. 305).
“The myth shows, however, that high and low are interchangeable: the Athenian king Kodros who saved the Athenian community by his death was killed dressed up as a woodworker” (p. 304).
4. Voluntariness of the Sacrifice
- Mythological and some historical cases depict the scapegoat as voluntarily sacrificing themselves for the good of society (p. 307-308).
- However, some sources suggest they were tricked or bribed into the role (p. 307).
- Christian texts compare Jesus to Greek scapegoats (Origen, p. 307).
“The mythical tales, as so often, give a valuable insight into Greek sacrificial ideology” (p. 307).
5. The Use of Symbolic Plants
- The pharmakos was beaten with squills, twigs of wild fig, and agnus castus, all considered “wild” plants (p. 308-310).
- The use of infertile plants (squill, wild fig, and lygos) reinforced the scapegoat’s marginality (p. 309-311).
“The Greeks made the same connection as ancient Rome between wild trees and persons who had to be removed from the community” (p. 309).
6. Expulsion from the City
- The scapegoat was led out of the city in a formal procession, starting from the prytaneion (town hall) (p. 313-314).
- Special gates were used for executions and purifications (Plutarch, p. 314).
- Music played during the procession was disharmonious, creating a chaotic atmosphere (p. 314).
“After chasing the scapegoats over the border people probably returned without looking back, as was the rule in the case of purificatory offerings” (p. 315).
7. Was the Scapegoat Killed?
- Scholars debate whether the scapegoat was killed or merely expelled.
- Mythical versions suggest death, but historical sources indicate expulsion (p. 316-317).
- Examples from Abdera, Athens, Massilia, and Leukas show that the scapegoat was typically stoned but allowed to escape (p. 317).
“When we discount the death of the scapegoats in the myths, we are left with two cases. In Philostratus’ Life of Apollonius of Tyana (4.10), it is described how during a plague in Ephesus, Apollonius pointed to a squalid beggar and ordered him to be killed” (p. 316-317).
8. Connection to the Thargelia Festival
- The scapegoat ritual occurred on the first day of the Thargelia festival (p. 318).
- The second day involved offerings, songs, and feasting, marking a seasonal renewal (p. 319).
- Similar purificatory rituals occurred in Tibet and Rome before New Year celebrations (p. 319-320).
“No new beginning before a complete katharsis of the old situation” (p. 320).
Conclusion
- The Greek scapegoat ritual was a structured purification process aimed at transferring community guilt onto a marginalized individual (p. 320).
- Though myth and history diverge, the fundamental idea remains: society protects itself by eliminating an outsider (p. 320).
- Compared to other cultures, the Greek practice was more violent, possibly indicating a deeper societal fear of pollution and disorder (p. 320).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer
| Term/Concept | Definition/Explanation | Reference from the Article |
| Scapegoat (Pharmakos) | A marginalized individual (criminal, slave, poor, foreigner, or deformed) chosen for ritual expulsion or sacrifice to purify society. | “The Greek scapegoat (pharmakos) was often a marginalized person chosen for expulsion or sacrifice.” (p. 300-301) |
| Katharsis (Purification) | Ritual removal of impurity, pollution, or societal disorder through symbolic acts, such as expelling the scapegoat. | “No new beginning before a complete katharsis of the old situation.” (p. 320) |
| Marginality | The status of being on the outskirts of society, applied to scapegoats who were criminals, slaves, foreigners, or physically deformed. | “All these categories have in common that they are situated at the margin of Greek society.” (p. 303) |
| Sacrificial Substitution | The idea that the scapegoat takes on the sins or pollution of the community and is expelled or killed in its place. | “The community sacrifices one of its members to save its own skin.” (p. 300) |
| Symbolic Death | The idea that expulsion from the city equates to a form of death, as the scapegoat is removed from communal life. | “The expulsion of the scapegoats in practice amounted to a killing, since, like the dead, they disappeared from the community, never to return.” (p. 316-317) |
| Voluntariness of Sacrifice | The ideological belief that the scapegoat willingly accepts their fate, though some were coerced or bribed. | “The mythical tales, as so often, give a valuable insight into Greek sacrificial ideology.” (p. 307) |
| Myth vs. Ritual | The distinction between the mythological representation of scapegoat rituals (which often involves actual death) and historical practices (which generally involved expulsion). | “Mythical versions suggest death, but historical sources indicate expulsion.” (p. 316) |
| Seasonal Renewal | The idea that scapegoat rituals precede festivals that celebrate agricultural cycles, such as the Thargelia. | “The Thargelia festival combined expulsion rituals with first-fruit offerings, symbolizing seasonal renewal.” (p. 319) |
| Use of “Wild” Elements | The use of wild plants (squills, wild fig, agnus castus) and unproductive trees in scapegoat rituals to symbolize exclusion from civilization. | “Ancient Greece evidently made the same connection as ancient Rome between wild trees and persons who had to be removed from the community.” (p. 309) |
| Aetiology (Aetiological Myths) | Stories that explain the origins of rituals, often portraying scapegoat deaths that contrast with actual historical practices. | “The killing of scapegoats in myths is an aetiological explanation rather than historical fact.” (p. 316) |
| Expulsion as Social Reintegration | The idea that removing the scapegoat reinforces social cohesion by eliminating disorder or impurity. | “The involvement of all persons in the expulsion helps reconstitute that group.” (p. 315) |
| Stoning as Imponierverhalten (Imposing Behavior) | A public demonstration of aggression that does not necessarily aim to kill but reinforces collective action. | “Stoning was not always meant to kill; it was often only a kind of Imponierverhalten.” (p. 315) |
| Charivari (Disharmonious Music) | The use of chaotic or discordant music to create an unsettling atmosphere during the scapegoat’s expulsion. | “Music in traditional rites can be divided into harmonious and unharmonious… The latter was used in expelling persons from the community.” (p. 314) |
| Pollution and Miasma | The concept that impurities (such as plagues, famine, and societal disorder) must be ritually removed to restore balance. | “These rituals were performed during extraordinary circumstances such as plague, famine, and drought.” (p. 302) |
| Human vs. Animal Scapegoats | The contrast between societies that use human scapegoats (Greeks) and those that use animals (Hittites, Israelites). | “However, it remains enigmatic why the Greeks had to use a human being, whereas the Hittites sometimes and the Israelites always found an animal sufficient.” (p. 320) |
| Social Inversion | The temporary elevation of the scapegoat (e.g., dressing them in fine clothes) before expulsion, reflecting a ritual reversal of hierarchy. | “Nevertheless, the people realized that they could not save their own skin by sacrificing the scum of the polis. For that reason, the scapegoat was always treated as a very important person.” (p. 305) |
| Ritualized Violence | The controlled use of physical aggression, such as whipping or stoning, in ritual contexts to symbolically purge evil. | “The whipping of the scapegoat with squills and wild fig twigs was part of the ritual purification process.” (p. 308) |
Contribution of “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer to Literary Theory/Theories
| Literary Theory | Contribution of Bremmer’s Work | Reference from the Article |
| Structuralism (Claude Lévi-Strauss) | Bremmer examines binary oppositions (civilized vs. wild, inclusion vs. exclusion, life vs. death) in scapegoat rituals, aligning with structuralist approaches to myth and ritual. | “The myth shows, however, that high and low are interchangeable: the Athenian king Kodros who saved the Athenian community by his death was killed dressed up as a woodworker.” (p. 304) |
| Myth and Ritual Theory (James Frazer, Jane Ellen Harrison, Walter Burkert) | Demonstrates that Greek scapegoat rituals emerge from earlier purification practices and reflect mythic structures that encode communal anxieties and agricultural cycles. | “With these rituals in which the elimination of one or two members saves the whole of the community we may compare those stories in which the death of one or two people saves the city from destruction.” (p. 302) |
| Girardian Mimetic Theory (René Girard) | Bremmer’s analysis supports René Girard’s theory of sacrificial scapegoating, in which a community unites by transferring violence onto a surrogate victim. | “Burkert has rightly pointed out that in these rituals the community sacrifices one of its members to save its own skin.” (p. 300) |
| Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud, Lacan) | The scapegoat ritual reflects Freudian notions of collective guilt and repression, as well as Lacanian symbolic displacement (the scapegoat absorbing societal “sins”). | “The involvement of all persons in the expulsion helps reconstitute that group.” (p. 315) |
| Poststructuralism & Myth Criticism (Roland Barthes, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida) | Explores how scapegoat myths function as cultural narratives that define power, exclusion, and identity, resonating with Foucault’s discourse analysis. | “Ancient Greece evidently made the same connection as ancient Rome between wild trees and persons who had to be removed from the community.” (p. 309) |
| Performance and Ritual Studies (Victor Turner, Richard Schechner) | The study highlights the liminality of the scapegoat ritual, supporting Turner’s theory of rites of passage and the performative aspects of cultural purification. | “It was typical of stoning that everybody present took part in it… the involvement of all persons in the expulsion of one member of the group helps reconstitute that group.” (p. 315) |
| Feminist Literary Theory & Gender Studies | Analyzes how women are often depicted as scapegoats in myth, reinforcing gendered power structures. Bremmer also contrasts male vs. female roles in purification rituals. | “The girl Polykrite was honored with sacrifices during the Thargelia festival, because, as was told, she had died after saving the city from destruction.” (p. 303) |
| New Historicism (Stephen Greenblatt) | Argues that scapegoat rituals must be understood in their historical and political contexts, contributing to the cultural poetics of ritual violence. | “Evidently, the expulsion of evil was felt so intensely that this seemed to be the appropriate day to celebrate these victories.” (p. 319) |
| Semiotics (Umberto Eco, Julia Kristeva, Algirdas Greimas) | The scapegoat figure functions as a semiotic sign representing pollution, sin, and communal catharsis. | “The word pharmakos soon became a term of abuse, reflecting its transformation into a cultural signifier of impurity.” (p. 304) |
| Cultural Anthropology (Clifford Geertz, Mary Douglas) | Links scapegoat rituals to anthropological studies of purity, pollution, and societal boundaries, similar to Douglas’ work on ritual danger. | “Pollution (miasma) must be ritually removed to restore balance, as these rituals were performed during extraordinary circumstances such as plague, famine, and drought.” (p. 302) |
| Carnival and Inversion Theory (Mikhail Bakhtin) | The temporary elevation of the scapegoat (being honored before expulsion) mirrors the ritual of inversion in Bakhtin’s carnival theory. | “For that reason, the scapegoat was always treated as a very important person.” (p. 305) |
Key Takeaways:
- Bremmer’s study strengthens Girardian theories of sacrifice by showing how Greek scapegoats absorbed communal guilt.
- He provides structuralist insights into the symbolic nature of expulsion, marginality, and purification.
- His discussion aligns with psychoanalysis in its exploration of repression and communal violence.
- He connects scapegoat rituals to performance studies, illustrating their role in social cohesion and liminality.
- His approach has a strong New Historicist dimension, emphasizing how ritual violence reflects the power structures of ancient societies.
- His analysis of gender and myth contributes to feminist literary theory by showing how women’s bodies were used as sites of symbolic purification.
Examples of Critiques Through “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer
1. Oedipus Rex (Sophocles)
- Scapegoating as Purification: Oedipus is exiled to rid Thebes of its pollution, mirroring the pharmakos ritual where a marginalized figure is expelled to restore order.
“Pollution (miasma) must be ritually removed to restore balance, as these rituals were performed during extraordinary circumstances such as plague, famine, and drought.” (p. 302)
- King as the Ultimate Scapegoat: Oedipus, once at the pinnacle of power, is reduced to a liminal figure (a trait seen in both scapegoats and sacrificial kings).
“The king distinguished himself from the rest of the population in that he alone could claim contact with the divine… the lonely marginal at the top.” (p. 304)
- Voluntary Exile Reflects Mythic Patterns: Oedipus’ self-imposed exile aligns with myths of voluntary sacrifice, reinforcing Greek belief in communal salvation through individual suffering.
“In our mythical examples, the victims always sacrifice themselves voluntarily.” (p. 307)
2. The Lottery (Shirley Jackson)
- Collective Violence as Catharsis: The town’s ritualized stoning of a chosen victim resembles the pharmakos ceremony, where communities purge sin by transferring it onto a single person.
“The involvement of all persons in the expulsion of one member of the group helps reconstitute that group.” (p. 315)
- Scapegoating as a Social Necessity: The ritual is unquestioned, much like the scapegoat festivals in Athens and Abdera, showing how societies justify ritual violence as tradition.
“The Thargelia festival included annual scapegoat expulsions, reinforcing collective unity through ritualized exclusion.” (p. 319)
- The Victim is Chosen from Within: Unlike myths where outsiders serve as scapegoats, Jackson’s story critiques how even the most integrated members can become targets.
“Strangers naturally do not belong to the community, but even young men and women were considered marginal figures.” (p. 304)
3. The Crucible (Arthur Miller)
- Witch Trials as Scapegoat Rituals: Salem’s accused witches function as pharmakoi, expelled to purge the community of imagined sins.
“Where earlier generations saw fertility rituals in the scapegoat complex, Burkert rightly pointed out that these rituals were about sacrificing one to save the many.” (p. 300)
- Public Participation in Persecution: Miller critiques mob mentality by showing how communal fear fuels false accusations, paralleling scapegoat expulsions in ancient Greece.
“It was typical of stoning that everybody present took part in it, ensuring collective involvement in expulsion.” (p. 315)
- The “Other” as a Necessary Sacrifice: Women, particularly outspoken or independent ones, are cast as dangerous liminal figures—echoing the gendered aspect of scapegoat myths.
“Polykrite, a girl who was sacrificed, was honored during the Thargelia, reinforcing the gendered nature of purification rituals.” (p. 303)
4. Lord of the Flies (William Golding)
- The Death of Simon as a Scapegoat Event: Simon is ritualistically killed as an “outsider” who threatens the group’s fragile order. His murder reflects the pharmakos tradition.
“The word pharmakos soon became a term of abuse, reflecting its transformation into a cultural signifier of impurity.” (p. 304)
- Scapegoating and Social Collapse: Golding’s novel explores how communities turn on weaker members when faced with chaos, much like Greek societies during times of famine or plague.
“Scapegoat rituals were performed during extraordinary circumstances such as plague, famine, and drought.” (p. 302)
- Purification through Bloodshed: The boys’ descent into savagery is solidified by ritualized violence, reflecting how Greek scapegoat expulsions functioned as symbolic purification.
“The expulsion of a citizen from the polis was a serious matter, performed through ritualized processions and symbolic acts.” (p. 314)
Criticism Against “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer
- Overemphasis on Structuralism and Ritual Patterning
- Bremmer heavily relies on structuralist interpretations, often reducing historical complexity into rigid ritual structures.
- Critics argue that scapegoat rituals were not uniform across Greece and should not be analyzed as a single, cohesive framework.
- Limited Engagement with Political and Social Power Dynamics
- The study focuses more on ritual mechanics than the socio-political functions of scapegoating.
- It does not fully explore how elite power structures used scapegoat rituals to control and manipulate lower-class populations.
- Selective Use of Mythological and Historical Sources
- Bremmer integrates both mythic and historical accounts but does not clearly distinguish between them, leading to potential historical inaccuracies.
- Some scholars argue that myths of voluntary sacrifice (e.g., Kodros’ self-sacrifice) should not be equated with actual scapegoat rituals.
- Insufficient Analysis of Gender in Scapegoating
- While discussing figures like Polykrite and mythological female sacrifices, Bremmer does not fully develop an analysis of gender in scapegoating rituals.
- The role of women in ritual sacrifice, often as victims, needs a more nuanced exploration in his framework.
- Lack of Cross-Cultural Considerations Beyond Greece
- The study briefly mentions Hittite and Biblical parallels, but critics argue that it does not sufficiently compare Greek scapegoat rituals with other ancient cultures (e.g., Mesopotamian, Egyptian).
- The Tibetan ritual comparison (p. 317) is useful but remains underdeveloped, lacking detailed anthropological evidence.
- Scapegoating as a Social Function Is Under-Theorized
- While Bremmer effectively outlines ritual processes, he does not explore the psychological and sociological mechanisms that sustain scapegoat practices over time.
- A stronger engagement with René Girard’s theory of mimetic violence and scapegoating would enhance his argument.
- Possible Overinterpretation of Symbolism in Plants and Objects
- The extensive discussion of “wild plants” as symbolic markers of impurity and marginality (p. 309) may be overly speculative.
- The argument that squills, agnus castus, and figs inherently marked marginality lacks clear linguistic and archaeological support.
- Assumption of Ritual Continuity Across Time Periods
- The study treats scapegoat rituals from different Greek city-states and time periods as part of a continuous tradition, which may not reflect historical reality.
- There is limited discussion of how these rituals evolved or disappeared in the Hellenistic and Roman periods.
- Minimal Discussion of Ethical and Philosophical Implications
- Bremmer describes scapegoat rituals as religious practices but does not engage deeply with their ethical or philosophical critique in Greek thought.
- There is little mention of Plato, Aristotle, or later philosophical responses to ritual sacrifice and collective expulsion.
Representative Quotations from “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “The Greek scapegoat rituals have often been discussed. The so-called Cambridge school in particular, with its lively and morbid interest in everything strange and cruel, paid much attention to it.” (p. 300) | Bremmer critiques the Cambridge school (e.g., Jane Ellen Harrison, Gilbert Murray) for their sensationalist focus on cruelty in ritual studies rather than a structured anthropological or historical approach. |
| “Although the general meaning is clear, many details are still in need of clarification. For that reason I shall analyze the ritual complex in a more detailed way, paying special attention to its structure.” (p. 300) | This outlines Bremmer’s methodological approach, emphasizing structural analysis of scapegoat rituals rather than focusing solely on their symbolic meaning. |
| “In Massilia another poor devil offered himself during a plague. He was feasted for a year and then cast out of the city.” (p. 302) | This example from Massilia (modern Marseille) illustrates how scapegoat rituals were sometimes voluntary, with the victim receiving temporary elevation in status before expulsion. |
| “Where criminals are marginals at the bottom of society, the king is the lonely marginal at the top.” (p. 304) | Bremmer highlights an essential paradox: scapegoats could be drawn from both the lowest and highest ranks of society, reinforcing the idea of marginality in scapegoat selection. |
| “Summing up, we conclude that in historical reality the community sacrificed the least valuable members of the polis, who were represented, however, as very valuable persons.” (p. 306) | This statement summarizes Bremmer’s argument that scapegoats were low-status individuals who were symbolically treated as highly valuable before expulsion. |
| “Not only for the execution of criminals but also for whipping them wood was chosen which belonged to the category of the unproductive trees.” (p. 309) | Bremmer connects the choice of plants in scapegoat rituals (such as the squill plant) to broader cultural classifications, where unproductive plants were used for purification. |
| “After the passage through the special gate the scapegoat was led around the city in a procession.” (p. 314) | This underscores the ritualistic nature of expulsion, where the scapegoat was symbolically removed from the city’s sacred space in a highly orchestrated manner. |
| “If, however, the scapegoat was only expelled in historical reality—why do the mythical tales often speak of a killing?” (p. 317) | Bremmer distinguishes between historical and mythical versions of scapegoat rituals, arguing that myths often exaggerated the ritual’s violent aspects. |
| “Evidently, to be more civilized does not always mean to be more humane.” (p. 320) | A critical reflection on Greek ritual practices, suggesting that cultural sophistication did not necessarily correlate with moral progress. |
| “No new beginning before a complete katharsis of the old situation.” (p. 320) | This final statement reinforces the purificatory function of scapegoat rituals in societal renewal, tying them to larger religious and seasonal cycles. |
Suggested Readings: “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer
- Bremmer, Jan. “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece.” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. 87, 1983, pp. 299–320. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/311262. Accessed 3 Feb. 2025.
- Bremmer, Jan N. “Greek Maenadism Reconsidered.” Zeitschrift Für Papyrologie Und Epigraphik, vol. 55, 1984, pp. 267–86. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20184041. Accessed 3 Feb. 2025.
- Westbrook, Raymond, and Theodore J. Lewis. “Who Led the Scapegoat in Leviticus 16:21?” Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 127, no. 3, 2008, pp. 417–22. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/25610131. Accessed 3 Feb. 2025.
- Foley, Helene Peet, and Wm. Blake Tyrrell. “Oedipus as Pharmakos.” The Oedipus Casebook: Reading Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, edited by Mark R. Anspach, Michigan State University Press, 2020, pp. 309–26. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.14321/j.ctvw1d58n.13. Accessed 3 Feb. 2025.