Skepticism in Literature & Literary Theory

Skepticism: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Table of Contents

Etymology and Term

The word “skepticism” comes from the ancient Greek word “skeptikos” (σκεπτικός), meaning “to consider, examine, or inquire.” This reflects the core approach of skepticism, which is about thoughtful questioning and scrutiny of knowledge claims.

Meanings and Concept

Doubt: Skepticism involves a questioning attitude towards beliefs or claims that are presented as established truths. It’s a willingness to withhold full acceptance until sufficient evidence is presented.

Inquiry: Skepticism isn’t about outright denial but rather a search for justification. It encourages investigation, reasoning, and looking for the best available evidence to support or refute a claim.
Critical Thinking: Skeptics employ logic, reason, and critical analysis to evaluate the trustworthiness of information. They aim to separate well-founded beliefs from questionable ones.
Suspension of Judgement: In cases where evidence is lacking or inconclusive, skeptics practice suspension of judgment. This means they neither affirm nor fully deny a claim, acknowledging the limitations of their current knowledge.

Open-Mindedness: Skepticism promotes open-mindedness and the willingness to revise beliefs in light of new evidence. It recognizes the potential for fallibility and the ongoing pursuit of knowledge.

Skepticism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Skepticism is a philosophical approach that questions the certainty of knowledge claims. It emphasizes the need for critical examination, rigorous evidence, and the possibility of doubt in the pursuit of truth. Skeptics maintain that justification and reliable methods are necessary conditions for accepting a belief as genuine knowledge.

Skepticism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Ancient Skepticism

Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 – c. 270 BCE): Founder of Pyrrhonism, a school of radical skepticism. He doubted the possibility of achieving knowledge and emphasized the pursuit of tranquility through suspension of judgment.

Sextus Empiricus (c. 160 – c. 210 CE): Pyrrhonist philosopher whose comprehensive work Outlines of Pyrrhonism provides in-depth accounts of skeptical arguments.
Arcesilaus (c. 316 – c. 241 BCE): Head of the Platonic Academy, introduced skepticism into the school, arguing against knowledge claims and the reliability of the senses.

Key Arguments

The Problem of the Criterion: Skeptics question our ability to establish definitive criteria to distinguish between true and false beliefs.

The Regress Argument: Skeptics argue that any justification for a belief must itself be justified, leading to an infinite regress or a reliance on unsubstantiated beliefs.
Disagreement: Skeptics highlight the persistent disagreements among philosophers and differing viewpoints to argue that certain knowledge seems unattainable.

Modern Skepticism

Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650): While not a pure skeptic, his method of doubt in works like Meditations on First Philosophy played a key role in shaping modern epistemology.

David Hume (1711 – 1776): Empiricist philosopher who argued against certainty in areas like causation, induction, and the existence of the external world.

Contemporary Skepticism

Keith Lehrer: Theorist proposing contextual views of knowledge.
Peter Unger: Defends a radical skepticism suggesting that we know almost nothing.

Semantic Contextualism: A contemporary approach arguing that skeptical arguments are successful because they manipulate the conversational context around concepts like ‘knowledge’.

Skepticism: Major Characteristics

Major Characteristics

Critical Examination: Skepticism involves the rigorous and methodical scrutiny of knowledge claims, demanding adequate justification and resisting the unquestioned acceptance of beliefs.
Anti-Dogmatism: Skeptics oppose the adherence to doctrines or ideologies presented as absolute or irrefutable truths. They maintain a stance of intellectual flexibility against rigid systems of belief.

Priority of Evidence and Reason: Skepticism emphasizes the use of empirical evidence, logical reasoning, and well-established scientific methods in the evaluation of knowledge claims.
Provisionality of Knowledge: Skeptics acknowledge the potential for error and the fallibility of human understanding. This leads to a willingness to suspend judgment in areas of insufficient evidence or revise previously held beliefs when presented with contradictory data.
Intellectual Humility: Skepticism promotes an awareness of the limits of one’s knowledge and the possibility that existing beliefs may be incomplete or incorrect. It fosters open-mindedness and encourages the ongoing pursuit of knowledge and refinement of understanding.

Applications

Skeptical principles have a wide range of applications in various fields:

Science: Skepticism underpins scientific inquiry, motivating rigorous experimentation, hypothesis testing, and demanding standards for replicable results before accepting theories.
Law: Legal systems incorporate skepticism through the presumption of innocence, demanding that evidence meet a standard of “beyond a reasonable doubt” for conviction in criminal cases.

Everyday Reasoning: Skepticism promotes healthy critical thinking skills, helping individuals avoid misinformation, biases, and unsubstantiated claims in their decision-making.

Skepticism: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Skepticism
Formalism	Skepticism challenges the notion of authorial intent and the stability of textual meaning, emphasizing the text’s autonomy.
Structuralism	It questions the possibility of identifying universal structures or meanings in literature, highlighting relativity.
Poststructuralism	It deconstructs fixed meanings and binary oppositions, emphasizing the inherent instability and plurality of texts.
Reader-Response Theory	It prompts an examination of the reader’s role in interpreting texts, questioning the authority of the author’s voice.
Marxist Criticism	Skepticism challenges dominant ideologies and power structures, encouraging a critical analysis of social and economic systems.
Feminist Criticism	It interrogates patriarchal norms and gender roles, fostering a skepticism towards traditional representations of gender.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	It questions the stability of the self and the reliability of conscious motives, inviting an exploration of the unconscious.
Cultural Criticism	It encourages a critical examination of cultural values and norms, challenging assumptions about identity and representation.
Postcolonial Criticism	It interrogates colonial narratives and Eurocentric perspectives, fostering a skepticism towards dominant historical accounts.
Queer Theory	It challenges heteronormative assumptions and binary conceptions of sexuality, fostering a skepticism towards fixed identities.

Skepticism: Application in Critiques

1984 by George Orwell:
- It can be applied to question the reliability of the Party’s narrative and the truthfulness of information presented to the characters and readers. Critics can critique the oppressive regime’s manipulation of reality and language, highlighting skepticism towards authority and the importance of independent thought.

The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger:
- It can be applied to Holden Caulfield’s cynical view of society and his distrust of adult institutions and conventions. Critics might examine how Holden’s skepticism towards the phoniness of the adult world shapes his interactions and worldview, emphasizing the importance of authenticity and genuine human connections.
The Trial by Franz Kafka:
- It can be applied to analyze Josef K.’s futile struggle against an incomprehensible and oppressive legal system. Critics can explore how Kafka’s narrative challenges the notion of justice and the reliability of authority figures, fostering skepticism towards institutional power and bureaucracy.
Blindness by José Saramago:
- It can be applied to examine the breakdown of societal norms and the fragility of civilization depicted in the novel. Critics might analyze how characters’ reactions to a sudden epidemic of blindness reveal underlying human tendencies and question the reliability of social structures and moral values in times of crisis.

Skepticism: Relevant Terms

erm	Brief Definition
Doubt	A state of questioning or uncertainty about a claim or belief.
Inquiry	The active process of investigation and seeking knowledge.
Evidence	Information or data that supports or refutes a belief or proposition.
Justification	The grounds or reasoning that supports the validity of a belief.
Fallibilism	The acknowledgment that our knowledge could be mistaken or incomplete.
Suspension of Judgment	Withholding belief or disbelief when sufficient evidence is lacking.
Critical Thinking	The process of analyzing information rationally and objectively
Dogma	A set of beliefs held as unquestionably true and immune to revision.
Epistemology	The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge.
Rationalism	The philosophical view that emphasizes reason as the primary source of knowledge.

Skepticism: Suggested Readings

Adler, Jonathan E. Belief’s Own Ethics. MIT Press, 2002.
Greco, John. Putting Skeptics in Their Place. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Hume, David. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. 1748.

Klein, Peter D. “Skepticism.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 22 Nov. 2021, plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism/.
Montaigne, Michel de. Essays. Translated by Donald M. Frame, Stanford University Press, 1958.
Popkin, Richard H., and Jose R. Maia Neto. The History of Scepticism: From Savonarola to Bayle. Oxford University Press, 2007.

Pritchard, Duncan. What is This Thing Called Knowledge? 4th ed., Routledge, 2018.
Sextus Empiricus. Outlines of Pyrrhonism. Translated by R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, 1933.
Stroud, Barry. The Significance of Philosophical Scepticism. Oxford University Press, 1984.

Unger, Peter. Ignorance: A Case for Scepticism. Oxford University Press, 1975.