Syllogism: A Rhetorical Device

Syllogism: Etymology

The term “syllogism” finds its roots in ancient Greek philosophy, originating from the combination of two Greek words: “sun,” meaning together, and “logos,” meaning speech or reasoning. Coined by the renowned philosopher Aristotle, the word “syllogism” encapsulates the essence of deductive reasoning, involving the derivation of conclusions from two given or assumed propositions, known as premises. Aristotle extensively explored the concept of syllogism in his work “Organon,” establishing it as a fundamental tool for logical analysis and argumentation.

Syllogism: Literal and Conceptual Meanings

A syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. The premises are statements or propositions assumed to be true, and the conclusion is deduced from them. There are two types of meanings associated with syllogisms: literal and conceptual.

1. Literal Meaning:
   • Major Premise: This is the first statement in a syllogism and is a general statement that establishes a relationship between two concepts.
   • Minor Premise: The second statement in a syllogism provides specific information related to one of the terms mentioned in the major premise.
   • Conclusion: The third statement is the logical result derived from the combination of the major and minor premises.

Example:

1. Major Premise: All humans are mortal.
2. Minor Premise: Socrates is a human.
3. Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

In this literal sense, the syllogism relies on the truth of the premises to guarantee the truth of the conclusion.

2. Conceptual Meaning:
   • Major Premise: Represents a general concept or a universally accepted truth.
   • Minor Premise: Introduces a specific instance or case related to the general concept.
   • Conclusion: Involves drawing a logical inference about the specific instance based on the general concept.

Example:

2. Major Premise: Knowledgeable individuals tend to make informed decisions.
3. Minor Premise: Jane is a knowledgeable individual.
4. Conclusion: Therefore, Jane is likely to make informed decisions.

In the conceptual sense, the syllogism is used to reason about abstract concepts rather than concrete, observable facts. It often involves general principles and their application to specific cases.

In both cases, the validity of the syllogism depends on the logical structure of the argument. If the premises are true and the reasoning is valid, the conclusion must be true. The study of syllogisms is a fundamental aspect of classical logic and helps in understanding and constructing valid arguments.

Syllogism: Definition as a Rhetorical Device

A syllogism, as a rhetorical device, is a persuasive tool grounded in deductive reasoning, structured with a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. This form of argumentation seeks to convince or persuade by establishing a logical connection between general principles and specific instances. The strength of a syllogism lies in the assurance that if the premises are true, the conclusion must inevitably follow.

Syllogism: Types

Type	Premise 1	Premise 2	Conclusion
Categorical Syllogism	All men are mortal	Socrates is a man	Therefore, Socrates is mortal
Hypothetical Syllogism	If it is raining, then the ground is wet	It is raining	Therefore, the ground is wet
Disjunctive Syllogism	Either it is sunny or it is raining	It is not sunny	Therefore, it is raining

Syllogism: Examples in Everyday Life

1. Categorical Syllogism:
   • Premise 1: All mammals are animals.
   • Premise 2: Dogs are mammals.
   • Conclusion: Therefore, dogs are animals.
2. Hypothetical Syllogism:
   • Premise 1: If it’s snowing, then the roads are slippery.
   • Premise 2: It is snowing.
   • Conclusion: Therefore, the roads are slippery.
3. Disjunctive Syllogism:
   • Premise 1: Either I will go for a run, or I will go to the gym.
   • Premise 2: I won’t go for a run.
   • Conclusion: Therefore, I will go to the gym.

These examples illustrate how syllogisms are used in everyday reasoning to draw conclusions based on given premises. The structure of syllogisms helps people make logical connections and reach conclusions in a systematic way.

Syllogism in Literature: Shakespearean Example

1. From “Hamlet”:
   • Premise 1: “To be or not to be, that is the question.”
   • Premise 2: “Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer.”
   • Conclusion: “The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, or to take arms against a sea of troubles and, by opposing, end them.”
2. From “Macbeth”:
   • Premise 1: “Fair is foul, and foul is fair.”
   • Premise 2: “Hover through the fog and filthy air.”
   • Conclusion: “What’s done is done.”
3. From “Othello”:
   • Premise 1: “Who steals my purse steals trash.”
   • Premise 2: “But he that filches from me my good name robs me of that which not enriches him, and makes me poor indeed.”
   • Conclusion: “I am not what I am.”
4. From “Julius Caesar”:
   • Premise 1: “Cowards die many times before their deaths.”
   • Premise 2: “The valiant never taste of death but once.”
   • Conclusion: “Of all the wonders that I yet have heard, it seems to me most strange that men should fear, seeing that death, a necessary end, will come when it will come.”
5. From “Much Ado About Nothing”:
   • Premise 1: “Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more.”
   • Premise 2: “Men were deceivers ever.”
   • Conclusion: “One foot in sea and one on shore, to one thing constant never.”

These examples showcase how Shakespeare employed syllogism-like structures to convey complex ideas, dilemmas, and philosophies within his plays. The use of rhetorical devices like syllogisms adds depth and eloquence to the characters’ expressions and the overall themes of the works.

Syllogism in Literature: Examples

Literature	Premise 1	Premise 2	Conclusion
“Animal Farm” (Orwell)	All animals are equal.	Some animals are more equal than others.	Pigs in power justify their privileged status.
“Pride and Prejudice” (Austen)	Single men with a good fortune must want a wife.	Mr. Darcy is a single man with a good fortune.	Mr. Darcy must want a wife.
“The Crucible” (Miller)	Those accused of witchcraft are condemned to death.	Sarah Good is accused of witchcraft.	Sarah Good is condemned to death.
“Lord of the Flies” (Golding)	Without rules, there will be chaos.	Boys are stranded without rules on an island.	Chaos ensues among the boys.
“Poetics” (Aristotle)	Tragedy involves a protagonist with a fatal flaw.	Oedipus has a fatal flaw.	Oedipus experiences a tragic downfall.
“Fahrenheit 451” (Bradbury)	Censorship stifles intellectual growth.	Books are censored.	Intellectual growth is stifled in society.
“To Kill a Mockingbird” (Lee)	All men are created equal.	Tom Robinson is a man.	Tom Robinson should be treated equally, but prejudice prevails.
“The Lottery” (Jackson)	Lotteries are events of luck and fortune.	The town conducts a lottery.	The outcome of the lottery is unfortunate for the chosen one.
“The Great Gatsby” (Fitzgerald)	Money can’t buy happiness.	Gatsby is wealthy but unfulfilled.	Despite his wealth, Gatsby is not happy.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” (Eliot)	Life is full of measured out coffee spoons.	I have measured out my life with coffee spoons.	The speaker reflects on the mundane aspects of his life.

Syllogism in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

1. Structuralism:
   • Syllogism can be seen as a structural element that shapes the logical framework of a literary work.
   • It provides a systematic and ordered approach to understanding relationships between elements within a narrative.
2. Formalism:
   • Formalists may examine the use of syllogistic structures to analyze how the logical progression contributes to the overall form and aesthetic appeal of a literary work.
   • The focus is on the arrangement of elements and the impact of their order on the meaning.
3. Semiotics:
   • Syllogistic reasoning can be viewed as a signifying system within literature, where premises and conclusions create meaning through signification.
   • The relationships between signs (premises) and their signified (conclusions) contribute to the interpretation of the text.
4. Deconstruction:
   • Deconstructionists may scrutinize syllogisms to identify binary oppositions and challenge traditional hierarchies within a text.
   • The breaking down of syllogistic structures can reveal hidden complexities and contradictions.
5. Poststructuralism:
   • Syllogistic reasoning may be deconstructed to reveal the multiplicity of meanings and the instability of fixed conclusions.
   • The emphasis is on the fluidity and contingency of interpretations, challenging the notion of a stable and universal truth.
6. Reader-Response Theory:
   • Syllogisms can be examined in terms of how readers engage with the logical structures presented in a text.
   • The reader’s interpretation may vary based on individual experiences and perspectives, influencing the understanding of premises and conclusions.
7. Psychoanalytic Theory:
   • Syllogistic reasoning may be explored in terms of its alignment with the conscious and unconscious elements of a character’s psyche.
   • Freudian or Jungian perspectives may interpret syllogisms as reflections of psychological processes within the narrative.
8. Feminist Criticism:
   • Feminist critics may analyze syllogistic structures to identify gendered assumptions and biases within the reasoning presented in literature.
   • They may examine how syllogisms contribute to or challenge traditional gender roles.
9. Cultural Studies:
   • Syllogistic reasoning can be examined in the context of cultural norms and values embedded in a literary work.
   • Cultural theorists may explore how syllogisms reflect or subvert societal expectations and ideologies.
10. Narratology:
    • Syllogistic structures can be analyzed in terms of their role in narrative development, contributing to the coherence and logic of the plot.
    • Narratologists may examine how the use of syllogism shapes the causal relationships between events in a story.

These points highlight the diverse ways in which syllogism can be relevant and analyzed within different literary theories, each offering a unique lens through which to interpret and understand literature.

Syllogism in Literature: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Syllogism	A form of reasoning with two premises and a conclusion.
Premise	A statement that provides evidence or support for a conclusion.
Conclusion	The logical outcome or inference drawn from the premises.
Logic	The systematic study of valid reasoning and argumentation.
Rhetoric	The art of persuasive speaking or writing, often employing logical structures.
Reasoning	The process of drawing conclusions or inferences from given information.
Deductive Reasoning	A logical process in which specific conclusions are drawn from general principles.
Inductive Reasoning	A logical process in which general conclusions are inferred from specific observations.
Fallacy	An error in reasoning that weakens the logical structure of an argument.
Aristotelian Logic	The logical framework introduced by Aristotle, including syllogistic reasoning.

Syllogism in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by W. D. Ross, Oxford UP, 2009.
2. Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Penguin Classics, 2003.
3. Bradbury, Ray. Fahrenheit 451. Simon & Schuster, 2012.
4. Eliot, T.S. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock.” The Waste Land and Other Poems, Harvest Books, 2014, pp. 3-11.
5. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. Scribner, 2004.
6. Golding, William. Lord of the Flies. Penguin Books, 2006.
7. Jackson, Shirley. “The Lottery.” The Lottery and Other Stories, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005, pp. 291-300.
8. Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. HarperCollins, 2010.
9. Miller, Arthur. The Crucible. Penguin Classics, 2003.
10. Orwell, George. Animal Farm. Signet Classics, 1996.