Structuralism

Etymology and Meanings of “Structuralism” Literary Theory

Etymologically, the term structuralism comprises two terms structure and -ism. Structure means shape or form, while -ism refers to a type of philosophy, point of view, or theory on which it is based. Therefore, structuralism means a branch of philosophy based on the structure of things, ideas, and texts. Structuralism relates to psychology, linguistics, sociology, history, philosophy, archaeology, culture as well as anthropology.

Definition of “Structuralism” Literary Theory

In literature, structuralism literary theory shows a type of analysis that deals with recurring patterns of thinking and consequential behavior. It is mostly related to culture. In other words, as human thinking is based on structures, a literary piece could be analyzed from a structural point of view.

Origin of “Structuralism” Literary Theory

Structuralism is stated to have originated from the thoughts of Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss semiotician, and linguist. He also presented his views on the pattern of the Moscow and Prague schools of thought. They argue that there is a distinction between langue and parole (application of language in actual life) and that a sign refers to a signifier, or visual image as perceived. Signifiers are arbitrary due to differences in languages which means there are only positive terms. These structures determine human freedom and will.

Levi-Strauss and Roman Jakobson further added to this work by writing about elements of structures and their kinship. Jacques Lacan and Jean Piaget also commented on it from the psychological point of view as they term these structures as constructions or abstractions. It also touches the boundaries of Marxism due to Louis Althusser’s interpretation and enters the literary realm from these avenues.

Structuralism as a Literary Theory

As a literary theory, structuralism intends to identify and analyze structures in the texts. This could be about the genre, intertextuality, narrative structures, and motifs. In this connection, it enters the semiotic field in which readers have to interpret signs, symbols, and minor structures that occur in the text. Therefore, it is also called “grammar of literature” having different structures and parts to play their roles in the texts. In other words, it means to see basic elements such as myths, stories, and anecdotes, dotting the text and analyzing them for the specific roles they play.

Principles of Structuralism Literary Theory

1. Every language has a different work for different objects and ideas which creates a difference in mind.
2. There are two relationships: metaphorical and metonymic.
3. Every idea, thing, or concept has a binary opposition such as leaving/arriving, coming/going, etc.
4. Signs are made of a signified and a signifier.
5. Every language has a different code that varies from culture to culture and from context to context.
6. Signs have a multiplicity of meanings based on cultural contexts.
7. The subject is contradictory to the individual which helps understand the conscious and unconscious.
8. Every work is a social construction.
9. As language is a social construction, every object, idea, and concept is a social construction.

Criticism Against Structuralism Literary Theory

1. Structuralism ignores history during critique.
2. It is not fluid and does not allow ideas to transform.
3. It stresses more on introspection.
4. It stresses too much on self-reflection or self-analysis.
5. It considers language only comprises signs and literature a system of signs, and meanings only in a context.

Examples of Structuralist Criticism

Example # 1

From “Past, Present, Future” by Emily Bronte

Tell me, tell me, smiling child,
What the past is like to thee?
‘An Autumn evening soft and mild
With a wind that sighs mournfully.’
Tell me, what is the present hour?

Its structuralist critique first takes the issue of binary opposition and the use of referents. If the child is smiling, it means he must be weeping earlier. The same goes for the autumn that must have been spring and if the wind is mournful, earlier it must have been happy. In this context, it seems that the child is still smiling though he should have been weeping. This connects it with the idea of the past and present which leads to the future.

Example # 2

From Sonnet CXXVII by William Shakespeare

In the old age black was not counted fair,
Or if it were, it bore not beauty’s name;
But now is black beauty’s successive heir,
And beauty slander’d with a bastard shame:

In a structuralist critique of these verses from Sonnet CXXVII, the binary opposition shows that old age to young, black to white, and fair to ugly. Further binary opposition points out that this is a love sonnet that has been written in the praise of beauty which should have been ugly in binary opposition. The metaphorical presentation of beauty shows this thematic strand of praise.

Example # 3

From One Flew Over The Cuckoo’s Nest by Ken Kesey

Everybody on the ward can feel that it’s started. At eleven o’clock the doctor comes to the day-room door and calls over to McMurphy that he’d like to have him come down to his office for an interview. “I interview all new admissions on the second day.” McMurphy lays down his cards and stands up and walks over to the doctor. The doctor asks him how his night was, but McMurphy just mumbles an answer.

This passage from Ken Kesey’s novel, One Flew Over The Cuckoo’s Nest, could be critiqued from a structuralist point of view. Using semiotics, this text could be placed in the African American cultural setting to deduce the meanings of McMurphy and how he behaves. The terms worth considering in semiotics are “mumbles”, “night” and “doctor” which shows that he is suffering from some mental illness. The night could reflect his cultural background.

Example # 4

From “Postcard from god” by Imtiaz Dharker

Yes, I do feel like a visitor,
a tourist in this world
that I once made.
I rarely talk,
except to ask the way,
distrusting my interpreters,
tired out by the babble
of what they do not say.
I walk around through battered streets,
distinctly lost,
looking for landmarks
from another, promised past.

These verses are from the poem “Postcard from god.” Using binary opposition such as visitor/native, rarely/often, talk/silent, ask/tell, and lost/found, a structuralist critique of these lines could show how the poet feels after visiting different places as a tourist and what he wants to convey to his readers.

Example # 5

From “The Flying Cat” by Naomi Shihab Nye

Never, in all your career of worrying, did you imagine

What worries could occur concerning the flying cat.

You are traveling to a distant city.

The cat must travel in a small box with holes.

Using references of the structuralist approach, these verses could be interpreted from several points of view, specifically, the use of a second person, the flying cat and myths involved with it, the distant city and its stories, and finally why the cat is mentioned traveling in a small box. When the dots are connected, it seems that this involves not only myths but also social traditions.

Keywords in Structuralism Literary Theory

Structuralist approach, structuralists, proairetic, semiotic, hermeneutic, symbolic, symbols, referents, referring, reference, sign, signified, signifier

Suggested Readings

Abrams, Meyer Howard, and Geoffrey Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning, 2014.

Hawkes, Terence. Structuralism and Semiotics. Routledge, 2003. Giddens, Anthony. “Structuralism, post-structuralism.” Social Theory Today (1987): 195.