Introduction: “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi
“Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi, first published in 2008 in the journal Interventions, is a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory. Gandhi’s essay explores the concept of non-violence through a literary lens, examining various texts and cultural practices that embody and promote this philosophy. By analyzing works from diverse traditions, Gandhi offers a nuanced and comprehensive understanding of non-violence as a complex and multifaceted force. Her essay challenges conventional notions of non-violence, demonstrating its potential to inspire social and political change. Gandhi’s work has been influential in shaping contemporary discussions on non-violence, literature, and literary theory, and continues to be a valuable resource for scholars and activists alike.
Summary of “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi
Transnational Discourse on Non-Violence
- Introduction of Two Discourses: Gandhi highlights the early 20th-century emergence of two interwoven but distinct discourses of non-violence—one rooted in anticolonial movements in India led by Mohandas Gandhi and the other in Western socialism and phenomenology.
- Quotation: “Two competing yet collaborative discourses of non-violence, one non-western and the other western.” (Gandhi)
- Collaborative Ethics: These traditions, although culturally dissonant, converged to form a potential postcolonial ethics of non-violence applicable to contemporary global crises.
- Quotation: “Do they designate a coherent form of postcolonial ethics, one we might draw upon to counter the epidemic of harmfulness in the present world?” (Gandhi)
The Crisis of Spirit in the West
- Philosophical Crisis in Europe: Between the world wars, European philosophers like Paul Valery, Edmund Husserl, and Martin Heidegger diagnosed a spiritual crisis in the West. The rise of imperialism and capitalism was viewed as damaging the spiritual essence of Europe.
- Quotation: “The spiritual morphology of the west was now so irreparably damaged by Europe’s imperial and capitalist mutations.” (Gandhi)
- Husserl’s Epoché: Husserl proposed a bracketing or suspension of past spiritual traditions to discover new forms of spirituality untainted by materialism and history.
- Quotation: “We perform the epoché … a transformation of the attitude.” (Husserl, 1970)
Gandhian Satyagraha and Spirit
- Gandhi’s Inward Politics: Gandhi’s concept of satyagraha (truth force or soul force) evolved as an inward-directed political philosophy, connecting spirituality and resistance. His use of spirit in anti-colonial discourse emphasized moral self-restraint and self-discipline.
- Quotation: “Satyagraha as a sort of politics of self-fashioning, concerned with the elaboration of a revolutionary sensibility or character.” (Gandhi)
- Anticolonial Spiritual Ethics: Gandhi adapted the concept of spirit to anticolonial resistance, aligning it with notions of non-violence and self-mastery, drawing both from Indian spiritual traditions and European philosophical influences.
- Quotation: “Spirit and its homonyms would establish themselves … as the source words for a complex anticolonial terminology.” (Gandhi)
European and Gandhian Counterpoints
- Self-Mastery vs. Non-Identity: European and Gandhian philosophies developed contrasting but complementary responses to crises of spirit. European thinkers, influenced by Heidegger and others, focused on self-critique and non-identity, while Gandhi emphasized self-mastery and internal sovereignty.
- Quotation: “The non-identical European subject … while the non-western Gandhian subject of self-mastery undergoes penance for the errors of subjection/slavery by turning upon itself.” (Gandhi)
Emergence of a Modern Non-Violence
- Non-Violence as a Modern Ethic: Gandhi proposes that these divided subjects—European non-identity and Gandhian self-mastery—are harbingers of a modern metaphysics of non-violence. This ethic, born from the crises of spirit, sought to transcend violence through moral and spiritual sublimation.
- Quotation: “The true significance or proper oeuvre … of the subjects of self-mastery and non-identity is as the culturally discrete bearers of a distinctly modern form of non-violence.” (Gandhi)
Ahimsa as a Metaphysical Morality
- Ahimsa’s Ethical Foundation: Gandhi explores the transformation of spiritual crisis into metaphysical morality, especially through the lens of ahimsa (non-violence), which was central to his vision of ethical modernity.
- Quotation: “Ahimsa is the farthest limit of humility.” (Gandhi, 1982)
Western Ethical Socialism and Non-Violence
- British Guild Socialism and Ethics: Western socialist thinkers in the early 20th century, such as G.D.H. Cole and John Neville Figgis, aligned with Gandhi’s non-violence, reinterpreting spiritual values under the banner of ethical socialism. Their ethics prioritized self-suffering over aggression, paralleling Gandhi’s principles of self-restraint and non-harm.
- Quotation: “The transmutation of spiritual redressal into a metaphysics of morals.” (Gandhi)
Conclusion: Cosmopolitan Ahimsa
- Global Relevance of Non-Violence: Gandhi emphasizes the universal applicability of non-violence, integrating both Eastern and Western spiritual traditions. The essay suggests a hopeful vision of cosmopolitan ethics founded on humility, self-discipline, and moral resistance.
- Quotation: “The properly auto-immunitory consciousness, Gandhi clarifies, is also radically cosmological and contagious.” (Gandhi)
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi
| Term/Concept | Definition | Significance in the Text |
| Non-violence | The practice of achieving goals through peaceful means, such as passive resistance or civil disobedience. | Gandhi’s central theme and the focus of his exploration of competing discourses. |
| Spirit | A metaphysical concept often associated with the soul or essence of a person or thing. | Represents the underlying force driving both Western and non-Western approaches to non-violence. |
| Ethics | A system of moral principles that guide behavior. | Gandhi’s search for a “modern metaphysics of morals” founded on non-violence. |
| Metaphysics | The branch of philosophy that deals with the fundamental nature of reality. | The philosophical framework through which Gandhi analyzes the concepts of spirit, non-violence, and ethics. |
| Subject | The individual or entity that is the focus of study or analysis. | In Gandhi’s work, the subject is often the individual who practices non-violence. |
| Colonialism | The control of one territory by another, often involving the exploitation of the colonized people. | The historical context in which Gandhi’s ideas of non-violence developed. |
| Anticolonialism | Resistance to colonialism, often involving political, social, and cultural movements. | A key aspect of Gandhi’s philosophy and activism. |
| Cosmopolitanism | The idea that people should be able to live together in harmony, regardless of their cultural or national differences. | Gandhi’s approach to non-violence as a transnational concept. |
| Ahimsa | A Sanskrit term meaning non-violence. | The Hindu principle that Gandhi draws upon in his exploration of non-violence. |
| Self-mastery | The ability to control one’s thoughts, emotions, and actions. | A key component of Gandhi’s philosophy, as non-violence requires self-discipline and control. |
Contribution of “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi to Literary Theory/Theories
- Deconstruction of Western Hegemony: Gandhi’s essay challenges the Western-centric narratives that often dominate literary theory. She argues for a more inclusive and transnational understanding of non-violence, drawing on both Western and non-Western sources. This deconstruction of Western hegemony is a central tenet of postcolonial theory.
- Rethinking the Subject: Gandhi introduces the concept of the “non-identical subject” as a means of resisting colonial power. This subject is characterized by self-division, self-critique, and a commitment to non-violence. This rethinking of the subject is a significant contribution to postcolonial studies, which often focuses on the marginalized and colonized subject.
- Cultural Studies:
- Intercultural Dialogue: Gandhi’s essay explores the interplay between Western and non-Western cultures, particularly in relation to the concept of spirit. She argues for a more intercultural dialogue that recognizes the value of diverse perspectives and experiences. This approach aligns with the goals of cultural studies, which seek to understand culture in its various forms and contexts.
- Politics of Everyday Life: Gandhi’s analysis of non-violence as a form of everyday resistance is relevant to cultural studies, which often examines the ways in which culture is produced and consumed in everyday life. Her essay suggests that non-violence can be a powerful tool for social and political change, even in seemingly ordinary contexts.
- Ethics:
- A New Metaphysics of Morals: Gandhi argues for a new “metaphysics of morals” based on non-violence. She proposes that the concept of spirit, when reimagined, can provide a foundation for a more ethical and just world. This contribution to ethics is significant because it offers a new way of thinking about morality beyond traditional frameworks.
- The Ethics of Non-Violence: Gandhi’s essay offers a detailed exploration of the ethical implications of non-violence. She argues that non-violence is not merely a strategy but a way of life that requires self-discipline, compassion, and a commitment to justice. This analysis contributes to the field of ethics by providing a new framework for understanding and practicing non-violence.
Examples of Critiques Through “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi
| Literary Work | Critique Through Spirits of Non-Violence by Leela Gandhi | Key Quotations/Concepts from Spirits of Non-Violence |
| King Lear by William Shakespeare | King Lear reflects themes of spirit and self-division, particularly in the scene where Gloucester “falls” and is metaphorically reborn in spirit. The characters, especially Lear and Gloucester, experience a loss of sovereignty, mirroring Gandhi’s notion of inward non-violence and spiritual awakening. | “Spirit lost to the imperial and capitalist west must not be recovered so much as replaced.” |
| Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad | Conrad’s portrayal of European imperialism can be critiqued as a spiritual degradation similar to what Gandhi discusses. Kurtz represents the collapse of spirit into materialist exploitation, aligning with Gandhi’s critique of Western capitalism’s impact on spirit. | “The spiritual morphology of the west was now so irreparably damaged by Europe’s imperial and capitalist mutations.” |
| Unto This Last by John Ruskin | Gandhi’s translation of Ruskin’s work into Gujarati plays a significant role in shaping his philosophy of non-violence. Ruskin’s critique of industrialization and advocacy for moral economy resonates with Gandhi’s concept of ahimsa as the core of social and economic justice. | “The worker confounds the industrialist’s programmatic extraction of labour.” |
| Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe | Achebe’s novel, focusing on the disruption of African societies by colonialism, parallels Gandhi’s critique of spiritual colonization. Okonkwo’s personal struggle with change and the imposition of Western values reflect Gandhi’s argument about spiritual subjugation and resistance through non-violence. | “India follows suit through willing acceptance of subjection or the lack, thereto, of insufficient sovereignty over itself.” |
Criticism Against “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi
- Overemphasis on Western Influence: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s analysis overemphasizes the influence of Western ideas on the development of non-violence, particularly in relation to Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi’s work. They contend that Gandhi’s ideas were primarily rooted in Indian traditions and philosophies.
- Lack of Historical Specificity: Critics have noted that Gandhi’s analysis is somewhat lacking in historical specificity. They argue that the essay could have benefited from a more detailed examination of the historical context in which Gandhi’s ideas developed, including the specific challenges and opportunities he faced.
- Idealization of Non-Violence: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s portrayal of non-violence is overly idealized and fails to adequately address the limitations and challenges associated with this approach. They point out that non-violence can be ineffective in certain situations and may even lead to harm.
- Neglect of Other Forms of Resistance: Critics have suggested that Gandhi’s focus on non-violence may have led her to neglect other forms of resistance, such as armed struggle. They argue that in some cases, armed resistance may be necessary to achieve social and political change.
- Gender and Caste Bias: Some critics have accused Gandhi of gender and caste bias, particularly in relation to his views on women’s roles and the caste system. They argue that his approach to non-violence may have reinforced traditional hierarchies and inequalities.
Representative Quotations from “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Two competing yet collaborative discourses of non-violence, one non-western and the other western.” | Gandhi highlights the existence of both Eastern and Western discourses of non-violence, showing how they developed independently yet influenced each other. |
| “Spirit lost to the imperial and capitalist west must not be recovered so much as replaced.” | This points to the argument that the spiritual crisis in the West, caused by imperialism and capitalism, requires not restoration but transformation. |
| “Do they designate a coherent form of postcolonial ethics, one we might draw upon to counter the epidemic of harmfulness in the present world?” | Gandhi questions whether the convergence of Eastern and Western non-violence creates a unified ethical system relevant for today’s global crises. |
| “The worker confounds the industrialist’s programmatic extraction of labour.” | Referring to Gandhi’s translation of John Ruskin’s Unto This Last, this quote underscores the tension between spiritual labor and industrial exploitation. |
| “Satyagraha as a sort of politics of self-fashioning, concerned with the elaboration of a revolutionary sensibility or character.” | Gandhi defines satyagraha as a method of inward political resistance, focusing on self-discipline and the moral transformation of the individual. |
| “The non-identical European subject makes amends for the sins of oppression/mastery by turning away from itself.” | This describes how European thinkers, following their spiritual crisis, engage in self-critique, leading to a rejection of oppressive historical practices. |
| “India follows suit through willing acceptance of subjection or the lack, thereto, of insufficient sovereignty over itself.” | Gandhi contrasts the Western exercise of oppression with India’s passive acceptance of subjugation, framing both as spiritual failures. |
| “The properly auto-immunitory consciousness … is also radically cosmological and contagious.” | Gandhi explains how the self-transformative process of non-violence (particularly ahimsa) extends outward to positively influence others. |
| “Ahimsa is the farthest limit of humility.” | In this simple but profound statement, Gandhi asserts that non-violence (ahimsa) represents the ultimate expression of humility. |
| “Spirit will find hospitable ground for its transformed recurrence in the congenial interstices of the self-division cultivated, ascetically, by the non-identical subject.” | Gandhi suggests that the process of self-division and self-critique in both Eastern and Western subjects creates a fertile ground for the resurgence of spiritual ethics. |
Suggested Readings: “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi
- Gandhi, Leela. The Common Cause: Postcolonial Ethics and the Practice of Democracy, 1900-1955. University of Chicago Press, 2014.
- Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. Penguin Classics, 2007.
- Butler, Judith. Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence. Verso Books, 2006. https://www.versobooks.com/books/1838-precarious-life
- Badiou, Alain. Ethics: An Essay on the Understanding of Evil. Translated by Peter Hallward, Verso, 2002. https://www.versobooks.com/books/4-ethics
- Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton University Press, 1993. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691019437/the-nation-and-its-fragments
- Valéry, Paul. History and Politics. Translated by Denise Folliot and Jackson Matthew, Pantheon Books, 1962. https://archive.org/details/historypolitics00vale
- Derrida, Jacques. Of Spirit: Heidegger and the Question. Translated by Geoffrey Bennington and Rachel Bowlby, University of Chicago Press, 1989. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/O/bo3684503.html