Tag: literary devices

Introduction: Burlesque in Literature

Burlesque in literature is a satirical literary device characterized by the deliberate exaggeration and mockery of serious or highbrow subjects, often using humor and absurdity to subvert traditional literary forms.

Through its use of irony, caricature, and playful language, burlesque serves as a tool for social commentary and critique, allowing authors to challenge established norms and question societal values while entertaining readers with its subversive wit.

This literary technique has been employed by authors across different periods and genres, enhancing both the comedic and critical dimensions of their works.

Examples of Burlesque in Literature

1. Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes: Cervantes’ masterpiece employs burlesque in literature to humorously deconstruct the theme of chivalric romance. Don Quixote’s misguided adventures and idealistic quests serve as a satirical burlesque of the romantic ideals prevalent in his time.
2. Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift: Swift’s satirical work uses burlesque in literature to sharply critique society and politics. Gulliver’s absurd encounters with the diminutive Lilliputians and the colossal Brobdingnagians provide a humorous burlesque of human nature and governance.
3. Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll: Carroll’s classic employs burlesque in literature to parody Victorian society and literary norms. Alice’s surreal journey through Wonderland, replete with nonsensical characters and situations, offers a whimsical burlesque of the conventions of the era.
4. The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde: Wilde’s witty play is a prime example of burlesque in literature, satirizing the upper-class society of the Victorian period. The characters’ humorous misunderstandings and farcical predicaments reveal the absurdity of social affectations and the pursuit of earnestness.
5. Catch-22 by Joseph Heller: Heller’s novel effectively employs burlesque in literature to critique the bureaucracy and absurdity of war. The term “catch-22” itself symbolizes the paradoxical and irrational rules that ensnare soldiers in a nightmarish world, creating a darkly comedic burlesque of military life.
6. A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole: Featuring the eccentric character Ignatius J. Reilly, this novel offers a burlesque of American consumer culture and social norms. Through Ignatius’s idiosyncrasies and interactions with the quirky denizens of New Orleans, the book provides a contemporary example of burlesque in literature.

How to Create Burlesque in Literature

1. Select a Target: Choose a specific theme, subject, or societal norm to satirize or exaggerate. The target could be anything from traditional gender roles to political ideologies or everyday situations.
2. Exaggeration and Absurdity: Employ exaggeration and absurdity to make your point. Push the characteristics or elements of the target to the extreme, amplifying its flaws or peculiarities to create humor and irony.
3. Wordplay and Wit: Craft witty dialogue, wordplay, and clever language to enhance the comedic effect. Puns, double entendres, and clever phrasing can add layers of humor to your burlesque creation.
4. Characters and Settings: Develop characters and settings that fit the tone of your burlesque. Characters can be larger-than-life, eccentric, or satirical versions of real-life archetypes. The setting should complement the theme and contribute to the humor.
5. Satirical Commentary: Use your burlesque creation to provide satirical commentary on the target. Through humor, your work should shed light on the flaws, contradictions, or absurdities of the subject you are addressing, making a larger point while entertaining your audience.

Benefits of Using Burlesque in Literature

1. Satirical Critique: Burlesque allows authors to satirically critique societal norms, institutions, or behaviors. Through humor and exaggeration, it becomes an effective tool for shedding light on flaws or absurdities in a non-confrontational manner.
2. Engagement: Burlesque captivates readers through humor, irony, and the unexpected. It keeps readers engaged and entertained, making the text more accessible and memorable.
3. Reflecting Complexity: By employing burlesque, authors can explore complex ideas and themes while keeping the narrative approachable. It allows for the presentation of multi-layered concepts in an accessible manner.
4. Social Commentary: Burlesque often serves as a form of social commentary, making it an ideal vehicle for addressing important societal issues in a lighthearted way. It can provoke thought and discussion on these topics.
5. Unique Voice: Incorporating burlesque in literature adds a unique voice and style to a writer’s work. It distinguishes the writing and can attract readers who appreciate the blend of humor and insight.

Burlesque in Literary Theory

Theory	Critique of Burlesque in Literature
Formalism	Formalism focuses on the structural and stylistic elements of burlesque. Formalists analyze how exaggeration, wordplay, and satire contribute to the overall structure of a burlesque work. They examine the use of language and narrative techniques to create humor and parody within burlesque literature.
Marxist Criticism	Marxist critics investigate how burlesque reflects social class dynamics and power struggles. They might analyze how burlesque often targets the elites and exposes their excesses, using humor as a means of social critique within burlesque literature.
Feminist Criticism	Feminist literary theorists explore how burlesque can be used to challenge gender norms and stereotypes in burlesque literature. They might examine how female characters in burlesque challenge traditional roles through satire and irony, offering new perspectives on femininity within burlesque literature.
Postcolonialism	Postcolonial theorists consider how burlesque can be used to critique colonialism and imperialistic ideologies within burlesque literature. They might analyze how burlesque authors use humor to subvert the dominant discourse and reclaim agency in the face of colonial oppression within burlesque literature.
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theorists study how readers interpret and respond to burlesque elements in burlesque literature. They might investigate how different readers engage with humor and satire, exploring the various ways in which audiences interpret and find meaning in burlesque texts.
Deconstruction	Deconstructionists analyze how burlesque literature deconstructs conventional meanings and binaries. They might explore how burlesque destabilizes traditional categories, challenging readers to question established norms and hierarchies within burlesque literature.

Suggested Readings

1. Weldon, Jo. The Burlesque Handbook. HarperCollins, 2010.
2. Fahs, Breane. Performing Sex: The Making and Unmaking of Women’s Erotic Lives. Rutgers University Press, 2011.
3. Vida, Vandela. Girls on the Verge: Debutante Dips, Drive-bys, and Other Initiations. Viking, 1994.
4. Baldwin, Michell. Burlesque and the New Bump-n-Grind. Speck Press, 2004.
5. Miller, Robert K. Chicago Whispers: A History of LGBT Chicago before Stonewall. University of Wisconsin Press, 2012.
6. Rose, Phyllis. Jazz Cleopatra: Josephine Baker in Her Time. Vintage, 1989.
7. Robinson, Lillian. Wonder Women: Feminisms and Superheroes. Routledge, 2004.

Etymology of Burlesque

The term “burlesque” derives from the Italian word “burlesco,” which means “mockery” or “ridicule.” Its etymology goes back to the late 17th century, when it entered the English language as a literary and theatrical genre.

Initially, It used to refer to a form of comic entertainment that parodied or caricatured serious literary works, classical dramas, or societal conventions. It often involved exaggerated and humorous representations of characters and situations, using satire and humor to lampoon the highbrow or pompous.

With time, burlesque evolved into a broader form of entertainment that included bawdy humor, music, and dance. In the realm of theater, burlesque shows became known for their lively and risqué performances, particularly in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Today, it retains elements of parody and satire while embracing a wide range of artistic and comedic expressions, often with a focus on gender and sexuality. Its etymology reflects its historical origins as a form of playful mockery and social commentary.

Meanings of Burlesque

Aspect	Meanings
Parody and Satire	Burlesque involves the use of humor, exaggeration, and mockery to satirize or parody various subjects, including literary works, cultural norms, and societal conventions.
Theatrical Entertainment	It refers to a form of theatrical entertainment characterized by comedic and often risqué performances, featuring elements of music, dance, and humor. Burlesque shows became popular in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Gender and Sexuality	Modern form often explores themes related to gender and sexuality, with performers using humor, glamour, and sensuality to challenge and subvert traditional norms and expectations.
Exaggeration and Caricature	Burlesque often involves exaggerating and caricaturing characters and situations for comedic effect, creating a playful and lighthearted tone.
Artistic Expression	In contemporary contexts, it serves as a form of artistic expression that incorporates elements of cabaret, vaudeville, and comedy, allowing performers to showcase their creativity and individuality.
Social Commentary	At its core, it is a vehicle for social commentary, using humor and satire to critique and question societal values, prejudices, and taboos.

Definition of Burlesque

It is a form of artistic expression and entertainment characterized by the use of humor, exaggeration, and satire to parody various subjects, including literary works, cultural norms, and societal conventions.

It often features comedic and risqué performances, incorporating elements of music, dance, and humor. In contemporary contexts, it serves as a platform for artistic creativity and social commentary, challenging traditional norms and expectations while providing a playful and lighthearted form of entertainment.

Types of Burlesque

Type	Explanation	Example
Classical	This traditional form emerged in the 19th century and was known for its satirical and humorous parodies of classical works and societal conventions. It featured exaggerated characters and bawdy humor.	Example: In classical, a popular act was a humorous parody of Shakespearean plays, where characters and situations from works like “Hamlet” or “Romeo and Juliet” were comically exaggerated and caricatured for comedic effect.
Neo-Burlesque	A contemporary revival emerged in the late 20th century. Neo-burlesque combines elements of classic with modern themes, often incorporating social and political commentary. Performers in neo-burlesque may use satire and humor to challenge conventional ideas about gender, sexuality, and beauty.	Example: In neo-burlesque, a performer might create an act that uses humor and satire to comment on contemporary beauty standards, challenging social norms while entertaining the audience with a playful and subversive performance.
Comic	This type focuses primarily on humor and comedy. Performers use witty dialogue, slapstick humor, and physical comedy to entertain the audience. Comedic burlesque often involves exaggerated characters and humorous situations.	Example: In comic, a performer may create a hilarious routine where they portray a clumsy detective investigating a comically absurd crime, using physical comedy and witty banter to engage and amuse the audience.
Dance	A subgenre emphasizes dance as the primary form of expression. Dance type features elaborate choreography, often set to music, and combines elements of striptease with dance performances. It can range from classic dance styles to more contemporary forms.	Example: In dance, a performer might choreograph an energetic and seductive dance routine, combining elements of burlesque, cabaret, and contemporary dance styles to create a visually captivating and sensual performance.
Musical	This type incorporates music as a central element. Performers may sing, play musical instruments, or engage in musical comedy routines. Musical burlesque combines humor and music to create an entertaining and engaging experience.	Example: In musical burlesque, a performer might sing a humorous and satirical song about everyday life, using clever lyrics and catchy melodies to entertain the audience while offering a comedic take on relatable situations.
Drag	It features performers who often identify as LGBTQ+ and use drag personas to create comedic and glamorous acts. It blends elements of drag performance, burlesque, and cabaret, offering a unique and inclusive form of entertainment.	Example: In drag, a performer may combine the art of drag with burlesque by creating a glamorous and hilarious act that celebrates diversity and challenges gender norms, delivering both laughter and empowerment to the audience.

Common Examples of Burlesque

• Fashion: Vintage-inspired clothing, like corsets and feather boas, influence everyday fashion.
• Entertainment: Theater, film, and comedy incorporate its elements for humor and exaggeration.
• Nightlife: Such clubs and cabaret shows offer entertainment with risqué performances.
• Costume Parties: People often wear burlesque-inspired costumes for themed events.
• Dance: Sensual, flirtatious movements are seen in some dance performances.
• Marketing: Burlesque-style aesthetics are used in advertising for attention and playfulness.
• Music: Music videos and live performances sometimes feature burlesque-inspired visuals and costumes.
• Vintage Trend: A revival of vintage and retro culture brings its elements into modern life, from décor to event planning.

Suggested Readings

1. Abbott, Andrew. Burlesque: A Living History. Rutgers University Press, 2018.
2. Baldwin, Michelle. Burlesque and the New Bump-n-Grind. Speck Press, 2004.
3. Weldon, Jo. The Burlesque Handbook. HarperCollins, 2010.
4. Collins, Sheila. The Cambridge Introduction to Modernist Poetry. Cambridge University Press, 2011.
5. Foster, Gwendolyn Audrey. Performing Sex: The Making and Unmaking of Women’s Erotic Lives. Rutgers University Press, 2011.
6. Grindstaff, Laura. The Money Shot: Trash, Class, and the Making of TV Talk Shows. University of Chicago Press, 2002.
7. Ear, Edel. Cabaret Berlin: Revue, Kabarett and Film Music between the Wars. John Wiley & Sons, 2003.

Introduction: Dark Humor in Literature

Dark humor or black humor in literature is a distinct literary device characterized by its use of dark, ironic, and often morbid humor to illuminate the absurdities and contradictions of human existence.

It thrives on juxtaposing themes that are traditionally considered serious, such as death, suffering, and societal dysfunction, with humor, thereby challenging conventional norms and expectations.

Shakespearean Dark Humor in Literature

Work	Example	Explanation
Hamlet – Act 5, Scene 1	In this scene, Hamlet discovers a skull in the graveyard and engages in a conversation with a gravedigger. Hamlet questions the gravedigger about the identity of the person in the grave, and the gravedigger humorously informs him that it is for “one that was a woman, sir; but, rest her soul, she’s dead.”	The dark humor in this example arises from the gravedigger’s casual and matter-of-fact attitude toward death and the absurdity of the situation. The conversation delves into the decay of the human body, tying mortality to Hamlet’s contemplative nature, creating a morbid yet comic atmosphere.
Macbeth – Act 5, Scene 5	In this scene, Lady Macbeth sleepwalks and is observed by a doctor and a gentlewoman. She engages in darkly humorous and haunting dialogue, referring to the murders she and her husband committed. She says, “Out, damned spot! out, I say!” while trying to wash imaginary bloodstains from her hands.	The black humor in this scene emerges from the stark contrast between Lady Macbeth’s desperation and the absurdity of her actions. Her guilt-ridden sleepwalking serves as a darkly comic commentary on the consequences of her and Macbeth’s murderous ambitions.

Literary Examples of Dark Humor

1. Catch-22 by Joseph Heller:
   • Explanation: In Catch-22, Joseph Heller employs dark humor to satirize the absurdity of military bureaucracy during World War II. The titular “Catch-22” rule, where a pilot must be declared insane to avoid dangerous missions but asking not to fly proves sanity, encapsulates the absurdity of war. This darkly comic element runs throughout the novel, highlighting the futility and madness of the characters’ experiences.
2. Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut:
   • Explanation: Kurt Vonnegut uses dark humor in Slaughterhouse-Five to explore the disorienting effects of war. The recurring phrase “So it goes” following mentions of death creates a morbidly humorous commentary on mortality and the inevitability of death. This humor serves as a coping mechanism and a vehicle to convey the senselessness of violence.
3. A Modest Proposal by Jonathan Swift:
   • Explanation: Jonathan Swift’s satirical essay, A Modest Proposal, presents a shocking proposal with deadpan seriousness: that impoverished Irish families should sell their children as food to the wealthy. The dark humor lies in the absurdity of the suggestion, and Swift uses it to critique British exploitation of Ireland, providing a biting commentary on colonialism and social injustice.
4. American Psycho by Bret Easton Ellis:
   • Explanation: In American Psycho, Bret Easton Ellis employs dark humor to expose the shallowness and materialism of 1980s American culture. The protagonist, Patrick Bateman, is a wealthy investment banker who leads a double life as a serial killer. The disconnect between his violent actions and his obsession with consumerism creates a disturbing yet satirical commentary on society’s obsession with appearances and status symbols.

How to Create Dark Humor

1. Juxtaposition of Contrasting Elements: Dark humor often arises from the juxtaposition of serious or grim subjects with unexpected comedic elements. Contrast serious situations with absurd or ironic twists to create a humorous effect. For example, placing a bleak scenario in a comically mundane setting can be humorous.
2. Satirical Commentary: Use satire to critique societal norms, institutions, or human behavior. Create humor by exposing the hypocrisy, absurdity, or irrationality of certain situations. Satirical black humor often relies on exaggeration and irony to make its point.
3. Incongruity and Surprise: Surprise your audience with unexpected and shocking twists. Introduce elements that violate expectations, such as characters reacting in bizarre ways to distressing situations. The element of surprise can provoke both laughter and discomfort.
4. Deadpan Delivery: Present dark or disturbing content with a deadpan or matter-of-fact tone. The juxtaposition of serious subject matter with an emotionless or casual delivery can enhance the comedic effect. This style of delivery invites the audience to find humor in the absurdity of the situation.
5. Wordplay and Wit: Clever wordplay, puns, and witty dialogue can be powerful tools for creating dark humor. Play with language to highlight the absurdity of a situation or to draw attention to the contradictions within it. Well-crafted wordplay can add depth to the humor.

Benefits of Using Dark Humor

1. Engagement and Captivation: Dark humor can captivate and engage the audience by drawing them into the narrative. The unexpected and often irreverent humor can pique the audience’s curiosity, making them more invested in the story.
2. Critical Social Commentary: Dark humor serves as a vehicle for critical social and cultural commentary. It allows writers to satirize and critique societal norms, institutions, and behaviors, shedding light on pressing issues in an unconventional and impactful manner.
3. Coping Mechanism and Catharsis: Black humor can serve as a coping mechanism for both creators and consumers. It provides a way to address and process challenging or traumatic subjects, offering a release of tension and a sense of catharsis through humor.
4. Complex Exploration of Themes: It enables writers to explore complex and multifaceted themes by juxtaposing humor with serious or dark subject matter. This complexity can lead to deeper and more nuanced storytelling, encouraging audiences to contemplate various aspects of the narrative.
5. Memorability and Impact: The use of dark humor can make a story more memorable and impactful. The contrast between dark themes and humor leaves a lasting impression on the audience, provoking thought and discussion long after they’ve encountered the work.

Dark Humor and Literary Theory

Theory	Dark Humor Critique
Formalism and Structuralism	Formalist and structuralist approaches focus on the formal elements of a text, such as its structure, language, and narrative techniques. When applied to dark humor, these theories analyze how comedic elements are structured within the narrative, including wordplay, irony, and incongruity. By examining the structural aspects of black humor, scholars can uncover how it creates humor through literary techniques.
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theory emphasizes the role of the reader in interpreting a text. When studying dark humor, this theory explores how readers engage with and respond to the humor. It recognizes that readers may have varied interpretations and reactions to darkly humorous elements, based on their backgrounds, experiences, and expectations. This perspective highlights the dynamic relationship between the text and its audience.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Psychoanalytic theory delves into the unconscious motivations and desires of characters and authors. When applied to dark humor, it explores the psychological aspects of humor, especially how it can serve as a defense mechanism against anxiety and societal constraints. This perspective offers insight into the underlying motives of characters and the role of humor in their coping strategies.
Feminist Theory	Feminist theory examines how gender and power dynamics are portrayed in literature. In the context of dark humor, it assesses how humor can either challenge or reinforce traditional gender roles and stereotypes. By analyzing the ways in which gender is represented in darkly humorous works, feminist theory sheds light on the implications of humor for gender studies.
Postcolonial Theory	Postcolonial theory investigates the impact of colonialism and imperialism on literary narratives. When applied to dark humor, it explores how humor can function as a tool for resistance, subversion, or reinforcement of colonial power structures. It highlights the role of humor in addressing cultural complexities in postcolonial societies and challenging dominant narratives.

Suggested Readings

Literary Works:

1. Beckett, Samuel. Endgame. Grove Press, 1958.
2. Heller, Joseph. Catch-22. Simon & Schuster, 1961.
3. Kesey, Ken. One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. Viking Press, 1962.
4. Roth, Philip. Portnoy’s Complaint. Random House, 1969.
5. Vonnegut, Kurt. Slaughterhouse-Five. Dell Publishing, 1969.
6. Walker, Alice. The Color Purple. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982.
7. Hiaasen, Carl. Tourist Season. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1986.
8. Palahniuk, Chuck. Fight Club. W. W. Norton & Company, 1996.

Theoretical Books:

• Bakhtin, Mikhail. Rabelais and His World. Indiana University Press, 1968.
• Raskin, Victor. The Semantic Mechanisms of Humor. Springer, 1985.
• Morreall, John. Humor Works. Prometheus Books, 1987.

Etymology of Black Humor

The term “Black Humor” finds its roots in the French phrase “humour noir,” originally coined by André Breton in his 1935 book “Anthology of Black Humor” (“Anthologie de l’humour noir”).

Black humor, also known as dark humor or gallows humor, is characterized by its ability to extract comedy from subjects typically considered serious, grim, or taboo, such as death, illness, and tragedy.

It employs elements of irony, satire, and absurdity to illuminate the incongruities and absurdities present in life’s darkest aspects. This form of humor often challenges societal norms and offers a means of coping with difficult or uncomfortable subjects through laughter, though it is frequently unsettling and controversial.

Meanings of Black Humor

Aspect	Meanings
Exploration of Taboo Subjects	Black humor delves into topics that are typically considered taboo, such as death, suffering, illness, and violence.
Use of Irony	It relies heavily on irony and satire to highlight the absurdity and dark aspects of life, often presenting unexpected situations.
Coping Mechanism	In literature, black humor serves as a coping mechanism for both characters and readers to confront and humorously address difficult or uncomfortable subjects.
Social Commentary	It often provides a vehicle for social commentary by exposing the hypocrisies, injustices, and flaws within society through humor.
Challenge to Norms	Black humor challenges societal norms and conventions by questioning established values and beliefs.
Subversion of Expectations	It subverts the audience’s expectations, leading them to question their own assumptions about morality and propriety.
Intellectual Engagement	In theory, black humor can be a subject of intellectual engagement, with scholars analyzing its role in literature and its effects on readers’ perceptions.
Controversial and Ambiguous	It frequently sparks controversy due to its dark subject matter and the fine line it treads between humor and discomfort.
Literary Techniques	Authors use various literary techniques, such as absurdism, gallows humor, and shock value, to employ black humor effectively.
Historical Context	The interpretation of black humor can vary depending on the historical and cultural context in which a work is created.
Cultural Critique	It can function as a form of cultural critique, shedding light on the darkest aspects of society and human nature.
Catharsis	For both creators and audiences, it can provide a form of catharsis by allowing them to confront and process the darker aspects of life.
Psychological Perspective	Some theorists explore the psychological aspects of black humor, examining why individuals find humor in tragedy and discomfort.

Definition of Black Humor

Black humor, as a literary device, is a form of humor that finds comedic elements in subjects and situations that are typically serious, dark, or taboo, such as death, suffering, and tragedy.

It uses irony, satire, and absurdity to highlight the incongruities and absurdities within such topics, often challenging societal norms and conventions. It serves as a means for both authors and readers to confront and cope with uncomfortable or distressing subjects through humor, albeit in a controversial and thought-provoking manner.

Types of Black Humor

1. Gallows Humor: This type finds comedy in situations that are dire, grim, or life-threatening. It often arises in contexts where individuals use humor to cope with impending doom or tragedy.
2. Satire: Satirical black humor uses irony, sarcasm, and ridicule to critique and expose societal vices, absurdities, and hypocrisies. It aims to provoke thought and challenge the status quo.
3. Absurdist Humor: Absurdist form thrives on the irrational and illogical aspects of life. It presents situations that are bizarre, nonsensical, and devoid of meaning, highlighting the absurdity of existence.
4. Shock Value: Some black humor relies on shocking and provocative content to evoke humor. It often challenges the boundaries of propriety and is designed to elicit strong emotional reactions from the audience.
5. Cynical Humor: Cynical black humor is characterized by a pessimistic and distrustful outlook on life. It often features characters who are disillusioned and use humor as a defense mechanism against life’s disappointments.
6. Surreal Humor: Surreal form of it embraces the bizarre and dreamlike elements of storytelling. It creates comedic effects by juxtaposing the ordinary with the absurd, blurring the line between reality and fantasy.
7. Dark Wit: Darkly witty humor relies on clever wordplay and sharp observations to make light of dark or uncomfortable subjects. It often involves a quick and clever response to serious situations.
8. Self-Deprecating Humor: This form involves individuals making fun of themselves, their flaws, or their misfortunes. It can be a way of coping with personal struggles through humor.
9. Incongruity Humor: Incongruous black humor thrives on presenting incongruities or contradictions in a comedic manner. It involves the unexpected and often absurd juxtaposition of elements.
10. Political and Social Commentary: Black humor can be used as a tool for political and social critique, addressing serious issues in a satirical and comedic fashion to provoke thought and discussion.

Common Examples of Black Humors

1. Jokes About Difficult Topics: People often use humor to discuss challenging subjects like illness, death, or difficult life circumstances. For example, jokes about aging or health issues can employ black humor.
2. Sarcasm: Sarcasm is a form of black humor that involves saying the opposite of what one means, often in a mocking or ironic tone. It’s frequently used in everyday conversations to comment on absurd or frustrating situations.
3. Internet Memes: Online memes frequently use black humor to address social and cultural issues. Memes may take a humorous approach to topics like politics, relationships, or existential dilemmas.
4. Stand-Up Comedy: Comedians often use black humor in their routines to discuss sensitive subjects like mental health, personal struggles, or societal issues. They use irony and satire to make audiences laugh while addressing serious topics.
5. TV Shows and Movies: Many TV shows and films incorporate it to create comedic moments in otherwise serious narratives. For example, dark comedies like “Pulp Fiction” or “Fargo” use humor to navigate crime and violence.
6. Cartoons and Animated Shows: Animated series often employ black humor to entertain both children and adults. They may use irony and absurdity to comment on societal norms and expectations.
7. Literature: It is be found in literature, with authors using wit and satire to explore dark themes. Works like Joseph Heller’s “Catch-22” or Kurt Vonnegut’s “Slaughterhouse-Five” employ black humor to critique war and bureaucracy.
8. Social Media: Social media platforms are filled with examples, from humorous tweets addressing current events to darkly comedic memes about daily life.
9. Gallows Humor in the Workplace: In some professions, such as healthcare or emergency services, individuals may use gallows humor as a coping mechanism to deal with the stress and challenges of their work.
10. Comedic News Shows: Satirical news programs like “The Daily Show” and “Last Week Tonight” often use it to critique politics, media, and social issues.

Suggested Readings

Literary Works:

1. Beckett, Samuel. Endgame. Grove Press, 1958.
2. Heller, Joseph. Catch-22. Simon & Schuster, 1961.
3. Kesey, Ken. One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. Viking Press, 1962.
4. Roth, Philip. Portnoy’s Complaint. Random House, 1969.
5. Vonnegut, Kurt. Slaughterhouse-Five. Dell Publishing, 1969.
6. Walker, Alice. The Color Purple. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982.
7. Hiaasen, Carl. Tourist Season. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1986.
8. Palahniuk, Chuck. Fight Club. W. W. Norton & Company, 1996.

Theoretical Books:

• Bakhtin, Mikhail. Rabelais and His World. Indiana University Press, 1968.
• Raskin, Victor. The Semantic Mechanisms of Humor. Springer, 1985.
• Morreall, John. Humor Works. Prometheus Books, 1987.

More Literary Devices below:

• English Literature by Muslims
• Islam in English Literature
• Conceit: A Literary Device
• Conceits in Literature
• Comic Relief: A Literary Device
• Comic Relief in Literature & Theory

Introduction: Bathos in Literature

Bathos in literature is a literary device that brings abrupt shifts in tone, often transitioning from the profound or serious to the trivial or comical within a work of literature. This deliberate juxtaposition creates unexpected contrasts, evoking emotional responses ranging from humor to irony. Bathos serves as a powerful tool for authors to manipulate readers’ expectations and engage them emotionally, highlighting the incongruities between the sublime and the mundane in storytelling.

Examples of Bathos in Literature

Example and Reference	Explanation
“The Comedy of Errors” by William Shakespeare	Literary Example: In one scene of “The Comedy of Errors,” the character Dromio of Syracuse delivers an emotionally charged monologue about the hardships and challenges he faces as a servant. He speaks passionately about his difficult life and how he’s mistreated. Just as the audience begins to empathize with him, he concludes his monologue by complaining that his main hardship is having to eat “sour porridge” every day. Explanation as Bathos: Bathos in literature shows its use in this scene involves a sudden shift from Dromio’s intense emotional outpouring to the trivial complaint about his food. The audience is led to believe that Dromio is about to reveal a profound and heart-wrenching struggle, but the revelation of his complaint about porridge is unexpected and humorous. This bathetic moment contrasts deep emotion with a mundane concern, creating a comedic effect.
The Sellout by Paul Beatty	Literary Example: In The Sellout, the protagonist, Bonbon, reflects on the racial discrimination and injustices he faces as a Black man in contemporary America. He narrates a powerful and emotionally charged account of his experiences with racism, police brutality, and systemic inequality. As the reader is drawn into his poignant narrative, Bonbon abruptly digresses to complain about the poor quality of airline peanuts. Explanation as Bathos: The bathetic moment in this passage involves a sudden transition from Bonbon’s serious reflection on racial issues to his trivial complaint about airline peanuts. This shift disrupts the emotional intensity of the narrative, juxtaposing profound social commentary with a humorous and inconsequential observation. It highlights the absurdity of complaining about peanuts in the context of the broader themes of racial injustice.
“The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson	Literary Example: In Shirley Jackson’s “The Lottery,” the story builds tension and suspense as the townspeople gather for the annual lottery. The atmosphere is charged with fear and anticipation as the lottery winner is chosen. Just as the tension reaches its peak, the selected winner is revealed to be Tessie Hutchinson, who exclaims, “It isn’t fair, it isn’t right.” Explanation as Bathos: The use of bathos in literature is clear in this short story involves a sudden shift from the intense and foreboding atmosphere to Tessie’s protestation about fairness. Her exclamation disrupts the sense of impending doom with a trivial objection. This bathetic moment is shocking and underscores the disturbing nature of the lottery, as it presents a stark contrast between the gravity of the situation and Tessie’s complaint.
“Noises Off” by Michael Frayn	Literary Example: In the play “Noises Off,” there is a farcical scene where characters are involved in a series of mishaps during a live performance of a play within the play. As chaos ensues on stage, one character attempts to deliver a heartfelt and romantic monologue, expressing his deep love for another character. However, his emotional declaration is constantly interrupted by the physical comedy happening around him, including falling props and characters crashing into each other.   Explanation as Bathos: The bathetic element in this play involves the juxtaposition of the character’s earnest and passionate monologue with the chaotic and slapstick physical comedy occurring simultaneously. The audience is presented with a stark contrast between the character’s emotional depth and the absurdity of the situation, resulting in comedic effect. This bathos highlights the absurdity of life in the theater and the challenges of maintaining serious moments in the midst of chaos.

How to Create Bathos in Literature

1. Establish a Serious or Emotional Tone: Begin your narrative by setting a serious or emotional tone. This can involve describing a profound situation, a character’s deep feelings, or a significant moment.
2. Build Tension or Expectations: Create anticipation and build tension in your narrative to draw readers into the serious or emotional atmosphere you’ve established. Readers should be emotionally invested in the moment.
3. Introduce the Unexpected: Suddenly introduce an unexpected element that contrasts with the serious tone. This can be a humorous observation, a trivial detail, or an absurd event that breaks the tension.
4. Shift to the Mundane or Comical: Transition smoothly from the serious to the mundane or comical element, ensuring that the shift is jarring yet coherent within the context of your narrative.
5. Highlight the Contrast: Emphasize the contrast between the initial seriousness and the unexpected triviality or humor. This sharp juxtaposition will create the bathetic effect, eliciting laughter or irony from your readers.

Benefits of Using Bathos in Literature

1. Emotional Impact: Using bathos in literature allows you to manipulate the emotional journey of your readers. By transitioning from serious or emotional moments to the trivial or comical, you can evoke a range of emotions, including surprise, laughter, or irony, effectively engaging your audience on a deeper level.
2. Reader Engagement: Bathos captures readers’ attention by defying their expectations. The sudden shifts in tone pique their curiosity and encourage them to stay invested in the narrative as they anticipate further surprises.
3. Humor and Entertainment: Using bathos in literature is a valuable tool for injecting humor into your writing. It can provide comedic relief in serious stories, making them more enjoyable and relatable to readers. In comedy, bathos can be used to set up punchlines and deliver unexpected laughs.
4. Character Development: Employing bathos can add depth to your characters. It reveals their complexities by showcasing how they respond to unexpected situations or contrasts between their inner thoughts and outward actions, making them more relatable and human.
5. Narrative Diversity: Bathos adds diversity and versatility to your storytelling toolkit. It allows you to navigate between different emotional registers within a single narrative, enabling you to address serious themes while maintaining reader engagement and interest.

Bathos in Literature and Literary Theories

Theory	Status of Bathos	Use of Bathos
Psychoanalytic Theory	Status: In psychoanalytic literary theory, bathos can be seen as a tool for exploring the inner conflicts and subconscious desires of characters. It delves into the contrast between their profound emotions and trivial actions or thoughts.	Use: Authors can employ bathos to reveal the hidden depths of characters’ psyches. The juxtaposition of emotional intensity with mundane behavior can serve as a window into the characters’ subconscious motivations and repressed emotions.
Structuralism	Status: In structuralist literary theory, bathos can be analyzed as a disruption of binary oppositions and hierarchical structures of meaning. It challenges the binary division between the serious and the trivial.	Use: Bathos can be used to subvert conventional structuralist interpretations by introducing unexpected contrasts. This can lead to new insights and interpretations of literary works by revealing the limitations of structuralist analysis.
Postcolonial Theory	Status: Within postcolonial literary theory, bathos can be examined in the context of cultural clashes and power dynamics. It may reflect the contrast between the gravity of colonial oppression and the superficiality of colonial rhetoric.	Use: Authors from postcolonial regions can employ bathos to critique colonial narratives by exposing the dissonance between colonial rhetoric and the harsh realities of colonialism. This can highlight the deceptions of colonial discourse.
Feminist Theory	Status: In feminist literary theory, bathos can be analyzed as a tool for critiquing gender roles and expectations. It may reveal the absurdity of gender stereotypes and the contrast between societal expectations and individual experiences.	Use: Authors can use bathos to challenge traditional gender norms by highlighting the incongruity between the serious treatment of gender issues and the absurdity of societal gender expectations. This can promote feminist discourse and empower marginalized voices.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford University Press, 1971.
2. Beckett, Samuel. Waiting for Godot. Grove Press, 1954.
3. Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis: Exploring Bathos as a Literary Device. Translated by Stanley Corngold, Bantam Books, 1972.
4. Pope, Alexander. The Rape of the Lock: Bathos in Literary Context. Edited by Cynthia Wall, Norton Critical Editions, 2015.
5. Swift, Jonathan. A Modest Proposal: Bathos and Satire. Dover Thrift Editions, 1996.
6. Wilde, Oscar. The Importance of Being Earnest, Dover Publications, 1990.

You may read more on Literary Devices below:

• Comedy: A Literary Device
• Comedy in Literature: Creating and Critiquing It
• Burlesque: A Literary Device
• Burlesque in Literature: Creating and Critiquing

Etymology of Bathos

The word “bathos” has its origin in Greek. It can be traced back to the Greek word “βάθος” (bathos), which means “depth.” In ancient Greek, it was used literally to refer to the depth of the sea. With time, the term evolved and was adopted into English as “bathos.”

Meanings of Bathos

Meaning	Description
Anticlimax	Sudden shift in tone from serious to trivial, undermining emotional impact.
Overly Sentimental or Melodramatic Writing	Excessive sentimentality, resulting in insincere or artificial emotional content.
Ineffectual or Forced Pathos	Attempt to evoke deep emotion that falls flat due to contrivance or clichés.
Comedic Effect	Intentional use for humor, transitioning from serious to unexpected and humorous outcomes.
Rhetorical Device	Shift in tone for satire or criticism, often exposing the absurdity of a subject.
Literary Critique	Analyzing shifts in tone and emotional depth in literature and their impact on reader interpretation.

Definition of Bathos

Bathos, as a literary device, refers to the sudden and often unintentional transition in a text from a tone of elevated emotion, seriousness, or grandeur to one that is trivial, mundane, or absurd.

It creates a jarring contrast that can undermine the intended emotional impact or seriousness of the subject matter. Bathos is employed to elicit various effects, including humor, critique, or the highlighting of insincerity or artificiality in writing.

Common Examples of Bathos

Common Types	Explanation	Example
Film and Television	A dramatic scene is abruptly disrupted by a comical or trivial event, creating a jarring contrast in tone.	In a suspenseful movie, a character’s intense monologue about a life-changing decision is interrupted when they accidentally sit on a whoopee cushion.
Literature	A serious or heartfelt speech by a character is followed by an unintentionally humorous or incongruous remark.	In a novel, a character delivers an emotional farewell speech to a loved one and then accidentally farts loudly, breaking the solemnity of the moment.
Advertising	An advertisement employs grandiose language to promote a mundane product, exaggerating its significance.	An ad for a basic household sponge describes it as a “revolutionary cleaning marvel that will change your life forever,” complete with epic music and visuals.
Political Speeches	A politician’s passionate and heartfelt speech is followed by an unrelated and humorous anecdote, undermining seriousness.	During a campaign rally, a candidate passionately discusses national issues and then tells a funny story about their pet hamster, eliciting laughter.
Everyday Conversation	A serious discussion is abruptly shifted to a trivial or unrelated topic, creating a bathetic shift in the conversation.	In a meeting about budget cuts, someone suddenly starts discussing their weekend plans to go hiking, derailing the discussion.
Literary Parodies	A parody mocks emotionally charged literary works with exaggerated or absurd language, creating humor through contrast.	A parody of a famous romantic novel describes a passionate kiss as “the collision of two quivering blobs of lip meat,” highlighting the absurdity.
Satirical Writing	Satirical writing uses bathos to criticize overly sentimental or pompous language or themes, revealing their absurdity.	A satirical article mocks excessive corporate jargon by describing a simple office task as “synergizing our multidimensional productivity vectors.”
Comedy	Stand-up comedians employ bathos to create humor by setting up serious expectations and then subverting them with unexpected punchlines.	A comedian talks about the meaning of life and ends with, “And the answer to it all is… pineapple pizza!”
Song Lyrics	Some songwriters use bathos by combining profound-sounding lyrics with mundane or absurd imagery, creating comedic contrast.	In a song about love, the lyrics compare the beloved to the vastness of the universe and then mention their penchant for eating cereal without milk.
Visual Arts	In visual arts, bathos is achieved by juxtaposing a serious or emotional subject with incongruous elements, creating an artistic contrast.	A painting depicting a somber funeral scene includes a background detail of a clown riding a unicycle, introducing an element of humor.

Types of Bathos

Type	Definition	Example
Dramatic Bathos	Sudden shift from emotional or serious to trivial or absurd, often for humor or irony.	A character’s heartfelt love confession is met with, “Can you pass the ketchup?”
Verbal Bathos	Drop in language from elevated to colloquial, highlighting tone incongruity.	After praising nature poetically, a character says, “Yeah, it’s nice, I guess.”
Character-Driven Bathos	Character’s actions, often serious, lead to comical effect.	A solemn leader unexpectedly dances during an official ceremony.
Situational Bathos	Seemingly serious event is revealed as trivial or anticlimactic.	A heist’s safe reveals rubber duckies instead of jewels.
Emotional Bathos	Abrupt shift from sorrow to laughter or emotional shallowness.	Mourning turns to laughter as a character slips on a banana peel.
Satirical Bathos	Narrative Bathos	Romantic parody uses exaggerated declarations of love.
Narrative Bathos	Shift in tone affects overall narrative, often introducing trivial elements.	Epic fantasy shifts to a subplot about collecting rare coins.
Visual Bathos	Juxtaposes serious subject with incongruous visuals for impact.	Funeral painting includes a clown juggling rubber chickens.
Symbolic Bathos	Symbols transition from profound to banal, challenging meaning.	Majestic eagle symbolizes freedom but obsessively collects pebbles.

Shakespearean Bathos

1. Hamlet (Act 5, Scene 1):
   • Example: In the graveyard scene, Hamlet encounters two gravediggers who are digging Ophelia’s grave. Hamlet picks up a skull and delivers his famous soliloquy, beginning with “Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio, a fellow of infinite jest.”
   • Reference: This moment is a classic example of bathos as it transitions from Hamlet’s reflection on mortality and the skull of a court jester to his playful banter with Horatio and the gravediggers.
2. Macbeth (Act 5, Scene 5):
   • Example: As Lady Macbeth’s mental state deteriorates, she sleepwalks and obsessively tries to wash an imaginary bloodstain from her hands, saying, “Out, damned spot! Out, I say!”
   • Reference: This scene exhibits bathos by juxtaposing Lady Macbeth’s intense guilt and hallucinations with the triviality of washing an invisible stain, highlighting the contrast between her inner turmoil and her mundane actions.
3. A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Act 3, Scene 1):
   • Example: In this comedic play, the character Bottom undergoes a transformation and gets a donkey’s head. The fairy queen, Titania, falls in love with him due to a magical spell.
   • Reference: This situation creates bathos by combining the absurdity of Bottom’s appearance with the seriousness of Titania’s enchantment, resulting in comedic and emotional effects.
4. As You Like It (Act 2, Scene 7):
   • Example: In this scene, the melancholic character Jaques reflects on the “seven ages of man,” describing the various stages of life from infancy to old age.
   • Reference: The bathetic shift occurs when Jaques concludes his reflective speech by saying, “Last scene of all, That ends this strange eventful history, Is second childishness and mere oblivion, Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything.” The phrase “sans everything” injects a humorous and abrupt contrast into the otherwise serious reflection.
5. The Comedy of Errors (Act 2, Scene 2):
   • Example: In this farcical comedy, Dromio of Syracuse returns home and describes an incident where he was pursued by a fat kitchen wench. He says, “Thou calledst me dog before thou hadst a cause. But since I am a dog, beware my fangs.”
   • Reference: This passage showcases bathos through the juxtaposition of Dromio’s witty wordplay with the inconsequential nature of the situation, contributing to the play’s humor.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford University Press, 1953.
2. Derrida, Jacques. Dissemination. University of Chicago Press, 1981.
3. Hutcheon, Linda. The Politics of Postmodernism. Routledge, 1989.
4. McHale, Brian. Postmodernist Fiction. Routledge, 1987.
5. Preminger, Alex, and Brogan, T. V. F., editors. The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton University Press, 1993.

Introduction to Auditory Image

Auditory image is a literary device that engages the reader’s sense of hearing by using descriptive language to evoke sounds, rhythms, and tones within a text.

It is a form of sensory imagery that adds depth and vividness to written works, allowing readers to mentally perceive and experience auditory sensations.

Through carefully chosen words and phrases, auditory imagery can create aural landscapes, convey emotions, and establish a distinct atmosphere, enriching the reader’s understanding and immersion in the narrative. This literary technique is a powerful tool for poets and writers to craft evocative and memorable passages in their works.

Literary Examples of Auditory Image

1. Walt Whitman (from “Song of Myself”):
   • “I hear the sound I love, the sound of the human voice.”
   • Explanation: In this line, Whitman emphasizes his deep appreciation for the human voice, using auditory image to convey the idea that the sound of human speech is a source of beauty and connection.
2. Langston Hughes (from “The Weary Blues”):
   • “And the stars went out and so did the moon, / The singer stopped playing and went to bed / While the Weary Blues echoed through his head.”
   • Explanation: Hughes employs auditory image to describe the lingering impact of the blues music in the poem. The phrase “Weary Blues echoed through his head” vividly conveys the sound and resonance of the music.
3. Robert Louis Stevenson (from “My Shadow”):
   • “I have a little shadow that goes in and out with me, / And what can be the use of him is more than I can see.”
   • Explanation: Stevenson uses auditory images to suggest the presence of the shadow as it moves in and out with the speaker, creating a sense of companionship, like a subtle, ever-present sound.
4. Emily Dickinson (from “Because I could not stop for Death”):
   • “We paused before a House that seemed / A Swelling of the Ground— / The Roof was scarcely visible— / The Cornice—in the Ground.”
   • Explanation: In this stanza, Dickinson employs auditory imagery to evoke a sense of silence and stillness around the description of the house, emphasizing its eerie and otherworldly quality.
5. William Wordsworth (from “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”):
   • “Continuous as the stars that shine / And twinkle on the Milky Way.”
   • Explanation: Wordsworth uses auditory image to liken the golden daffodils to the continuous twinkling of stars in the Milky Way, creating a visual and auditory connection between the natural world and the cosmos.

How to Create an Auditory Image

1. Select Appropriate Descriptors:
   • Choose vivid and evocative words and phrases that relate to sound, such as onomatopoeic words, adjectives, and adverbs that convey the desired auditory experience.
2. Engage Multiple Senses:
   • Complement auditory image with other sensory details, such as visual and tactile elements, to provide a well-rounded and immersive description.
3. Consider Rhythm and Repetition:
   • Utilize rhythm, rhyme, and repetition to mimic or mirror the sounds you want to convey, enhancing the musicality of your prose or poetry.
4. Show, Don’t Tell:
   • Instead of outright stating the sound, create scenarios or situations where the reader can infer the auditory experience through context and description.
5. Edit and Refine:
   • Review your writing to ensure that the auditory image aligns with your intended tone, mood, and message. Make adjustments to enhance clarity and impact.

Benefits of Using Auditory Image

1. Enhanced Engagement: Auditory image captivates readers’ attention by immersing them in a sensory experience, increasing their engagement with your text.
2. Emotional Impact: It enables you to evoke specific emotions or moods in readers, fostering a deeper connection and resonance with your writing.
3. Vivid Description: Auditory imagery provides a powerful tool for creating detailed, memorable descriptions that paint a clear picture in readers’ minds.
4. Atmosphere and Setting: It helps establish the tone, mood, and setting of your narrative, enriching the overall ambiance of your writing.
5. Improved Memorability:Utilizing auditory image makes your writing more memorable, as readers are more likely to recall pieces that engage their senses and emotions.

Auditory Image and Literary Theory

Theory	Critique Focus
New Criticism	– Emphasizes close reading and textual analysis. – Examines how auditory image contributes to a work’s overall meaning and structure. – Assesses the impact of sound-related elements like rhythm and rhyme on text coherence.
Reader-Response Theory	– Explores how auditory image influences individual reader interpretations and emotional responses. – Investigates how readers with diverse backgrounds perceive and engage with auditory elements. – Considers personal experiences and cultural backgrounds.
Feminist Literary Theory	– Critiques auditory image in terms of gender representation and power dynamics. – Examines how sound and voice portray or challenge traditional gender roles and expectations. – Highlights gendered language and instances of silencing.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	– Critiques auditory image in the context of colonialism and cultural imperialism. – Analyzes how auditory elements reflect or resist colonial narratives. – Examines the use of native languages, music, or oral traditions to assert cultural identity.
Marxist Literary Theory	– Critiques auditory image with a focus on class and socioeconomic contexts. – Explores how sound and voice representation reflects power imbalances and economic disparities. – Considers whose voices are privileged or marginalized in the text.

Suggested Readings

1. Royster, Francesca T. Sounding Like a No-No: Queer Sounds and Eccentric Acts in the Post-Soul Era. University of Michigan Press, 2013.
2. Sterne, Jonathan. MP3: The Meaning of a Format. Duke University Press, 2012.
3. Thompson, Emily. The Soundscape of Modernity: Architectural Acoustics and the Culture of Listening in America, 1900-1933. MIT Press, 2002.
4. Toop, David. Sinister Resonance: The Mediumship of the Listener. Continuum, 2010.
5. Truax, Barry. Acoustic Communication. Ablex Publishing, 2001.

Etymology of Auditory Imagery

The term “auditory imagery” derives its etymology from the fusion of two key components: “auditory” and “imagery.” “Auditory” originates from the Latin word “auditus,” which pertains to hearing or the sense of hearing.

“Imagery,” on the other hand, traces its roots to the Latin “imago,” meaning image or likeness. The combination of these terms in the context of literature and sensory perception signifies the mental process of creating vivid and evocative auditory experiences through language.

Meaning of Auditory Imagery

Meanings of Auditory Imagery

– Sensory Language: Auditory imagery refers to the use of vivid and descriptive language in literature to create aural or sound-based experiences within the reader’s mind.

– Sound Evocation: It involves the use of words and phrases that mimic or evoke specific sounds, allowing readers to mentally “hear” the auditory elements described in the text.

– Immersive Writing: Authors use auditory imagery to immerse readers in the sensory world of a narrative, enhancing the reader’s engagement and understanding of the story.

– Emotional Impact: This literary device can evoke emotions, setting the tone and mood of a scene or narrative by describing the sounds associated with it.

– Narrative Depth: Auditory imagery adds depth and dimension to storytelling by appealing to the sense of hearing, making narratives more lifelike and sensory-rich.

– Reader Experience: It enriches the reader’s experience by allowing them to engage with a text on a sensory level, creating a more vivid mental picture of the narrative’s auditory aspects.

Definition of Auditory Imagery

Auditory imagery, as a literary device, refers to the technique of using descriptive and evocative language to evoke sound-related experiences in the minds of readers. This literary device employs words, phrases, and descriptions that mimic or summon specific auditory sensations, enabling readers to mentally “hear” the sounds being conveyed in the text.

Common Features of an Auditory Imagery

Feature	Description	Example
Vivid Descriptions	Auditory imagery uses detailed descriptions that vividly depict sounds, enabling readers to mentally perceive and “hear” the auditory elements described.	In the forest, the leaves rustled and whispered secrets to the wind, creating a symphony of nature’s voices that filled the air.
Sound Associations	It employs words and phrases that evoke specific sounds, including onomatopoeic words and auditory-connotative language.	The door creaked open slowly, its eerie groan echoing through the empty hallway, sending shivers down their spines.
Emotional Resonance	Auditory imagery conveys emotions and moods by describing sounds, enhancing the emotional impact of scenes or situations.	The joyful laughter of children playing in the park filled the neighborhood, infusing the sunny afternoon with an atmosphere of pure happiness.
Immersive Writing	Authors use it to immerse readers in the sensory world of the narrative, fostering deeper engagement and understanding.	As the waves crashed against the rocky shore, the salty sea breeze enveloped them, transporting them to a coastal paradise of sights and sounds.
Setting and Atmosphere	Auditory imagery helps establish the setting and atmosphere of a story, making the environment more tangible and relatable to readers.	In the bustling market, the vendors’ shouts and the clinking of coins created a vibrant and chaotic backdrop for the protagonist’s journey.

Types of Auditory Imagery

Type	Explanation	Example
Onomatopoeia	Involves words that phonetically imitate or resemble the sound they describe.	The “buzz” of bees filled the air as they collected nectar from the flowers.
Alliteration	Involves the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words to create a rhythmic and musical quality in the text.	The “whispering winds” carried secrets through the “silently, softly” swaying trees.
Assonance	Involves the repetition of vowel sounds within words to create a harmonious and melodic effect.	“Fleet feet sweep by sleeping streets” resonates with a melodic quality.
Consonance	Involves the repetition of consonant sounds, especially at the end of words, to add a pleasing and rhythmic quality to the text.	The “trickling, crackling fire” provided a soothing and rhythmic backdrop.
Echolalia	Involves the repetition or imitation of sounds, words, or phrases, often reflecting a character’s mental state or the environment, creating a sense of mimicry or echo.	In the eerie silence, her “hello, hello” seemed to return as a haunting “echo, echo.”
Reverberation	Conveys the idea of sound echoing or resonating in a space, emphasizing the acoustic characteristics of the environment.	The “sound of footsteps reverberated” through the empty hallway, amplifying the sense of emptiness.
Cadence	Refers to the rhythmic flow or modulation of sound in a passage, often used in poetry and prose to create a musical quality or emphasize mood or tone.	The poem’s “cadence” resembled a gentle lullaby, soothing the reader into a contemplative state.
Harmony and Discord	Depicts either harmony, where sounds blend smoothly and melodiously, or discord, where sounds clash and create tension or dissonance, contributing to the emotional atmosphere.	The “harmony” of birdsong contrasted with the “discord” of city traffic, evoking a sense of tranquility and chaos.
Rhythm	Encompasses the rhythm of sound, such as the steady beat of a drum or the irregular patter of raindrops, setting the tempo and mood of a narrative.	The “rhythm” of the tribal drumming quickened as the storm’s “raindrop” percussion intensified, building tension in the story.
Pitch and Tone	Describes the pitch (high or low) and tone (e.g., cheerful, mournful) of sounds, adding depth to auditory imagery and conveying emotional nuances.	The “high-pitched” laughter of children playing in the park created a “cheerful” atmosphere on a sunny day.

Shakespearean Auditory Imagery

1. Example: “Hark, hark! the lark at heaven’s gate sings.”
   • Reference: From Shakespeare’s Sonnet 29.
   • Explanation: In this line, the auditory imagery is evident in the word “sings,” which appeals to the sense of hearing. It conjures the image of a lark singing, and the reader can almost hear the beautiful melody as if it were happening in the moment.
2. Example: “Is this a dagger which I see before me, / The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee.”
   • Reference: From Act 2, Scene 1 of “Macbeth.”
   • Explanation: In this line, Macbeth is contemplating the dagger he sees before him. The word “clutch” invokes a sense of sound as it implies the act of grabbing or gripping. This auditory imagery adds to the suspense and tension of the scene.
3. Example: “So we grew together, / Like to a double cherry, seeming parted, / But yet an union in partition.”
   • Reference: From Act 3, Scene 2 of “A Midsummer Night’s Dream.”
   • Explanation: In this passage, the auditory imagery is created by the phrase “an union in partition.” The idea of a union or connection, despite being “parted,” evokes a sense of harmony and togetherness that can be heard in the words, even though it’s not a literal sound.
4. Example: “I do hear them, and it is some ill / Unwonted tempest of the mind.”
   • Reference: From Act 2, Scene 4 of “Hamlet.”
   • Explanation: The auditory imagery here is in the words “I do hear them,” where Hamlet is referring to the sounds or voices he perceives. The phrase creates a sense of foreboding and unease, as it hints at a disturbance in his mental state.
5. Example: “It was the nightingale, and not the lark, / That pierced the fearful hollow of thine ear.”
   • Reference: From Act 2, Scene 2 of “Romeo and Juliet.”
   • Explanation: This line features auditory imagery through the mention of the nightingale’s song “piercing the fearful hollow of thine ear.” The audience can imagine the beautiful, melodious sound of the nightingale’s song filling the night, enhancing the romantic atmosphere of the scene.

Suggested Readings

1. Altieri, Charles. Enlarging the Temple: New Directions in American Poetry during the 1960s. Bucknell University Press, 2014.
2. Peretz, Isabelle, and Robert J. Zatorre, eds. The Cognitive Neuroscience of Music. OUP Oxford, 2003.
3. Royster, Francesca T. Sounding Like a No-No: Queer Sounds and Eccentric Acts in the Post-Soul Era. University of Michigan Press, 2013.
4. Sterne, Jonathan. MP3: The Meaning of a Format. Duke University Press, 2012.

You may read more on Literary Devices below:

• Bathos: A Literary Device
• Bathos in Literature: Creating and Critiquing It
• Black Humor: A Literary Device
• Dark Humor in Literature

Introduction to Attitudes

Attitudes in literature are like the mood or feeling the author or characters have about a particular subject, idea, or situation in a story. It’s the way they express their thoughts and emotions, whether they’re happy, sad, excited, or even skeptical.

This attitude can shape the overall tone of the story, influencing how readers feel as they read it. It’s like the author’s way of showing their perspective or viewpoint through the words and actions of the characters and the choices they make in the story.

Literary Examples of Attitudes

1. Optimistic Attitudes:
   • Example: In Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations, the character of Joe Gargery embodies an optimistic attitude. Despite his humble background and hardships, Joe maintains a positive outlook on life and values kindness and moral integrity.
   • Explanation: Joe’s optimistic attitude serves as a stark contrast to the novel’s darker themes. His unwavering kindness and optimism illustrate the potential for goodness and redemption, offering hope amidst adversity.
2. Cynical Attitudes:
   • Example: In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, the character of Tom Buchanan exemplifies a cynical attitude. He is skeptical about love, morality, and the American Dream, often displaying a dismissive and self-centered outlook.
   • Explanation: Tom’s cynical attitude reflects the moral decay and disillusionment of the Jazz Age. His skepticism underscores the novel’s critique of materialism and superficiality.
3. Sarcastic Attitudes:
   • Example: In Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, the character of Elizabeth Bennet frequently employs sarcasm in her interactions, particularly with Mr. Darcy. For instance, she responds to Darcy’s proposal with biting sarcasm.
   • Explanation: Elizabeth’s use of sarcasm is a defense mechanism against societal expectations and her perception of Darcy’s arrogance. It adds humor and depth to the novel’s exploration of class and marriage.
4. Tragic Attitudes:
   • Example: In William Shakespeare’s “Hamlet,” the titular character, Hamlet, embodies a tragic attitude. He grapples with existential questions, experiences profound sorrow, and is haunted by thoughts of death and betrayal.
   • Explanation: Hamlet’s tragic attitude is central to the play’s exploration of human suffering and the consequences of moral ambiguity. It contributes to the play’s enduring status as a tragedy.
5. Romantic Attitudes:
   • Example: Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights portrays the passionate and obsessive love between Heathcliff and Catherine. Their intense emotions and the wild, untamed landscape reflect a romantic attitude.
   • Explanation: The romantic attitude in Wuthering Heights underscores the theme of destructive love and the enduring power of emotions. It contrasts with societal norms, emphasizing the depth of human passion.
6. Realistic Attitudes:
   • Example: In Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea, the protagonist, Santiago, exhibits a realistic attitude toward life in the face of adversity. He acknowledges the challenges of his fishing expedition and the harsh realities of the sea.
   • Explanation: Santiago’s realistic attitude reflects Hemingway’s “iceberg theory” of writing, emphasizing the understated and unspoken aspects of life. Santiago’s resilience in the face of struggle embodies a stoic and realistic perspective.

How to Create an Attitudes

1. Determine Your Attitudes:
   • Decide on the specific attitude you want to convey in your writing, whether it’s optimism, skepticism, humor, or any other emotional or intellectual stance.
2. Select the Right Tone:
   • Choose a tone that aligns with your desired attitude. The tone sets the emotional quality of your writing, so opt for one that effectively communicates your chosen attitude.
3. Use Appropriate Language:
   • Select words and phrases that reflect the attitude you want to convey. Positive and negative language choices can significantly impact how your attitude comes across.
4. Create Vivid Imagery:
   • Use descriptive language and sensory details to paint a vivid picture that evokes the chosen attitude in your readers. Show, don’t just tell, to make the attitude more compelling.
5. Edit for Consistency:
   • Review your writing to ensure that the attitude you’ve established remains consistent throughout the piece. Remove any elements that may contradict the intended attitude.

By following these five steps, you can effectively create and convey your desired attitude in your writing with clarity and impact.

Benefits of Using Attitudes

1. Authenticity: Infusing your own attitude into your writing lends it an unmistakable authenticity. Your personal beliefs and emotions shine through, creating a genuine connection with your readers. This authenticity makes your writing relatable and trustworthy.
2. Emotional Impact: Your attitude can evoke strong emotions in your readers. Whether you convey enthusiasm, empathy, or conviction, your genuine feelings resonate with your audience on an emotional level, making your writing more engaging and memorable.
3. Distinctive Voice: Your attitude contributes to the development of your unique writer’s voice. It sets you apart from other writers, giving your work a distinct identity. Readers often appreciate writers with a strong and consistent voice.
4. Clarity of Message: Expressing your own attitude clarifies your message. It helps you communicate your intentions and beliefs more effectively, reducing the risk of misinterpretation. Your writing becomes a clear and potent vehicle for conveying your ideas.
5. Reader Connection: Your attitude fosters a deeper connection with your readers. When readers sense your sincerity and passion, they are more likely to connect with your writing and become loyal followers. This connection can lead to a dedicated readership and increased influence as a writer.

Attitude and Literary Theories

Theory	Critique
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theorists emphasize the role of the reader in shaping interpretations. Individual attitudes lead to diverse readings.
New Criticism	New Critics focus on the text’s formal elements but may oversimplify attitude, overlooking broader socio-cultural contexts.
Feminist Theory	Feminist theory critiques gender roles and stereotypes in literature, emphasizing literature’s impact on societal attitudes.
Postcolonial Theory	Postcolonial theory explores colonial attitudes in literature, highlighting its role in understanding colonial history’s effects.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Psychoanalytic theory delves into subconscious motivations but may overlook broader societal factors influencing literary attitude.

Suggested Readings

1. Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Wiley, 1990.
2. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1982.
3. Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. Yale University Press, 2000.
4. Holland, Norman N. 5 Readers Reading. Yale University Press, 1991.
5. Iser, Wolfgang. The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980.
6. Lentricchia, Frank. After the New Criticism. University of Chicago Press, 1980.
7. Nussbaum, Martha C. Love’s Knowledge: Essays on Philosophy and Literature. Oxford University Press, 1990.
8. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Vintage, 1979.
9. Showalter, Elaine. A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Brontë to Lessing. Princeton University Press, 1978.
10. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics. Methuen, 1987.

More Literary Devices below:

• Invective: A Literary Device
• Invective in Literature
• Humor: A Literary Device
• Humor in Literature
• Coherence in Writing

Etymology of Attitude

The word “attitude” in a literary context, originally derived from the French word “attitude,” had its roots in 17th-century Italy, particularly in the field of art. In this context, “attitude” referred to a pose or posture struck by a figure in a painting or sculpture.

With time, it evolved to encompass a broader range of expressions and behaviors, both in the visual arts and in literature. In literary analysis, “attitude” pertains to the author’s tone, perspective, or disposition toward the subject matter, characters, or themes in a work of literature, and it plays a crucial role in conveying the author’s intentions and the overall mood of the text.

Meaning of Attitude

• Authorial Tone: The author’s emotional and intellectual stance in the text.
• Narrative Voice: The way the author presents the story’s events and characters.
• Character Attitudes: The beliefs, emotions, and responses of characters.
• Theme and Message: The influence on the central themes and message of the work.
• Style and Language Choices: How the author’s attitude affects language and style.
• Reader Engagement: How the author’s attitude affects reader involvement.
• Cultural and Historical Context: How cultural and historical factors shape attitude.
• Irony and Satire: Use of attitude for irony or satire.
• Shifts in Attitude: Changes in attitude throughout the text.
• Reader’s Interpretation: How attitude aids in interpretation and analysis.

Definition of Literary Device of Attitude

The literary device of “attitude” refers to the author’s emotional and intellectual stance or disposition expressed through the text’s tone, language choices, and character perspectives. It shapes the reader’s interpretation and engagement with the work, influencing themes, character development, and overall literary impact. Attitude is a critical element in analyzing an author’s intentions and the emotional resonance of a literary piece.

Common Features of an Attitude

1. Tone: The emotional quality and mood of the text.
2. Diction and Language Choices: Words and language reflecting the author’s attitude.
3. Character Perspectives: Beliefs, values, and emotions of characters.
4. Narrative Voice: The chosen narrative style influencing attitude perception.
5. Impact on Theme and Message: Shaping themes and conveying the author’s message.

Types of Attitudes

1. Positive Attitude: Characters or narrators express optimism, favorability, or enthusiasm towards people, events, or themes in the text.
2. Negative Attitude: Characters or narrators exhibit pessimism, disapproval, or hostility towards people, events, or themes within the narrative.
3. Neutral Attitude: A lack of emotional bias is evident in the text, with a balanced and objective presentation of characters and events.
4. Sarcastic Attitude: Authors or characters employ sarcasm to convey an attitude that contradicts the literal meaning of their words, often for satirical or critical effect.
5. Cynical Attitude: Characters or narrators display distrust, skepticism, or a pessimistic view of human nature or society.
6. Optimistic Attitude: Characters or authors express hope, positivity, and a favorable outlook on life, often in the face of challenges.
7. Satirical Attitude: Authors use humor, wit, and irony to criticize or mock individuals, institutions, or societal norms.
8. Romantic: Characters or authors idealize love, emotions, and personal relationships, often emphasizing passion and emotional intensity.
9. Realistic : An objective portrayal of life and events without idealization or exaggeration, reflecting the complexities of everyday existence.
10. Tragic : Characters or authors emphasize the inevitability of suffering, fate, and the darker aspects of the human condition.

Shakespearean Attitudes

Attitude	Example with Explanation
Love and Passion	In “Romeo and Juliet,” Shakespeare portrays the passionate love between Romeo and Juliet, emphasizing the intensity of their emotions: “But, soft! What light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun.”
Tragic Fate	“Macbeth” explores the tragic consequences of ambition and fate as Macbeth’s ambition leads to his downfall: “Out, out, brief candle! Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player that struts and frets his hour upon the stage and then is heard no more.”
Comedic Attitude	In “A Midsummer Night’s Dream,” Shakespeare uses humor and mistaken identities to create a lighthearted comedic atmosphere: “Lord, what fools these mortals be!”
Skepticism and Deceit	In “Hamlet,” the character of Hamlet embodies skepticism and deceit as he grapples with the moral ambiguity of avenging his father’s murder: “Frailty, thy name is woman!”
Ambition and Power	In “Julius Caesar,” the play explores the consequences of ambition and political power, with Brutus questioning the motives of Caesar’s supporters: “Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.”
Jealousy and Betrayal	“Othello” delves into the destructive effects of jealousy and betrayal as Iago manipulates Othello: “O, beware, my lord, of jealousy; it is the green-eyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds on.”
Fate and Free Will	In “King Lear,” Shakespeare explores the tension between fate and free will as Lear’s choices lead to tragic consequences: “As flies to wanton boys are we to the gods. They kill us for their sport.”
Hope and Redemption	“The Tempest” conveys a sense of hope and redemption as Prospero forgives his enemies and seeks reconciliation: “The rarer action is in virtue than in vengeance.”
Duality and Ambiguity	“Macbeth” features themes of duality and moral ambiguity, especially in the character of Lady Macbeth: “Look like the innocent flower, but be the serpent under’t.”
Transience of Life	In “Sonnet 18,” Shakespeare reflects on the fleeting nature of beauty and life: “But thy eternal summer shall not fade.”

Suggested Readings

1. Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction. University of Chicago Press, 1983.
2. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Blackwell, 2008.
3. Fowler, Alastair. Kinds of Literature: An Introduction to the Theory of Genres and Modes. Harvard University Press, 1982.
4. Green, Keith. Genres of Modernity: Contemporary Indian Novels in English. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015.
5. Jauss, Hans Robert. Toward an Aesthetic of Reception. University of Minnesota Press, 1982.
6. Leitch, Vincent B., et al. The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. W. W. Norton & Company, 2018.
7. Lodge, David. The Art of Fiction. Penguin Books, 1992.
8. Wellek, René, and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1956.
9. Wimsatt, W. K., and Monroe C. Beardsley. “The Intentional Fallacy.” The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry. University Press of Kentucky, 2010.
10. Woolf, Virginia. “Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown.” In Collected Essays, edited by Leonard Woolf, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1967.

More Literary Devices below:

• Digression: A Literary Device
• Digressions in Literature
• Inversion: A Literary Device
• Inversions in Literature
• Critique in Literature & Theory