Tag: Literary Theory

Introduction: Biographical Criticism

Biographical criticism is a literary analysis approach that examines an author’s life experiences and personal background to gain insights into their creative works. It seeks to establish connections between the author’s biography and their literary output, exploring how events, relationships, and cultural influences may have shaped their writing.

This critical method can offer valuable context for understanding an author’s motivations, thematic choices, and the societal milieu in which their work was produced. However, it is important to exercise caution, as it can oversimplify the relationship between an author’s life and their literary creations, potentially neglecting other factors influencing their work. It means;

• It is not a distinct literary theory
• It is considered a method or approach to literary analysis
• It focuses on the author’s life and personal experiences
• It aims to understand the influence of the author’s life on their work
• It examines connections between the biography and themes, characters, or events in the literary text
• It is often used in conjunction with other literary theories for a more comprehensive understanding of a work or author

Biographical Criticism: Origin, Key Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Origin of Biographical Criticism:

• Emergence: Biographical criticism is one of the oldest forms of literary analysis, dating back to ancient Greece and Rome, where the lives of poets and writers were studied alongside their works.

Key Theorists in Biographical Criticism:

• Samuel Johnson (1709-1784): An English literary critic, essayist, and poet, Johnson emphasized the importance of understanding an author’s life and experiences to interpret their work effectively.
• Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881): A Scottish essayist, Carlyle promoted the Great Man Theory asserting that the lives of exceptional individuals greatly influence the course of history and culture.
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): The founder of psychoanalysis, Freud’s theories about the unconscious mind and the influence of an author’s personal experiences on their creative works have had a significant impact on biographical criticism.

Key Works in Biographical Criticism:

• Lives of the Poets by Samuel Johnson: In this work, Johnson provided biographical sketches of several poets, emphasizing how their lives and circumstances shaped their poetic output.
• On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History by Thomas Carlyle: Carlyle’s lectures and essays explore the concept of heroism and how the lives of great individuals impact culture and history.
• The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud: While not exclusively focused on literature, Freud’s ideas about the unconscious mind and dream analysis have influenced the biographical interpretation of literary works.

Key Arguments in Biographical Criticism:

• Authorial Intent: Biographical critics argue that understanding an author’s life, experiences, and intentions can provide insights into the meaning and themes of their literary works.
• Psychological Analysis: This approach often delves into the author’s psyche, exploring how their personal traumas, desires, and conflicts manifest in their writing.
• Contextualization: Biographical criticism seeks to place an author within their historical, cultural, and social context to better comprehend the influences on their work.
• Comparative Analysis: Biographical critics may compare an author’s life with their literary output, looking for parallels, contrasts, or moments of self-revelation.
• Critique and Controversy: Biographical criticism has faced criticism itself for oversimplifying complex works, reducing them to mere reflections of an author’s life, and neglecting the autonomy of the text.

Biographical criticism continues to be a valuable tool for literary analysis, but it is often used in conjunction with other critical approaches to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a literary work.

Principals of Biographical Criticism

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford University Press, 1953.
2. Bloom, Harold. The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry. Oxford University Press, 1973.
3. Cixous, Hélène. Coming to Writing and Other Essays. Translated by Sarah Cornell and Susan Sellers, Harvard University Press, 1991.
4. Johnson, Samuel. Lives of the Poets. Edited by Roger Lonsdale, Oxford University Press, 2006.
5. Lejeune, Philippe. On Autobiography. Translated by Katherine Leary, University of Minnesota Press, 1989.
6. Showalter, Elaine. A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Brontë to Lessing. Princeton University Press, 1977.

You may read more on Literary Theory below:

• Ecofeminism as Literary Theory
• Ecofeminism Literary Theory
• Emotivist Theory & Literary Theory
• Emotivist Theory in Literature

Introduction

Archetypal literary theory, also known as archetypal criticism, is an approach to analyzing literature focusing on the identification and interpretation of archetypes—universal symbols, themes, characters, and motifs—that recur across cultures and periods.

Derived from the concept of the collective unconscious proposed by Carl Jung, archetypal theory strives to go deep into the innate human experiences and instincts that shape the narratives.

By exploring these recurring patterns and symbols, archetypal critics seek to uncover the deeper psychological, cultural, and mythological meanings embedded within literary texts, providing valuable insights into the fundamental aspects of human existence and storytelling across the ages.

Etymology Archetypal Literary Theory / Criticism

• The term “archetypal” comes from the Greek word “archétypos,” meaning “original pattern” or “model.”
• “Criticism” is derived from the Greek word “krinein,” which translates to “to judge” or “to analyze.”
• “Archetypal criticism” involves the analysis and interpretation of original patterns and universal symbols present in literature and other storytelling mediums.

Etymology Archetypal Literary Theory: Origin, Key Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin of Archetypal Literary Theory:

• Emerged in the mid-20th century, primarily in the field of literary criticism.
• Rooted in the ideas of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung and his concept of archetypes.

Key Theorists in Archetypal Literary Theory:

• Carl Jung: The foundational figure in the development of archetypal theory. His work on the collective unconscious and archetypes greatly influenced literary scholars.
• Joseph Campbell: A prominent scholar who popularized the concept of the hero’s journey and its connection to archetypal patterns in world mythology.
• Northrop Frye: An influential literary critic who incorporated archetypal elements into his theory of literary genres and mythic patterns.
• Maud Bodkin: Known for her work on the archetypal dimensions of poetic language in Archetypal Patterns in Poetry.

Notable Works in Archetypal Literary Theory:

• The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious (1950) by Carl Jung: In this seminal work, Jung explores the concept of archetypes and their relevance to psychology and culture.
• The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949) by Joseph Campbell: Campbell’s book outlines the monomyth, or hero’s journey, as a universal narrative structure found in myths and stories from various cultures.
• Anatomy of Criticism (1957) by Northrop Frye: In this work, Frye discusses archetypal patterns in literature, particularly within the context of literary genres.
• Archetypal Patterns in Poetry (1934) by Maud Bodkin: Bodkin examines the presence of archetypal symbols and themes in poetry, emphasizing their emotional and psychological impact.

Main Arguments in Archetypal Literary Theory:

• Existence of Universal Archetypes: Archetypal theorists argue that certain symbols, themes, and character types are universal and recurrent across cultures and time periods.
• Collective Unconscious: Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious suggests that these archetypes are inherited and shared by all humans, influencing their thoughts, emotions, and creativity.
• Mythic Patterns and the Hero’s Journey: The theory identifies recurring mythic patterns, such as the hero’s journey, which reflect fundamental human experiences and transformations.
• Interpretation of Literature: Archetypal criticism involves interpreting literature through the lens of these archetypes, exploring the deeper meanings and psychological resonances within texts.

Archetypal Literary Theory continues to be a significant approach in the study of literature and storytelling, offering insights into the universal themes and symbols that shape human narratives.

Principal of Archetypal Literary Theory

Suggested Readings

1. Bachelard, Gaston. The Poetics of Space. Beacon Press, 1994.
2. Bodkin, Maud. Archetypal Patterns in Poetry: Psychological Studies of Imagination. Oxford University Press, 2015.
3. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton University Press, 2008.
4. Estés, Clarissa Pinkola. Women Who Run with the Wolves: Myths and Stories of the Wild Woman Archetype. Ballantine Books, 1996.
5. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 2000.
6. Jung, Carl Gustav. Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious. Routledge, 2014.

Introduction

Critical Race Theory (CRT) is an interdisciplinary framework developed in legal scholarship during the late 20th century that examines the pervasive role of race and racism in shaping social, political, and legal structures.

It asserts that racism is not just an individual act but a systemic, institutionalized phenomenon, aiming to uncover and challenge the ways racial hierarchies are embedded in law, policies, and societal norms.

CRT scholars analyze power dynamics, privilege, and the intersections of race with other social identities to promote a deeper understanding of racial injustices and advocate for equitable change.

Criticism Against Critical Race Theory

Critical Race Theory is a framework developed in the legal field to examine the intersection of race, power, and the law. It has since been applied to various fields, including education, sociology, literature and political science. However, CRT has also been met with criticism from various perspectives. Here are some of the criticisms against CRT:

1. Essentialism: Some critics argue that Critical Race Theory relies on essentialist assumptions about race, which means that it sees race as a fixed, inherent characteristic that defines a person’s experiences and perspectives. This criticism argues that it fails to acknowledge that race is a social construct and that individual experiences vary.
2. Divisiveness: Some critics argue that it promotes divisiveness by framing everything in terms of power struggles between different racial groups. Critics argue that this can lead to a more polarized society and further marginalization of certain groups.
3. Lack of Evidence: Some critics argue that Critical Race Theory lacks empirical evidence to support its claims, and that it relies on anecdotal evidence and personal narratives instead. Critics argue that this makes CRT less objective and less rigorous as a scholarly discipline.
4. Rejection of Objectivity: Some critics argue that it rejects the idea of objectivity and neutrality in favor of subjective interpretations of reality. Critics argue that this makes CRT less reliable as a scholarly discipline, and that it undermines the credibility of objective research.
5. Ideological Bias: Some critics argue that it is ideologically biased and that it promotes a particular political agenda. Critics argue that this makes it less objective and less useful as a scholarly discipline.
6. Overemphasis on Race: Some critics argue that it overemphasizes the role of race in shaping society and ignores other important factors such as class, gender, and culture. Critics argue that this can lead to a narrow and incomplete understanding of social issues.

Examples of Critical Race Theory

1. The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison: In this novel, Critical Race Theory critiques how characters’ experiences are shaped by their race and social status. For example, the main character, Pecola Breedlove, is a young B**ck girl who believes that having blue eyes would make her more beautiful and desirable. Critical Race Theory critiques how Pecola’s desire for blue eyes reflects internalized racism and how her lack of power in society contributes to her self-hatred.
2. Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison: In this novel, it criticizes how the protagonist’s experiences are shaped by his race and his encounters with institutional racism. For example, the protagonist is expelled from college for exposing the racist practices of the institution. It critiques how the institution’s response to the protagonist’s actions reflects the ways in which institutions use their power to silence dissenting voices.
3. The Negro Speaks of Rivers by Langston Hughes: In this poem, Critical Race Theory analyzes how the speaker’s experiences are shaped by his identity as a B**ck person. For example, the poem begins with the line “I’ve known rivers ancient as the world and older than the flow of human blood in human veins,” which it interprets as a reference to the long history of B**ck people and their contributions to human civilization. Critical Race Theory critiques how the poem celebrates B**ck culture and history in the face of systemic oppression.
4. Everyday Use by Alice Walker: In this short story, Critical Race Theory assesses how the characters’ experiences are shaped by their race and their understanding of heritage. For example, the protagonist, Mama, has two daughters: Dee, who has embraced a more mainstream version of B**ck culture, and Maggie, who has retained a connection to their rural roots. It critiques how the story explores the tension between different interpretations of B**ck culture and heritage and how this tension reflects the larger issues of power and control in society.
5. The Color Purple by Alice Walker: In this novel, it examines how the characters’ experiences are shaped by the intersections of race, gender, and sexuality. For example, the main character, Celie, is a B**ck woman who faces abuse and oppression from both B**ck men and white society. CRT critiques how the novel portrays the ways in which racism, sexism, and heterosexism intersect to shape the experiences of B**ck women.

Keywords in Critical Race Theory

Here are some keywords and concepts commonly used in Critical Race Theory:

1. Racialization: The process of categorizing individuals based on race, leading to disparities.
2. Intersectionality: Intersection of social identities (e.g., race, gender) in shaping experiences of oppression.
3. Structural Racism: Systemic practices that perpetuate racial inequalities.
4. White Supremacy: Belief in white superiority, leading to discrimination.
5. Microaggressions: Subtle, unintentional acts conveying discrimination.
6. Colorblindness: Ignoring racial differences, perpetuating inequality.
7. Critical Consciousness: Awareness of systemic racism, commitment to change.
8. Counter-Narratives: Alternative stories challenging dominant racial narratives.
9. Institutional Racism: Discriminatory policies within institutions, harming minorities.
10. Racial Equity: Achieving fairness by addressing racial disparities.

Suggested Readings

1. Crenshaw, Kimberlé, et al., editors. Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement. New Press, 1995.
2. Delgado, Richard, and Jean Stefancic. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. 3rd ed., New York University Press, 2017.
3. Ladson-Billings, Gloria, and William F. Tate IV, editors. Education Research in the Public Interest: Social Justice, Action, and Policy. Teachers College Press, 2005.
4. Lopez, Ian Haney. White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race. New York University Press, 1996.
5. Matsuda, Mari. Words That Wound: Critical Race Theory, Assaultive Speech, and the First Amendment. Westview Press, 1993.
6. Solorzano, Daniel, and Tara J. Yosso. Critical Race Methodology: Counter-Storytelling as an Analytical Framework for Education Research. Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 8, no. 1, 2002, pp. 23-44.
7. Williams, Patricia. The Alchemy of Race and Rights. Harvard University Press, 1991.

You may read more on Literary Theory below:

• Critical Race Literary Theory
• Critical Race Theory: Application to Literature
• African American Theory
• African American Literary Theory

Introduction

The term Critical Race Literary Theory emerges from the fusion of Critical Race Theory and Literary Theory. Critical Race Theory, originating in late 20th-century legal scholarship, focuses on racial inequality, structural racism, and intersections of race with other social identities. Simultaneously, integrating Critical Race Theory principles into literary studies yields this theory. This interdisciplinary approach applies Critical Race Theory to literary analysis, exploring race, racism, and racial identities in literary narratives. Thus, Critical Race Literary Theory melds Critical Race Theory’s critical lens with literary scrutiny, revealing the intricate relationship between race, culture, and literature in societies marked by racial disparities.

Meanings of Critical Race Literary Theory

Critical Race Literary Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Key Arguments

Origin:

• Emergence in Late 20th Century: It emerged in the late 20th century as an extension of Critical Race Theory, which originated in legal studies. It gained prominence in literary scholarship as a response to issues of racial inequality and discrimination.

Theorists:

• Toni Morrison: Renowned author and scholar whose works, such as Beloved and The Bluest Eye, are often analyzed through this lens for their exploration of African American experiences.
• Henry Louis Gates Jr.: Scholar known for his examination of African American literature and culture, offering insights into race and identity through a literary perspective.
• Frantz Fanon: Though not exclusively a Critical Race Literary Theorist, Fanon’s works like B**ck Skin, White Masks have influenced the field with their exploration of racial identity and colonialism.
• Cheryl Harris: Legal scholar whose concept of “whiteness as property” has been incorporated into Critical Race Literary Theory discussions on racial privilege and power.

Works:

• Beloved (1987) by Toni Morrison: This novel is a central text in Critical Race Literary Theory, exploring themes of slavery, trauma, and the legacy of racial injustice.
• The Souls of B**ck Folk (1903) by W.E.B. Du Bois: Though written before the emergence of Critical Race Literary Theory, this work remains influential for its early exploration of racial identity and the “double consciousness.”
• The Signifying Monkey (1988) by Henry Louis Gates Jr.: This work explores African American literary traditions and the role of language in shaping racial identity and resistance.
• B**ck Looks: Race and Representation (1992) by bell hooks: An important text for its analysis of media and popular culture in perpetuating racial stereotypes.

Key Arguments:

• Racial Representation: Critical Race Literary Theory argues that literature plays a significant role in shaping and challenging racial representations, stereotypes, and identities in society.
• Structural Racism: This theory highlights how literature reflects and perpetuates systemic racial inequalities and injustices, shedding light on the impact of racism on characters and narratives.
• Counter-Narratives: Critical Race Literary Theory emphasizes the importance of counter-narratives that challenge dominant racial ideologies and provide alternative perspectives on racial experiences.
• Intersectionality: It adopts an intersectional approach, examining how race intersects with other social identities, such as gender, class, and sexuality, within literary narratives.
• Cultural Critique: This theory engages in a critical examination of the cultural implications embedded in literary works, considering how literature contributes to and reflects broader societal attitudes towards race and racism.

Principles of Critical Race Theory

Critical Race Theory (CRT) is a complex and multifaceted framework that incorporates many principles and concepts. However, some of the key principles of CRT include:

Critical Race Theory or Critical Race Literary Theory?

While CRT is a broader framework that examines the intersection of race, power, and society, Critical Race Literary Theory specifically applies these principles to the analysis of literature, focusing on how race and racism are represented in literary texts.

Suggested Readings

1. Delgado, Richard, and Jean Stefancic. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. New York University Press, 2017.
2. Gates Jr., Henry Louis. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. Oxford University Press, 2014.
3. Harris, Cheryl. Whiteness as Property. Harvard Law Review, vol. 106, no. 8, 1993, pp. 1707-1791.
4. hooks, bell. B**ck Looks: Race and Representation. South End Press, 1992.
5. Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Knopf, 1987.
6. Spillers, Hortense J. “Mama’s Baby, Papa’s Maybe: An American Grammar Book.” Diacritics, vol. 17, no. 2, 1987, pp. 64-81.
7. West, Cornel. Race Matters. Beacon Press, 1994

Introduction African American Theory

African American Theory is a critical framework that analyze literature produced by African American writers within the context of their unique experiences and cultural heritage. Rooted in the need to challenge traditional narratives that often marginalized African American voices, this theory emphasizes authentic representation, identity exploration, and the examination of themes such as resistance, cultural preservation, and social justice. It acknowledges the intersectionality of race with other social categories and draws from various literary and interdisciplinary traditions to provide a comprehensive lens for analyzing African American literature. Ultimately, African American Theory enriches our understanding of the rich and diverse literary contributions of African Americans, shedding light on the complexities of their narratives throughout history.

Criticism Against African American Theory

• Lack of attention to intersections of race, gender, sexuality, class, and other social identities in this theory.
• Criticisms of the use of Western literary theory as the framework for African American literary theory
• Arguments that African American literary theory is too focused on canonized works and neglects popular culture and other forms of expression
• Accusations of a narrow focus on the United States and neglect of the global context of African diasporic literature
• Debates over the relationship between African American literary theory and the B***k Arts Movement, with some arguing that the former fails to adequately address the political and social dimensions of B***k cultural production.

Examples of African American Theory

Keywords in African American Theory

1. Double consciousness: A concept introduced by W.E.B. Du Bois in which African Americans have to navigate the cultural expectations and values of both their African heritage and their American experience.
2. Afro-pessimism: A theoretical framework that focuses on the ongoing and pervasive effects of anti-b***kness, oppression, and violence in the lives of African Americans, as well as the limitations of traditional approaches to addressing these issues.
3. Signifyin(g): A technique used in African American literature in which words and phrases are used in a way that communicates multiple meanings and subverts dominant cultural norms and expectations.
4. Intersectionality: A framework for understanding how different aspects of identity, such as race, gender, class, and sexuality, intersect and interact to shape an individual’s experiences of privilege and oppression.
5. B***k feminism: A branch of feminism that centers the experiences and perspectives of b***k women and emphasizes the ways in which race, gender, and other social identities intersect and affect their experiences of oppression and resistance.
6. Neo-slave narrative: A genre of literature that reimagines and reinterprets the experiences of enslaved Africans and African Americans in a contemporary context, often emphasizing themes of resistance, agency, and survival.
7. Cultural nationalism: An ideology that emphasizes the importance of preserving and celebrating one’s cultural heritage and values, often in the face of assimilation and oppression.
8. B**k aesthetics: An approach to art and literature that emphasizes the unique cultural and aesthetic traditions of African Americans and their contributions to the broader cultural landscape.

Suggested Readings

1. Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Oxford UP, 2007.
2. Gates Jr., Henry Louis. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. Oxford UP, 1989.
3. Harris, Trudier, et al. The Oxford Handbook of African American Literature. Oxford UP, 2014.
4. Morrison, Toni. Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Vintage, 1993.
5. Neal, Larry. The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s. Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2005.
6. Smethurst, James Edward. The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s. Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2005.
7. Wall, Cheryl A. Women of the Harlem Renaissance. Indiana UP, 1995.
8. West, Cornel. Race Matters. Beacon Press, 2010.

Etymology of African American Literary Theory

African American Literary Theory is a framework for analyzing literature by African American writers.

• Nomenclature & Identity: Derives from the intersection of African American culture, history, and literature, signifying authors’ racial and cultural identity within the United States.
• Influences: Draws from literary traditions like African oral traditions, the Harlem Renaissance, B**ck Arts Movement, and the Civil Rights era.
• Themes & Goals: Explores race, identity, oppression, resistance, and cultural heritage in African American literature, illuminating the African American experience throughout history.

African American Literary Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin of African American Literary Theory

• Emerged during the 20th century as African American writers gained prominence in American literature.
• Rooted in the need for critical frameworks that acknowledge the unique African American experience.

Prominent Theorists

• W.E.B. Du Bois: Known for his influential work The Souls of Black Folk, Du Bois introduced the concept of double consciousness and explored the struggle for identity among African Americans.
• Langston Hughes: A celebrated poet, Hughes’s works, including The Negro Speaks of Rivers, emphasize cultural heritage, racial pride, and resilience.
• Toni Morrison: Renowned for her novels, especially Beloved, Morrison examined the enduring impact of slavery on African American identity and familial bonds.
• Henry Louis Gates Jr.: Notable for his essays and criticism, Gates has focused on African American literary history and cultural studies in works like The Signifying Monkey.

Key Works in African American Literary Theory

• Du Bois’s The Souls of Black Folk addresses issues of race, identity, and inequality within African American communities.
• Hughes’s poetry, such as The Negro Speaks of Rivers, explores the rich cultural heritage and resilience of African Americans.
• Morrison’s novel Beloved delves into the haunting legacy of slavery and its profound impact on African American families.
• Gates’s essays, found in The Signifying Monkey, delve into African American literary traditions, folklore, and their significance.

Core Arguments

• African American Literary Theory seeks to highlight the unique cultural and historical context of African American writers.
• It emphasizes themes of racial identity, oppression, resistance, and the preservation of cultural heritage.
• This critical framework challenges dominant narratives and fosters a deeper understanding of African American literary contributions to American literature.

Principles of African American Literary Theory

Relevant Theoretical Frameworks and Concepts

Critical Race Theory and Its Application to African American Literature

• It shows an understanding of the role of race and racism in society and how it shapes African American literature.
• It shows how power structures and social hierarchies affect the production and reception of African American texts.
• It also examines how African American authors challenge and subvert dominant racial narratives through their literary works.

Postcolonial Theory and its Impact on African American Literary Theory and Literature

• It explores the connections between African American literature and the history of colonization and imperialism.
• It helps analyze how African American authors negotiate and resist the legacy of colonialism in their works
• It also helps examine themes of identity, cultural hybridity, and decolonization in African American literary texts

Feminist and Gender Theories within African American Literary Criticism

• It helps examine the intersection of race and gender in African American literature
• It helps analyzes how African American women writers explore issues of power, agency, and identity within their works
• It also seeks to investigate how African American women challenge and disrupt traditional gender roles and stereotypes through their writing

Intersectionality and the Intersection of Race, Gender, and Class

• It helps understand how multiple social categories intersect and shape the experiences of African Americans
• It helps analyze how race, gender, and class intersect and interact in African American literary texts
• It also seeks to explore the complexities and nuances of identity and social oppression within the African American community

African American Literary Criticism and Aesthetics

• It shows the politics of representation in African American literature.
• It questions the authenticity and the “B***k experience.”
• It also aestheticizes resistance and the use of language as a tool for empowerment.
• It also shows the role of folklore, spirituality, and cultural traditions in African American literature

Contemporary Developments and Debates

• African American speculative fiction and Afrofuturism
• Queer Theory and its intersection with African American Literature
• Global Perspectives on African American Literature and diasporic connections
• Discussions on the canon, inclusion, and diversity in African American literary studies

Suggested Readings about African American Literary Theory

1. Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Oxford UP, 2007.
2. Gates Jr., Henry Louis. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. Oxford UP, 1989.
3. Hughes, Langston. The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes. Vintage, 1995.
4. Morrison, Toni. Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Vintage, 1993.
5. Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Vintage, 2004.
6. Walker, Alice. In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose. Mariner Books, 2004.
7. Wright, Richard. Native Son. Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2005.
8. Hurston, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God. Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2006.
9. Wilson, August. The Pittsburgh Cycle. Theatre Communications Group, 2013.
10. Wall, Cheryl A. Women of the Harlem Renaissance. Indiana UP, 1995.

Introduction Eco-criticism

Eco-criticism, an interdisciplinary field of literary analysis, explores the intricate relationship between literature and the natural environment. Rooted in a commitment to environmentalism, eco-criticism examines how literary works engage with pressing ecological concerns, including climate change, habitat destruction, and pollution.

This critical approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of all living beings and ecosystems, fostering ecological consciousness. Eco-critics analyze the portrayal of nature in literature, considering its cultural, historical, and symbolic dimensions.

Also, eco-criticism addresses issues of environmental justice and advocates for equitable access to a healthy environment, making it a vital framework for understanding the intersection of literature and environmental issues.

Criticism Against Eco-Criticism

1. Reductionism: Critics argue that eco-criticism sometimes reduce complex literary works to mere environmental allegories, oversimplifying their nuanced themes and messages.
2. Anthropocentrism: Some contend that eco-criticism still places too much emphasis on human concerns and perspectives, despite its focus on the environment, and may not adequately prioritize non-human entities and ecosystems.
3. Lack of Literary Focus: Critics suggest that eco-criticism’s primary focus on environmental issues may overshadow the appreciation of literary aesthetics and the nuances of literary analysis.
4. Overspecialization: Concerns have been raised about eco-criticism’s tendency to become overly specialized, potentially limiting its accessibility and relevance to broader literary studies.
5. Neglect of Cultural Context: Some argue that eco-criticism might overlook the cultural and historical contexts in which literary works are produced, leading to an oversimplified interpretation of their environmental aspects.

Examples of Eco-Criticism from Literature

1. From The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck

 (Chapter 5): “The tractors came over the roads and into the fields, great crawlers moving like insects, having the incredible strength of insects. They crawled over the ground, laying the track and rolling on it and picking it up. Diesel tractors, puttering while they stood idle; they thundered when they moved, and then settled down to a droning roar. Snub-nosed monsters, raising the dust and sticking their snouts into it, straight down the country, across the country, through fences, through dooryards, in and out of gullies in straight lines. They did not run on the ground, but on their own roadbeds. They ignored hills and gulches, water courses, fences, houses.”

Ecocritical interpretation: This passage from The Grapes of Wrath highlights the destructive power of mechanized agriculture and its impact on the natural environment. The tractors are depicted as relentless and unstoppable creatures, akin to insects, with an incredible strength that allows them to reshape the land. This description emphasizes their invasive nature, as they disregard natural obstacles like hills, gulches, water courses, fences, and even human settlements.

From an ecocritical perspective, this passage reflects the larger theme of human domination and exploitation of nature during the Dust Bowl era. The tractors represent the industrialization and mechanization of agriculture, which contributed to the environmental degradation and displacement of farmers during that time. By describing the tractors as “snub-nosed monsters” and emphasizing their ability to ignore and override natural features, Steinbeck highlights the disruptive force of technology on the landscape.

2. “Wild Geese” by Mary Oliver:

You do not have to be good.

You do not have to walk on your knees

for a hundred miles through the desert repenting.

You only have to let the soft animal of your body

love what it loves.

Tell me about despair, yours, and I will tell you mine.

Meanwhile the world goes on.

Ecocritical Interpretations: This stanza reflects an ecocritical perspective by emphasizing the interconnectedness of human beings with the natural world and urging a reconnection with our primal instincts. The rejection of societal expectations and the liberation from self-imposed burdens are apparent in the first three lines, challenging the notion of human dominance over nature. The phrase “soft animal of your body” evokes the primal, instinctual nature within each individual, suggesting that embracing our innate desires and passions is a way to align with the natural world. By encouraging self-acceptance and self-love, Oliver highlights the importance of personal well-being in order to engage meaningfully with the world. The invitation to share despair emphasizes the universality of human struggles and the need for empathy and connection. Simultaneously, the final line, “Meanwhile the world goes on,” alludes to the ongoing existence and resilience of the natural world despite human preoccupations, reminding us of the enduring and cyclical nature of the Earth. Overall, the stanza promotes a harmonious relationship with nature, emphasizing the significance of self-acceptance, empathy, and recognizing our place within the larger ecological fabric.

Keywords in Eco-Criticism

1. Anthropocentrism: A worldview that prioritizes human interests and values over those of the natural world. Relevant because it highlights the need to shift away from human-centered perspectives in eco-criticism to more holistic and environmentally conscious viewpoints.
2. Nature Writing: A literary genre that celebrates and reflects on the natural world, often promoting environmental awareness. Relevant because it is a primary source for eco-critics to analyze how literature represents and engages with nature.
3. Bioregion: A distinct geographical area with its unique ecological characteristics and cultural practices. Relevant because it emphasizes the importance of local environments and their influence on literature and culture.
4. Posthumanism: A theoretical approach challenging the traditional boundaries between humans and non-human entities. Relevant because it explores how literature redefines the relationship between humans and the environment.
5. Ecological Ethics: A system of moral principles that considers the well-being of ecosystems and non-human life forms. Relevant because it provides a framework for eco-critics to assess ethical dimensions in literary works.
6. Environmental Justice: The pursuit of equitable distribution of environmental benefits and burdens among different social groups. Relevant because it addresses issues of social and environmental inequality within literature.
7. Sense of Place: The emotional and psychological attachment individuals have to specific locations, often influencing their identity. Relevant because it helps eco-critics analyze how literature reflects the connections between people and their environments.
8. Dark Ecology: A concept that explores the interconnectedness of life and death in ecosystems, highlighting the cyclical nature of existence. Relevant because it challenges conventional narratives by examining the symbiotic relationships between life and decay in literature.

Suggested Readings

1. Buell, Lawrence. The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture. Harvard University Press, 1995.
2. Glotfelty, Cheryll, and Harold Fromm, editors. The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. University of Georgia Press, 1996.
3. Hiltner, Ken, editor. Ecocriticism: The Essential Reader. Routledge, 2015.
4. Kolbert, Elizabeth. The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History. Picador, 2014.
5. Morton, Timothy. Ecology without Nature: Rethinking Environmental Aesthetics. Harvard University Press, 2007.
6. Williams, Raymond. The Country and the City. Oxford University Press, 1973.

You may read more on Literary Theory below:

• Queer Theory in Literature
• Critical Race Theory: Application to Literature
• Archetypal Literary Theory / Criticism
• Queer Literary Theory in Litrature