Tag: short essays

Introduction to Theme

Both the literary pieces Henry James’s The Beast in the Jungle and Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot deal with the theme of waiting but in a very different way. In fact, waiting has been an important part of human life since time immemorial including literary writings. It has been depicted in different literary pieces in different ways. Since the time when organizations have come into being and man has learned to dominate other men in financial and social ways, waiting or wait has become part of the modern lifestyle in which it has taken different connotative as well as denotative meanings. Wait, even in a person’s romantic lifestyle, becomes an odious time-passing activity if nothing fruitful is gained. In The Beast in the Jungle, Henry James has presented the theme of waiting in the life of a male character, John Marcher, who comes under a spell that his life is to be disturbed by a great event that would change its entire course and this illusion kept him preoccupied throughout his life until his beloved May Bartram leaves this world. However, waiting in Waiting for Godot is entirely contrary to it. It is the waiting of an elusive figure, Godot, who holds complete sway on the lives of the two tramps, Estragon and Vladimir.

Waiting in The Beast in The Jungle

As far as waiting in The Beast in the Jungle is concerned, it is a different kind of waiting. It is the waiting of an egotist person who has supposed that his life is to transform through some great tragedy or some great disaster. John Marcher falls under his self-concocted spell that something is going to happen him sooner or later. Therefore, whoever meets him in life, he dilates upon the same tale that some beast is lurking somewhere to harm or slay him including his much accompanying friend, May Bartram. May Bartram meets Marcher again in London after several years, the details of which he does not remember. Both of them talk much about each other and then they become close friends to stay with each other for a long period of time. It happens that May Bartram becomes ill and meets her fate. It then dawns upon Marcher that his long wait is over now, for he has met the beast in the shape of one passion of meeting that accident in his life that he did not leave any other moment to touch or understand any other person or thing. This transformed his entire life. He now started feeling remorse over his useless waiting which wasted most of his time in a false belief that “Something or other lay in wait for him” which was nothing (Henry 11). In other words, the waiting in the story is nothing but vanity and supposition.

Wait in Waiting for Godot

However, wait in Waiting for Godot, a play, is entirely different. It is the wait of a person named Godot by two tramps, Vladimir and Estragon. Their wait is the wait under coercion. It is because they are to wait or face the consequences. However, it is never clear anywhere in the whole play, who is Godot, why these two tramps are waiting for him, what he holds for them in store or what he would do against them in case they return without waiting for him. Even in the midst of the confusion over everything as Vladimir tells Estragon that “Nothing is certain when you’re around”, they are certain of one thing that they are waiting for Godot (Beckett 09). The wait is such that it gets very difficult to pass the time and this wait of passing the time becomes a great suffering for both of them. They even remember several things, forget several other things and then again remember to have come the day before for the same person, Godot, but again they find themselves at the same place waiting for Godot. It means that their wait is for some messiah who holds something for them to relieve them from this burden of daily coming. Other than this, there does not seem any means though it could be akin to God which seems certain from Godot. But the interesting point comes when a person forgets whether he is waiting at all and if yes, for whom. This happens with both of them. This means it is a useless waiting of humanity as contrary to the useless waiting of John Marcher who is under the vanity of his significance.

Conclusion

In short, the theme of waiting is central to both of these stories, Henry James’s The Beast in the Jungle and Beckett’s Waiting for Godot. However, whereas the waiting in The Beast in the Jungle is of a single person for some unknown beast, accident, incident or happening that is to change his entire life, the waiting in Waiting for Godot is about a character, Godot, whom the characters of Gogo and Didi (short names for Vladimir and Estragon) know very well. However, still they do not know any details about him. The difference in both types of waiting is that John Marcher comes to know the pain of waiting very long after the waiting has wasted his prime years, but in Waiting for Godot, Vladimir and Estragon know that they are uselessly waiting for a person who cannot change their lives, but still, they cannot do anything except waiting. Their problem is how to pass this time when waiting. In nutshell, in each case, we learn that waiting is not only useless but also very painful.

Works Cited

1. Beckett, Samuel. Waiting for Godot. Online Literature. n. d. Web. 13 Dec. 2022.
2. James, Henry. The Beast in the Jungle. Gutenberg Project. n. d. Web. 13 Dec. 2022.

Relevant Questions about The Beast in the Jungle, and Waiting for Godot: Theme of Waiting

1. In The Beast in the Jungle, the protagonist, John Marcher, spends his life waiting for a significant event to occur. How does this perpetual state of anticipation shape the narrative, and what insights into the theme of waiting can be gleaned from Marcher’s experiences?
2. Waiting for Godot is renowned for its portrayal of two characters endlessly waiting for someone who may never arrive. How does Beckett use the concept of waiting as a metaphor for the human condition, and what broader existential questions does this theme raise within the play?
3. Both texts, The Beast in the Jungle and Waiting for Godot, depict characters who seem trapped in a cycle of waiting. Compare and contrast how Henry James and Samuel Beckett explore the emotional and psychological effects of waiting on their respective characters and the impact it has on the overall themes of their works.

Introduction to Horror in “The Cask of Amontillado”

True to his popularity for writing horror stories, Edgar Allan Poe has beautifully placed the atmosphere of horror in “The Cask of Amontillado” with just two characters belonging to the Italian society. As a horror story shows horror through characters, traits of characters, its situation and setting, the story in question shows various elements of horror. It shows Montresor, who belongs to an honorable family insulted by his friend Fortunate thousands of times. He bears all his insults with fortitude and silence but vows to exact revenge and finds him alone during a carnival season wearing a colorful dress. In order to hook him, Montresor makes him jealous of Luchresi, another connoisseur of the wines, by asking him to check a cask of Amontillado for him lying in the catacombs of his mansion. He brings him over there, chains him in a niche, and says him good bye, leaving him there to die. Although he assures him all the way to the catacomb that he takes care of his health and that they should return, but the jealousy of having another connoisseur and flattery of Fortunato that he is the only one to evaluate the authenticity of the wine forces him to insist on going down. During this entire episode, Poe has used not only the character of Montresor to create horror in “The Cask of Amontillado” but also his deceptive techniques and the setting of the catacomb to create elements of horror in the story.

 Characters and Horror in “The Cask of Amontillado”

As far as the character of Montresor is concerned, it becomes clear from the very first sentence that he has borne insults from Fortunato when he says, “The thousand injuries of Fortunato I had borne as best I could” but then he “vowed revenge” (866). It is because Montresor is fully convinced that he has been wronged and that the wrong must be redressed. This revengeful nature of Montresor creates the atmosphere of horror from the very start when he states that he continues acting normally “to smile in his face” (866) which seems villainous. This also shows the shrewdness in his character in that he does not let Fortunato suspect him that he is going to take his life. To top it all, he knows that Fortunato is a dangerous man and it will risky to try to take his life without success as he is “even feared” (866). Moreover, his one act of sending all his servants to enjoy the carnival shows that he is a crafty fellow and wants to kill somebody in his catacomb. The servants must be knowing this old trick. These early expressions of the character of Montresor creates somewhat less horror, but this less horror continues mounting when the story proceeds and Montresor employs deceptive techniques.

Deceptive Techniques and Horror in “The Cask of Amontillado”

Although smiling itself is a deceptive technique, Montresor uses flattery to arouse jealousy of Fortunato. He knows that Fortunato is very fond of wines and also knows his expertise. He narrates him a story of having a cask of Amontillado that he wants to check and that he is going to ask Lurchesi though he considers him no match to Fortunato. Fortunato becomes haughty as well as impatient and asks him to hurry to the place to check it. Although Montresor has used both of these deceptive techniques successfully, he continues playing with his curiosity with his flattery. He has already given “explicit orders” (867) to his servants to go on leave. He then takes Fortunato to the catacomb constantly inquiring and showing concern about his health, but Fortunato does not suspect. This leads to even more horror when they reach the catacomb and see human bones and remains in the damp and dark place. This setting of the catacomb intensifies the horror and terror.

Environment of Horror in “The Cask of Amontillado”

When they reach the catacomb, it is dark and damp. There is a “white web-work which gleams” in the light of their candles (867). In fact, these are human bones. Fortunato experiences bouts of cough but does not suspect anything. The situation becomes more horrific when Fortunato gives him some Medoc to end his coughing. “The drops of moisture trickle among the bones” (868), which sends a wave of chill down the spine of the readers. It is because it shows that the site has been used for murders in the past. The situation becomes further horrific when they see bones lying here and there and Fortunato is finally led to the place where there is a niche and chain attached to its two sides. It is also that they see human remains on the walls, but Fortunato does not ask or inquire him about it. In fact, all of his tricks have worked wonders on him to bring him to that terrible place. Although they talk with each other in a common way, readers experience horror at the prospect of the immediate death of Fortunato in this somber and fearful place. This setting becomes even more horrible when Montresor starts his work of building a wall to trap Fortunato inside it while “low moaning cry from the depth of the recess” continues coming out (869). They even exchange toasts to each other and say good bye but the horror does not end until the last line where Montresor’s final words in Latin shows that he has said good bye to his friend to die over there.

Conclusion

In brief, Edgar Allan Poe has used not only the character of Montresor but also his manners to create horror in “The Cask of Amontillado”. Moreover, he has made the settings of catacomb even more fearsome by mentioning its darkness, human remains, bones and its dampness. Montresor’s character displays all the features of a horror character such as controlled emotions, monologic expression of revenge, vows to revenge the insults and even the use of deception to kill the opponent. Finally, the catacombs and its atmosphere too are horrible. It is darkness under the ground where the catacombs are full of bones and walls full of human remains. In the midst of this ruination showing horror in “The Cask of Amontillado”, Montresor is with his enemy who is going to be ensnared with a chain to be trapped in a niche with the wall constructed in front of him. In fact, Poe has used all elements at his disposals to make the story show horror and terror oozing out of its text.

Works Cited

Poe, Edgar Allan. “The Cask of Amontillado” from Charters, Ann, Ed. The Story and its Writer: An Introduction to Short Fiction. 6^th Ed. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin’s, 2003.

Relevant Questions about Horror in “The Cask of Amontillado”

1. How does Edgar Allan Poe use suspense and foreshadowing in “The Cask of Amontillado” to create Horror in the story, making the reader increasingly uneasy as the story progresses?
2. What are the psychological elements that contribute to horror in “The Cask of Amontillado,” particularly in Montresor’s character and his motivations for seeking revenge against Fortunato? How does this psychological Horror affect the reader’s perception of the characters?
3. Discuss the symbolism and imagery of the catacombs and the cask of Amontillado itself in the story. How do these elements contribute to the overall atmosphere of horror in “The Cask of Amontillado” and the theme of revenge?

Introduction Why a Government Uses Euphemisms or Why Would a Government Want to Use Euphemisms

Before dilating upon the literal meanings, it is fair to explain what euphemism actually is and how a government uses euphemisms or why would a government want to use euphemisms. It is a word, or a combination of words, or a phrase, or even sometimes a full sentence used to amuse or make something pleasant that is offensive or makes it positive that is negative. Even sometimes, bland and inoffensive words and phrases are used to replace the phrases or sentences that can instigate the people, or the audience to the point of violence. In ordinary language, straight or plain language sometimes seems quite rude and vulgar. Therefore, people who think that they should adhere to the manners of society, using euphemisms to seem polite to avoid inflaming the emotions of the listeners and audience, shows why would a government want to use euphemisms.

Nuances of Euphemism

Different dictionaries and books have defined the word euphemism differently, but the overall meanings are the same that is the gentle use of words to make something unpleasant pleasant. For example, Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines this term as “the substitution of an agreeable” for some offensive expression (“Euphemism”). It shows that it is the use of agreeable terms, or expressions, or sentences to replace offensive, or disagreeable terms. Before discussing its use in politics by the government and government agencies, it is fair to discuss its initial usage and its usage in society to know how a government uses euphemisms.

Euphemism and Everyday Conversation

Euphemism is used in everyday conversation in every society. There are hundreds of examples used in every culture, language, and society. For example, when somebody is going to die, it is not said that he is going to die but it is said that he is going to kick the bucket and when he is dead, it is said that he has passed away. These euphemisms are quite common in everyday terminology and conversation. It is because if the dead is referred to literally, not only it would sound vulgar, but also it would feel offensive to the relations of the dead person. Similarly, you will be thrashed if you call a person ‘O, a bald man!’ However, if you politely say that you are getting a ‘little thin at the top’ it would not only make him smile. These are linguistic niceties kept in mind when conversing in a society (“Euphemism”) and knowing why would a government want to use euphemisms.

Politics and Euphemism

As far as politics is concerned, it is almost similar to social connections. The governments have connections not only with the public perception but also with other governments which determine how a government uses euphemisms. This is called public relationships or international relations in which euphemisms are considered very important so that something could be said without snapping the relations with some country, or without inciting the public to violence. The use of euphemisms in politics is varied. It is sometimes for propaganda as is happening in the case of the war on terrorism, the war in Gaza, and even in Syria and Afghanistan. However,  at other times it is used to defend a position, or repel the propaganda of the rivals such as Obama is defending himself through such euphemisms for military withdrawal from Afghanistan, or Israel is using to defend its position on the killing of civilians in Gaza invasion by saying that they are “human shields” and hence this killing is inevitable, showing how a government uses euphemisms.

Euphemism in Politics

Writing in her article “Euphemisms in Politics”, Monika Ibi states that it is the “nature of politicians to be considerate and tender of people’s feelings in order to win their favor” (Ibi) because, in the democratization of societies, they are ultimately responsible and accountable to the public, the major reason behind a government uses euphemisms. When the politicians want their electorates to favor them, they use euphemisms for development but they use different euphemisms for negotiations. For example, if their negotiations have failed, or the situation has become tense, they would never say that it is about to break down. They would say that it was a “fairly chilly” atmosphere in the room. It conveys the meaning that the relations are estranged between the warring parties (Ibi). In other words, it is called verbal camouflage in which a person hides what is original to show the same thing in his own words but in a different way, camouflaging it to decrease its intensity.

Political Euphemsims

Commenting on the importance of the use of euphemisms in the political circle, Karam states in his research that it is the “selective usage of words  [that is] widespread as politicians strive to envelop the reality so as not to exacerbate the situation” (Karam 5-6). To save the situation from deteriorating further, they often resort to lies but in straight and plain language these lies become very harsh and vulgar. Therefore, they use euphemisms and it shows how a government uses euphemisms. Euphemisms help them in several ways such as cooling down the temper of the people, saving relations among the nations, hiding real facts behind the rhetoric, inciting violence in strong terms, and even saving the situation with soft words. He further adds that these are types of lies whose objective is to deceive (Karam 5) but he stopped short of saying it doublespeak, which is intended to deceive the public. This also shows how a government uses euphemisms.

Examples of Political Euphemisms

There are hundreds of examples of political euphemisms in which a politician not only saves his own stupidity but also saves his party and sometimes the government, the reason it seems a government uses euphemisms. Recently, Miss Clinton was caught when she said that she had had a close shave from a sniper fire during her arrival to Bosnia which was not correct. However, when confronted by journalists she saved her skin by saying that it was just “misspeaking” on her part (“The art of political euphemisms”).

Another famous example is the war vocabulary of recent years. The death of civilians is now not called the death of so many people but is connoted with just two words that it is collateral damage. Now acts of sabotage are not done by freedom fighters but by terrorists or militants. Now when some government is caught in sabotage in some other country, the blame does not rest on its agents, but on no state actors. It is also that political euphemisms change with time. A country could be an enemy in the past but could be a trade rival now or a military competitor, the reason a government uses euphemisms.

Conclusion

In short, this all depends on the objective, the policy, the situation, and above all the overall demeanor of the person even if he is in a government government uses euphemisms. It is also that sometimes even abbreviations could be used to replace euphemisms such as WMD, MAD for weapons of mass destruction and mutually assured destruction and so on, as it happened in the case of the US invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan that war on terrorism and WMB proved hoaxes later on. It is clear from this that sometimes euphemisms change their meanings and even the very language based on the situation, circumstances, and who speaks. Here, who means the position of the person. For example, if Obama speaks about something, the press would immediately pick up his words and these words would be popular within no time. However, if the same is said by some minnow politician of the world, he might have to spend years explaining what he meant by it and what the world has understood, or even not understood at all.

Therefore, it is proved that the political world is also like the world of social connections, relations, and behavior. A politician has to be very careful in his choice of words when speaking openly to the public or the media. If he does not mince his words before speaking and does not choose the right euphemism, he could be in hot water like Miss Clinton including his/her government, the reason a government uses euphemisms.

Works Cited

1. “Euphemism.” Merriam-Webster Online. N.d. www.merriam-webster.com. Accessed 08 Aug. 2014.
2. “Euphemism.” Literary Devices. 2010. http://literarydevices.net/euphemism/ Accessed 08 Aug. 2014.
3. Ibi, Monika. “Euphemism in Politics.” n.d. Web. http://www.ibi-academia.com/euphemism-in-politics/ Accessed 08 Aug. 2014.
4. Karam, Savo. “Truths and Euphemisms: How Euphemisms are Used in The Political Arena.” The South Asian Journal of English Language Studies 17.1 (n.d.): 5-17.
5. “The Art of Political Euphemisms.” 05 Aug. 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_7541000/7541197.stm>. Accessed 08 Aug. 2014.

Relevant Questions About Government Uses Euphemisms

1. How does the way government uses euphemisms impact public perception and understanding of policies or actions, and what are some notable historical examples where such language has been used to obscure the true nature of government activities?
2. In what ways does the use of euphemisms in government discourse serve as a means for softening or sanitizing potentially controversial or morally problematic decisions and actions? What ethical considerations should be taken into account when analyzing how government uses euphemisms?
3. How can a critical examination of how government uses euphemisms enhance transparency and accountability in political discourse, and what role does the media play in either challenging or perpetuating these linguistic choices?

Introduction to “from ‘Three Dirges”

The narrative part “from ‘Three Dirges” occurs in Requiem Guatemala: A Story of the People. It shows the brutalities of civil war suck the lives of the common people disregard of their religion, faith, race, or any other affiliation or association. Th part “from ‘Three Dirges” is a somber account of death ruling the roost in the Guatemalan village of Comitan. The doom of military dictatorship has befallen the locals of that village to either kill their own siblings or else witness the obliteration of their entire race, village, and homes. It is not just the story of a specific civil war, but of all wars wherever they take place, or have taken place; whether it is Irish, American, or Guatemalan. However, the poignancy of the Guatemalan Civil War is more acute because it took place under the very nose of the torchbearers of human rights and carried on for more than 42 years with casualties of 200,000 civilians, thousands of forced disappearances, maimed, and wounded besides. The cruelest part of this civil war was that the people were forced to kill their own children and mentors mercilessly. Still, they were to live with the wounds they inflicted on themselves under duress. The city mayor, Don Larazo, in this story, to whom the military authorities coerce to convey a message to his village community to choose between two commands; either kill their sons or face complete annihilation. Seeing no way out, they decide to kill their own sons and mourn their deaths in muffled sounds under the eyes of the watching soldiers. The author has captured graphic details of the way they are forced to kill their own loved ones. Murder and killing seem to ooze out of every phrase of the story. This prevalent theme of somber death in “from ‘Three Dirges” peeps out not only from symbols of animate things such as pigeons and roosters, inanimate things such as bells and the valley but also emerges through the climatic signs of fog and mist, human acts of helplessness, muffled sounds, and muted wailings.

Symbols in “from ‘Three Dirges”

Symbols of animate and inanimate Connelly in “from ‘Three Dirges” uses to convey a message of death, destruction, pain, and suffering of the worst order. The very first symbol Connelly uses is the call of the rooster. In Christianity, the call of the rooster is a symbol of the passion of Christ when Peter did not entertain Christ. It is now related to weathervanes, which means constant vigilance against evil. When the city mayor Don Lazaro is called into the army camp to convey the command of the Colonel, “a rooster crowed in a corner of some milpa” (Connelly 1) to announce that evil is lurking somewhere to befall the people. When he is recalled amid the noise of rockets, the “rooster crowed again” (8), announcing that death is looming large over the village of Comitan. The escape of pigeons, which are symbols of peace, conveys the arrival of the worst. Here it means that they are announcing the fleeing peace pointing to the arrival of death to reign supreme in the valley of San Martín Comitán. From the nearby “belfry” (9) “a flight of pigeons fluttered aloft and dispersed to roost somewhere under the fog below” (9). It is a natural announcement about the advent of death, showing it is just a matter of a few moments. Even inanimate things are announcing the arrival of something sinister such as “the bell in the mission of the town began to clap in a flat” (9, 39) to announce that death is just lurking behind them which has terrified “pigeons (9) and “another flock of birds” (9) and they have left the area to find safety. It is quite natural for living creatures to sense danger quite early and flee for safety. However, the inanimate objects seem to human beings presenting a different perspective in such circumstances as bells may announce prayers and off days but death when death prevails. When all these animate and inanimate symbols have combined within the plot of the storyline, they intensify the realization of the looming shadow of death, making the atmosphere as well as the mood of the story somber and sinister. In this atmosphere “even the birds ceased their calling” (39) because they also feel that their lives are unsafe in this valley.

Climate Signs in “from ‘Three Dirges”

Climatic signs from “from ‘Three Dirges” when integrated into the framework of the story, make the situation even worse, more serious, and deadlier, heralding something sinister going to happen. Here two most important symbols used in this connection are fog and mist mixed up with the common climate of the valley. It comes with the first “faint glow of dawn” (9), announcing that something is going to happen. That is why it turns into a “blanket of ground fog” (9) to show that it is going to engulf the valley and reach the village. This is certainly the sign of death reaching the village in the shape of a command Colonel to Don Lazaro issues that “you have to kill them” (1) or else face total annihilation. Within the panoramic view amid “the dark, gray clouds and the flat, black mountains” (9), the arrival of fog is a somber natural move.Black color is associated with death or bad luck, and it is the fate of those five young “catechists” (16) that is sealed amid this sinister climate. Even when this is morning, still this fog is there in the shape of mist when women start weeping under veils in “the heavy mist of the morning” (19). It is a sign that their bad luck is still there. When the deed is done, the blackness is still there in the shape of “black incense” (39), a ritual to be carried out to pray for the dead souls. Then the “dense mist surged forward, enveloping the whole scene” (40) where the dead are to be buried. When this is done, the same mood of blackness, fog, and mist enveloped the mass a wall that is the “dense wall of the congregation collapsed in a mass of wailing bodies” (42), turning all the human beings into inanimate objects, dense wall, in the face of death.

Death in “from ‘Three Dirges”

Death is a phenomenon that turns even ordinary human actions and reactions into something sinister and somber, demonstrating that the situation is not common. Poe, the master of death stories, uses the same techniques in his short stories. However, Connelly has used the words “horror” and “fear” “from ‘Three Dirges” along with several actions and reactions of the village people to show that they are living in the midst of death, honor, and devastation that could befall them at any moment in the shape of murdering their own sons. When Don Lazaro is first told to kill those five young catechists, his reaction is of somewhat helplessness “what’s a man supposed to do” (1), he says. He comments on the order saying that a person is supposed to bring up his sons not to kill them specifically when they are mentors of the community. This shows that they are quite helpless and have nothing to do else except obey this order. When the Colonel called him again, “he frowned” (5) to terrify his victim, Don Larazo was there to witness the “measured formality” (11) of the soldier, “never moving his eyes from the face of the leathery Mayan stooping before his desk” (7).  When he conveys the same message to the villagers, the first reaction comes from the women. When one starts weeping and her “anguish pierced the still” (14) the death seems to have traveled from the camp of the soldiers to the “soul of the village” (14) represented by the women through the mayor. When wailing women and terrified families do not listen to him out of their sorrow and fear, he turns to terrify them through the previous narrative, of the “massacre of Puente Alto” (29). It includes the merciless killing of “women” (29), “men” (29), and “small boys”(30) before them, showing they have nothing else to choose from. Then some others from the speechless audience start abusing the soldiers saying “what bitches have brought these bastards into the world” (32) with somebody else calling “black-souled whores” sheer due to the desperation in which there is not “even a margin of hope” (38). This is similar to a desperate person who is on death row and starts hysterically abusing everybody, who comes his way, seeing no other way to save his/her life. These acts “from ‘Three Dirges”  coupled with several other symbols and signs have further made the atmosphere and tone full of deathly horror. After all, it is natural for a human being to save his/her life in whatever way he can. When all human acts stop due to the prevalent fear of death, only machines work such as “a heavy truck churned and churned” (43) and then the drone of the truck slowly dissipated” (43), leaving death behind and the silent crowd of spectators watching the graves of their loved ones killed by themselves.

Conclusion

In fact, signs, symbols whether they are animate or inanimate, human actions, reactions, and responses to the prevalent circumstances set the atmosphere, mood, and tone of the story. These elements, then, move the reader to feel the catharsis of his emotions of pity, fear, sympathy, or empathy. When there is a theme of death in the story, even its words ooze out fear, terror, and horror as is in Poe’s different stories. The same is the case in this story. Although not written on that level of a horror story as of Poe’s, yet, “from ‘Three Dirges” starts with the theme of death demonstrated not only through all types of symbols but also signs and human acts. The very first paragraph shows the phrase “you have to kill them” (1) and they prove it in the last paragraph that they have killed them and now their “souls of five young men [are] high into the pines” (43). The flight of pigeons from the valley and the flock of birds leaving the place are symbols of peace flying away and death coming fast. The tower, bell, fog, mist, and then human actions of feeling horror, terror, and helplessness; all have set the terrible atmosphere of the story, where death is going to rule supreme. Whether it is deliberate to write about death amid such somber symbols, signs, and acts, it is clear that Connelly has used these techniques very effectively to make the reader feel the horrors that civil war has created for the common people who suffered the most.

Works Cited

Connelly, Marshal Bennett. “from ‘Three Dirges” from Requiem Guatemala: A Story of the People. Guatemala Historical Reclamation Memorial Project, 2019.

Relevant Questions about “from ‘Three Dirges”: Ghastly Atmosphere

1. How does the author create and sustain a ghastly atmosphere “from ‘Three Dirges” and what literary techniques are employed to evoke a sense of dread and unease in the reader?
2. Explore the role of setting and imagery in establishing the ghastly atmosphere in “from ‘Three Dirges”. How do descriptions of the environment and surroundings contribute to the overall tone of the work?
3. In “from ‘Three Dirges”, how do the characters’ actions, dialogues, or inner thoughts contribute to the creation of a ghastly atmosphere, and what emotions or reactions does this atmosphere elicit from the reader?

Introduction to Women in Beowulf

In the first reading regarding women in Beowulf, it seems that almost all the women whether they are relations of the warrior kings and nobles or of the monsters are marginalized, or put into exclusion. However, the close reading demonstrates that they are not excluded figures at all. Rather they have attained some prominence in one or the other way through the role they played in Anglo-Saxon social life. Among the total six female figures, three are very important. They are specifically mentioned in some details about women in Beowulf.

All three exert a great influence in the lives of the state as well as within the family they live. Whereas Wealhtheow played her part as a hostess, Hildebrush became a peace-bringing maiden and the mother of Grendel became a revengeful matriarchal figure though finally tamed. All these women, through the roles they played in Anglo-Saxon society, demonstrate that women were not just put into exclusion but played important roles. Despite this, these women in Beowulf did not get much mention in the poem. Their role could be elaborated upon from three angles; as hostesses, as peace weavers, and as avenge seekers.

Heroics of Women in Beowulf

As a great hostess, Wealhtheow plays an important role in the court. She has been mentioned in very positive terms throughout the poem wherever her role is important. These terms not only show the importance of women in Beowulf as well as in Anglo-Saxon society but also the prudence that they displayed in everyday life. She is not only “heedful of courtesy” (613) but also “the ring-graced queen, the royal-hearted,” (624). She is also a stimulant in urging the warriors, for when she bent down to give a mead-cup to Beowulf, she also won a promise from him;

She greeted the Geats’ lord, God she thanked,

in wisdom’s words, that her will was granted. (626-627)

            Her primary role is as a hostess in the celebration or the party. She carries the mead to every warrior. When Wealhtheow distributes the bowl of mead to everybody from Hrothgar to Beowulf, she reminds Beowulf again of his promise to get rid of Grendel. Her presence is a stimulus to Beowulf – an important role of a female impetus working behind the scene. She again appears in the second scene distributing the cup and here instead of distributing it to everybody in order, she directly goes to Beowulf, showing that he has attained a greater status than he previously held and this is distinct through a female figure. The order in which she serves made her role as a hostess very important in understanding the social ranking and importance of a figure in Anglo-Saxon society. In another interpretation, it could be deduced that as she first served the king in the first scene, it shows his power but in the second she goes to Beowulf who has attained the upper hand. However, the veiled indication of her power when she spoke amid warriors, “Through the ways of life / prosper, O prince! I pray for thee” (1230) shows how she impacts the events. It could hardly be ignored which is proof that women in Beowulf are not wholly marginalized figures.

Peacekeeping Women in Beowulf

 As far as their role as peace weavers women in Beowulf is concerned, Hildebursh is a perfect example. The term peace weaver has been used in the sense that in the old English culture or Anglo-Saxon culture women were given in marriage to bring peace between two rival groups and this tradition still continues to dominate several eastern tribal societies. The story of Hildebursh, in fact, shows the nature of the conflict and battle that exists between two tribes, and she was won in the ensuing battle as war booty. Naturally, she was at the death of her near and dear ones including her husband. However, she reconciled with the new situation and perhaps married as she got a child of fighting age when she returned to the Danish people who still considered her amongst them.

Avenger Women in Beowulf

The third role of the woman is that of Grendel’s mother who played the role of a “woman monster” (2130) and an avenge-seeking mother women in Beowulf. Contrary to the first prototype, she acts like a male member bent upon avenging the death of her son. She appears in the middle of the poem but she is described in strong terms as a masculine figure, having evil nature and a monstrous body. No positive word appears for her like her counterparts in the poem such as Hildebursh and Wealhtheow. She is not only greedy but also a warrior woman, having strong nerves and the will to kill anybody who comes her way. Although a monster, she is still a woman though monsters were considered cursed human beings belonging to the tribe of Cain, and outcasts due to the murder of Abel by Cain. She proves a hardihood in the face of Beowulf and approached the king and his retainers to kill stealthily. She takes out 30 people during her first entry but did not let anybody know. This shows the role of a mother in that she, on the one hand, seeks revenge for her son and on the other hand, uses typical feminine tactics of working stealthily.

Conclusion

Hence, it is clear from these figures that women have a very important role in Anglo-Saxon society and they were not merely marginalized women in Beowulf. They were not only hostesses but also stimulants, peacemakers, and avenge-seekers as is clear from the roles of Wealhtheow Hildebursh and Grendel’s mother. However, one thing is important they were defined by their male counterparts and they were to do whatever their male heirs used to order although they were independent in their absence such as in the case of Grendel’s mother. But all in all, they were not as marginalized as has been made it out from Beowulf.

Works Cited

1. Anonymous. Beowulf. Trans. Francis Barton Gummere. Vol. 1. New York: Wily, 2010.

Relevant Questions about Women in Beowulf

1. How are women in Beowulf portrayed in terms of their roles and influence on the epic’s events?
2. What role do women in Beowulf play in shaping the character dynamics and societal structure within the narrative?
3. In what ways do the interactions and relationships involving women in Beowulf reflect the cultural values of the time in which the epic was written?

Introduction to The Garden Party and The Yellow Wallpaper

Both major characters of the stories “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Katherine Mansfield and Charlotte Perkins Gilman respectively seem poles apart from each other. Nothing seems common between Laura, a compassionate young girl, and the anonymous wife of John, a doctor. However, being females, both have some common character traits that make them prominent in their respective social settings. Laura and John’s wife of “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper” respectively are similar in being imaginative and compassionate and different in their mental conditions, relationships toward their surroundings, and toward their near and dear ones.

Laura and John’s Wife in “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”

Laure and John’s wife in both “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper” are similar in that both use their imaginations and think beyond their settings, demonstrating compassion for others. John’s wife, when he brought her to the mansion, starts writing about the situation she is placed. She does not agree with her husband about the house as she thinks “there is something queer about it (Gilman 52) or “Else, why it should be let so cheaply” (52). She sees some “ghastliness” (53) despite its being the most “beautiful” (53), having a “delicious garden” (59) and everything else that makes it fit for a person like her but she says “I disagree with their ideas” (60). She is not fit in her settings.

Similarities of Female Characters in “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”

On the other hand, though Laura is enjoying the party, when she hears the news of a death in the vicinity she does not agree with Jose and even with her mother who supports Jose’ idea that it does not matter. She is of the view “But we can’t possibly have a garden-party with a man dead” (Mansfield 54). She is not in sync with other family members thinking “what the band would sound like to that poor woman” (55). When she argues with her mother saying it would seem “terribly heartless of us” (58), she gets the same response as she gets from Jose. However, she, then, joins the party and enjoys making her family members happy and so is with John’s wife that she is doing everything to make her husband happy, as she says “I would not be so silly as to make him [John, her husband] uncomfortable just for a whim” (Gilman 60). She knows that her husband is aware of her “imaginative power” (60) and Laure when reasoned by Mrs. Sheridan thinks when alone “she had another glimpse of that poor woman and those little children” (Mansfield 58) – a evidence of her imaginative power, which is according to her mother “an absurd idea” (59). Both Laura and John’s wife in “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”share these two qualities of being imaginative and compassionate and seem unfit in their social surroundings.

Mental Condition of Female Characters in “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”

However, both are different in their mental conditions, their relations with their respective surroundings, and their family members in “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”.  Laura is a mentally stable girl; the proof of this is that her mother, Mrs. Sheridan, hands over the entire party to her and her other siblings. “Forget I am your mother. Treat me as an honored guest” (Mansfield 58), she says. Sheridan shows her full confidence in her mental maturity. She does not believe in that “absurd class distinction” (59), “despised stupid conventions” (60), and does not like the way the men were working in the lawn. She does not reason when Jose and her mother confront her ideas of not partying when a man is dead in the neighborhood, but she deals with it in a reasonable manner and realizes during her visit to that family that it was “her mistake” (65) to have come as she felt distraught at the end. However, John’s wife is suffering from some kind of depression, but still, she is not certainly insane. She knows what she is doing and knows that John is treating her and bringing her to this house to make her have “self-control” (Gilman 64) that she does not have, unlike Laura. She takes “pains to control” (57) herself and the yellow wallpaper drives her crazy in that she gets obsessed with it. She is mentally so weak that she knows “I get unreasonably angry with John sometimes” (59) which has marred her relations with her family, though everybody takes care of her. Yet she does not trust them as she deceives Jennie that she is going to sleep. She leaves her alone saying “I must not let her find me writing” (63). She does not tell anybody what she is feeling about the wallpaper though she knows by sharing it would be a “relief” (65). It was because there was some estrangement between her and her husband and her sister-in-law. However, contrary to it, Laura does not reason much when she sees that two, Jose and Mrs. Sheridan are against her. Moreover, she is quite comfortable at home, while John’s wife does not feel comfortable due to the yellow wallpaper that ultimately drives her mad. Even their material situation is not the same as Laura belongs to an elite family, while John’s wife is from a middle-class family which sets apart their thinking. Therefore, both female characters of “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper” are different.

Conclusion

There is no doubt that a similarity exists between Laura and John’s wife in being imaginative and compassionate toward other members and human beings around them and it is that almost all female characters share these traits. However, there is a hell of a difference in their self-control in both stories “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”. The same is the case of their relations with other members of their families, the outside world, and also with their surroundings. Therefore, every character is taken in his/her immediate context to understand real motives, and here Laura and John’s wife have very little in common between them but have a lot of differences.

Works Cited

1. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. The Yellow Wall-Paper and Other Stories. Oxford University Press, USA, 1998. 51-76.
2. Mansfield, Katherine. The Garden Party and Other Stories. Penguin, 1997. 53-68.

Three Relevant Questions about “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”: Laura and John’s Wife

1. How do the characters of Laura in “The Garden Party” and John’s wife in “The Yellow Wallpaper” challenge societal norms and expectations of women’s roles in their respective stories, and what are the consequences of their challenges?
2. Both Laura and John’s wife undergo significant transformations over the course of their respective narratives. How do their initial perspectives and worldviews differ from their final states, and what events or factors drive these transformations?
3. The settings in both stories, the garden party in “The Garden Party” and the isolated room in “The Yellow Wallpaper,” play pivotal roles in the character development and narratives. How do these settings influence the characters’ experiences and perceptions, and how are they symbolic of larger themes within each story?

Introduction in “Politics and the English Language”

George Orwell’s essay “Politics and the English Language,” explains the reasons for the development of the language, stating that the minds of man have increasingly become stagnant by using hackneyed or dying metaphors, trite phrases, meaningless words, and worn-out clichés whereby he shows common errors, but also hopes for healing English writings. He intends to point out several malicious tendencies crept into English writing due to the social and economic transformations in which he states in “Response to Politics and the English Language”that there is a “half-conscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument which we shape for our own purposes” (Orwell). It is, he thinks, not correct. This tendency of thinking has made modern English suffer from ambiguity. This inability and this incompetence of using hackneyed phrases is the mistake of the writers who are mechanically engaged in writing empty phrases hardwired into their processes of writing which does not clarify real meanings to the readers.

Analysis of Language in “Politics and the English Language”

Orwell then brings forward five paragraphs written by different writers to support his thesis of “Politics and the English Language”, saying that the reasons for this vagueness are dying metaphors, verbal false limbs, pretentious diction, and meaningless words. When this process is used to create peace “It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts.” However, he does not mean that it will continue but hopes for the regeneration of language stating that if “one gets rid of these habits one can think more clearly” which is a “first step toward political regeneration” (Orwell). Hence, he claims in “Politics and the English Language” it could lead to correct and plain language. Following putting solutions, he rewrites a passage taken from Ecclesiastes and points out the reason for the ugliness of the written language.

Reasons for Using Cliches

            The reason behind this is that he states in “Politics and the English Language” that it is a mechanical habit where thinking is not involved because a writer uses these metaphors and phrases when is not delivering a speech or writing very fast and if “if the writer is not seeing a mental image of the objects he is naming; in other words he is not really thinking” (Orwell). To show this he has given several metaphors and phrases which he states that sometimes writers even do not understand the meanings of and just write for the sake of writing. However, the language written in this way is he says, “It consists in gumming together long strips of words which have already been set in order by someone else and making the results presentable by sheer humbug” (Orwell). It misses two major points; one is the loss of creativity that he says is to go after the words and the second is that the sentences lack rhythms. By loss of creativity, I mean the writer does not have to be engaged in mental rigorous exercises of inventing new phrases and metaphors which make a piece interesting and alive. This is according to him in “Politics and the English Language”  isfound in political writings which are “largely the defence of the indefensible” (Orwell). It is because if these “indefensibles” are defended through plain language, then arguments become highly “brutal for most of the people to face” (Orwell). This is the real truth that political commentators and writers engage in writing vague pieces by using hackneyed phrases and stale metaphors.

Invention of Language

Lastly, the ultimate purpose of Orwell in this essay is to reach out to English writers to convey to them to engage in mental exercises to create and invent language to make it clear instead of engaging in ambiguity. It is also that Orwell himself has shown it clearly in his writing what skillful writing should be stating that “A newly-invented metaphor assists thought by evoking a visual image” (Orwell). He shows this in practice by using the phrase “huge dump of worn-out metaphors” (Orwell) which creates a mental image. In nutshell, in “Politics and the English Language”he has painted an exceptionally good picture of what is writing with modern English writing and how it could be fixed.

Tips for Correct Writing in “Politics and the English Language”

The advice of Orwell in “Politics and the English Language” for writers is to avoid trite and dead metaphors and hackneyed phrases saying that “all needed is to let the meaning choose the word, and not the other way around” (Orwell). He means that when we write, we choose words first and then try to convey our meanings through them. It is because when we imagine something, we immediately go for an existing language that he means metaphors and phrases and rarely go for inventing new ones. He states that we should rather use words after making their meanings clear through “pictures and sensations.” Later on, a person can choose those words and use them in his language for which he has stated clear rules.      

1. He advises avoiding already used and printed words, and figures of speech.
2. He says that a long word should not be used to replace a short one.
3. If a word is useless at some places, cut it out and leave it.
4. Do you ornate your language with foreign words and scientific jargon.
5. You need to break away from these rules and go to hunt down words instead of relying on the same words.

However, he also states that though these rules are basics, it depends on the change of attitude. The reason is that a writer is entrenched in his style and if he has been writing for a long, it is not easy to change this. After all, the use of language is not to confound the readers but to persuade and convince them and it is not “for concealing or preventing thought” (Orwell). As far as my essay about response to “Politics and the English Language”is cornered, I think the first three points; the use of dying or incompatible metaphors, meaningless words, and inflated style to be avoided to stay to the point as this is the requirement in civil engineering not to use ornate or inflated style.

Five Words

1. Decadent: A thing that is declining or become obsolete
2. Pretentious: It means artificial behavior and here it means artificial words or language
3. Inflated: It means greater than what is actually justified at the place
4. Archaism: This is the method or attitude of using old and obsolete words or expressions
5. Evocative: This is a thing that stimulates the memories of the past.

Works Cited

1. Orwell, George. “Politics and the English Language.” 1946. Orwell Foundation.com. Accessed Nov. 20, 2022.

Relevant Questions about “Politics and the English Language”

1. How does George Orwell’s essay “Politics and the English Language” critique the use of language in politics and its impact on thought and communication?
2. In “Politics and the English Language,” what specific examples and techniques does Orwell employ to illustrate the degradation of language and its consequences in political discourse?
3. What practical advice does George Orwell offer in “Politics and the English Language” to writers and speakers to improve the clarity and integrity of their language in both political and everyday contexts?

Introduction to Epic Hero in Gilgamesh

Epic hero in Gilgamesh is a tricky question due to having various incredible characters. There are extraordinary mortals who accomplish great and incredible feats in stories or epics they are set in. They are usually the central figures of myths, legends, or epic poems and generally, they are larger-than-life figures. As epics are usually written and told in flashbacks wherein the narrator takes the stories and starts from the middle and works towards the events happening at the end. The heroes given in epics have been given extra grandeur. They are described through extended similes, wider descriptions, and grand language to enhance specific features of their characters to equal them to their great actions. This is done by incorporating some natural or supernatural occurrences which they have to overcome. Epic heroes are usually people who have divine touch but still have either human faults or some human ancestry. As epic means a majestic poetic piece, the heroes of these stories must wage struggles beyond the power of human beings and inspire favor of the gods or other dues ex machina. The actions of differnet heroes, as far as the epic hero in Gilgamesh is concerned, are grand. However, they are different regarding the role required of the hero at the time when they were present and the culture they belonged to.

Epic Hero in Gilgamesh: Case of Gilgamesh

In most epics, the heroes are in some part divine. Starting about the epic hero in Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh himself seems a hero. He was born to the goddess Ninsun while being blessed with courage and beauty by Addad and Shamash. He was a human being otherwise.  Enkidu, who became his friend after he reached the city, was also of divine birth but lesser in status to him since he was created from clay. He was created to lower Gilgamesh’s arrogance. His role as a hero ends after his death, though it does serve a purpose for Gilgamesh. He undertakes an epic journey to search for the meaning of life. Unlike Enkidu, Gilgamesh possesses all qualities of a hero and eventually makes his nation realize that they cannot escape death which is something inevitable. Odysseus, unlike Gilgamesh, has an earthly birth. His parents Anticlea and Laertes are humans. He is brave and very sharp, using his wit to outwit his enemies like the Cyclops. Therefore, he seems a true epic hero in Gilgamesh.

Differences Between Epic Heroes

On the other hand, Aeneas is the son of Aphrodite, who is also a goddess but from a man. He is very brave and virtuous, something mentioned in the poem The Aeneid on numerous occasions. His virtue is something that Virgil appreciates and wants to drill into his soldiers. Both Aeneas and Gilgamesh, the epic hero in Gilgamesh, are blessed with sacred beauty which aids them during their quests for meanings of life and death. However, Odysseus accomplishes the same feats with his skill with words, intellectual dexterity, and an agile body. He is fast both on his feet as well as his mind, perhaps more so than the other heroes, leading him to return home despite many temptations or obstacles obstructing his path. It is also not correct that other heroes do not possess great intelligence, they do but not to the point where he stands in his situation. Gilgamesh demonstrates it, as he finds Utnapishtim that he is knowledgeable and finds a way to have an access to the immortality plant. In the case of Aeneas case, he is intelligent but unlike Gilgamesh and Odysseus’s there is direct interference from both Jupiter and his mother time and again which saves him on several occasions. Turnus, unlike the previous three, does not have the assistance of the gods and is very arrogant and proud. Aeneas constantly emphasizes his virtue, exclaiming repeatedly to the gods and showing his skills, “Is this the prize for virtue? Is this how you restore our rule?” Turnus, on the other hand, shows no such restraint. He continuously tries to conspire against Aeneas knowing the other is better than him and has an upper hand on him. Virgil also displays virtue and is proud of it. He emphasizes the virtue Aeneas possesses, urging the Roman soldiers to do the same. Turnus has no such virtue. That is why Juno aids him for a while until Jupiter intervenes.

Epic Hero in Gilgamesh and Tribal Loyalties

One thing they all share is the assistance of gods they receive whenever the going gets too tough and when they need help, or cannot deal with hardships anymore. The major difference between all of them lies not in how they are born, or to whom but rather society and culture they belong to and their role in those societies. Gilgamesh has to unite his tribe. When he faces defeat from Enkidu, his best friend and someone he deeply cherishes, he sets out to achieve immortality to break the bondage of death. Odysseus is to lay down the foundations of a nation worthy of greatness when he reaches home and is to save his household and his city; he faces many temptations and attractions on his way back home. His, being an age of mental agility and knowledge, which took precedence over possessing only courage as was shown by the way, he eloquently uses words in a few of his predicaments to get out of a tough spot. Virgil wanted virtue in the men of his empire and Aeneas displays both restraint and virtue which could be glorified, followed and showed how the foundations for a successful empire are laid down. Turnus, unlike him, is an opportunist, impulsive and impatient. He will not be known as a hero despite reaching the stature of one. It is because it was not in his destiny to become a hero because Aeneas was chosen to lay down the foundations of the great nation. The differences between these heroes developed because of their different cultures, the gods from whom they ultimately received assistance, or did not receive favors, and their own roles in the situations they were placed in.

Conclusion

To sum it up, epic heroes are all grand figures. They either enjoy divine births, or are humans that accomplish great feats possessing extraordinary skills. They accomplish awe-inspiring and great things. They also have or earn the favor of the gods who aid them throughout their journeys and help them cross hurdles that they just cannot do on their own. They have all done much for the countries, empires, or cities they belong to. Their differences in how they acted or what they achieved lie in the cultures they belong to, the time they were born in, the nations they came from, and what was expected from them.

Bibliography

1. Gransden, Karl Watts, and Stephen John Harrison. Virgil: The Aeneid. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
2. Homer, Homer. The Odyssey. Xist Publishing, 2015.
3. Kovacs, Maureen Gallery. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Stanford University Press, 1989.

Relevant Questions

1. What are the key differences between Gilgamesh and other epic heroes in terms of their character traits and development throughout their respective narratives?
2. How does Gilgamesh’s journey and transformation differ from that of traditional epic heroes, and what unique challenges does he face that set him apart from other legendary figures?
3. In what ways does the role of friendship and companionship in Gilgamesh’s story differentiate him from other epic heroes, and how do these differences contribute to his characterization as an epic hero with distinct qualities and values?

Introduction to Afrofuturistic Fiction

Although postmodernism has given much significance to time, Afrofuturistic fiction has woven time into the very cycles of human life treating it as non-linear and fluid. In fact, time moves in every direction. It treats all of its manifestations as one lived experience that a person is aware of and that is present. Niama Safia Sandy’s assertion given as a quote, too, points to the same thing that every moment is the present moment and the ‘now’ moment. It means that there is no past, present, or future. Some Afrofuturistic fiction too treat time in the same way and show that it is one of the hallmarks of Afrofuturistic literature. Long Division, “Speech Sounds” and  Parable of the Sorrow, examples of Afrofuturistic fiction , treat time as if it is present and this present represents the ‘now’ moment.

 Long Division: An Example of Afrofuturistic Fiction

If this issue of time is taken in Long Division by Kiese Layman, an example of Afrofuturistic fiction,  it seems that the same problem occurs with the presentation of time. The first thing is that City, the narrator of the novel, is living in the present which is his ‘now’ movement, but he wants to travel in the future with his beloved Shalaya Crump. Although he does not travel in the future and is still in the ‘now’ moment. Therefore, his fantasy of time travel with Shalaya Crump is not just a fantasy but a reality for him, for he is aware of it. Although it seems a feminine quality of making male partner realize the reality of time as she tells City asking him, “City, I could love you if you helped me change the future dot-dot-dot in a special way” (Layman 20). However, the real City narrates that she always means 1986 or 1990 which is the conundrum of the time whether it is present or past. However, both are certain and aware of it that they are in the ‘now’ moment and living in the non-linear timebound world. It is quite interesting that when City wants to talk about love, she immediately cuts him short saying “I’ am talking about the future” (22). Even two of the MCQs given to City at Hamer for punishment contain the same reference that “Past, present and future exist within you” (16). This ‘now’ moment is present in “Speech Sounds” by Octavia Butler, too, which is another example of Afrofuturistic fiction.

Case of “Speech Sounds” as Afrofuturistic Fiction

The story “Speech Sounds”also presents this ‘now’ moment of its female character, Rye. In fact, as a teacher of history, she has lost her past in her present moment as she cannot record anything now, but she is still present to see the history such as the incident of the bus driver, Obsidian, and the children. Even if he is able to write or read, this record is meaningless as it would stay with her in the present or ‘now’ moment, and nobody would be able to read it. However, as a professor, she also knows that if a society is to move forward, it should have to work in linear time and not in a non-linear and fluid time where only the ‘now’ moment is important. Therefore, her elation skyrockets when she finds that the children know the language and she can speak too. That is where she thinks that speech sounds can make a future for her in the shape of children to let her escape from this ‘now’ moment. This moment is interestingly captured by a female in Parable of the Sorrow as well.

Although the setting is of the near future California, Butler has woven the thematic strand of the present time into the future time as well as into the past time to bring her readers close to the ‘now’ moment of Lauren Olmina whose current concern is survival. The other issues of religion, environment, and communalism are not the issues of the current region; they are the issues of time and that is the ‘now’ moment as they are happening now. Lauren’s conversation with Joe about the future “You can’t read the future” and then (Butler 47) her dialog of surprise about Donner that he is just a “symbol of the past for us to hold on to as we’re pushed into future” (48). Even why, what, and wherefore of God asked later about Earthseed is part of the time that it does not seem linear and that it is fluid.

Themes in Afrofuturistic Fiction

In short, Afrofuturistic fiction shows time fluid. All the times, past, present and future are bound in the ‘now’ moment. Long Division shows this ‘now’ moment of City through his beloved while Rye in “Speech Sounds” sees this moment through the speech of the children. On the other hand, Lauren sees this moment when talking to Joe and Donner. In short, time’s fluidity becomes a great theme of this type of fiction.

Works Cited

1. Butler, Octavia. Parable of the Sorrow. New York: ASPECT, 2000.
2. . —. “Speech Sounds.” UNL. n. d. https://www.unl.edu/english/docs/englishweek17/engl200-speechsounds.pdf. Accessed 13 May. 2019.
3. Layman, Kiese. Long Division. Chicago: BOLDEN, 2013.

Relevant Questions about Issue of Time in Afrofuturistic Fiction

1. How do “Speech Sounds” by Octavia Butler and “Long Division” by Kiese Laymon use Afrofuturistic fiction to explore and redefine the concept of time, particularly in the context of African and African diaspora cultures?
2. In Afrofuturistic fiction, such as “Speech Sounds” by Octavia Butler and “Long Division” by Kiese Laymon, how is the manipulation of time used as a narrative device to address historical trauma, cultural continuity, and the impact of colonialism and slavery?
3. What role does the concept of “time travel” or temporal displacement play in Afrofuturistic fiction as seen in works like “Speech Sounds” by Octavia Butler and “Long Division” by Kiese Laymon, and how does it allow authors to envision alternative pasts, presents, and futures for marginalized communities?

Introduction to Communism in “The Garden Party”

Communism in “The Garden Party” by Katherine Mansfield is perhaps the first trace of this leftist perspective shown suppressed by the family and friends so successfully that Laura also has to conclude that “It was simply marvelous” (Mansfield). It means she has shown a great deal of resistance to class privilege and benefits. Yet, she has to succumb to pressure and above all the festivities of the party. From the very start, she demonstrates that she is not susceptible to class consciousness. When the laborers reach her home to work, she immediately recognizes and mingles with them and their cultural nitty-gritty. However, when she speaks to her mother, brother, and family members, she is constantly reminded that she is of the elite class and must behave likewise. Regarding communism in “The Garden Party”, her journey from awareness and resistance to final acceptance witnesses three stages; the awareness of humanity, an awareness of her class, and resistance to it she puts up at her own expense.

Laura’s Awareness in “The Garden Party”

Regarding communism in “The Garden Party”, the first awareness of her class comes to her mind when she hears her mother saying that she is “determined to leave everything to you children” (Mansfield). This is where she knows the first taste of autonomy and independence that is a typical feature of such elite classes. However, she is made up of some other stuff and everybody knows that she is an “artistic one” (Mansfield). It means she knows a lot more than others and possibly becomes easily aware of such familial privileges. She knows and also enjoys life like all others and she has a likeness for tastes (Mansfield). After all, they belong to the Sheridan family. When the laborers come, everybody at home feels the same as they used to but she does not feel easy, and when she says “Good morning” (Mansfield) it “sounded so fearfully affected” to her (Mansfield). Yet, it does not make any difference to others. This is the point where she starts showing something different in her character from all others. However, it is also that her upbringing makes her feel surprised at this. Even when the tall man smells lavender she is surprised to see it but she could not show she is feeling at home (Mansfield). This is the stage of her awareness about humanity that a single streak runs through all souls. It also shows traces of communism in “The Garden Party” that the tall and short are made of the same stuff, and she is also among them.

Resistance and Communism in “The Garden Party”

However, her resistance, a love for communism in “The Garden Party”, emerges when she sees the Sheridans treating all others differently. She sees that her mother as well as her brother are full of affection. When Cook comes and says that “There’s been a horrible accident” (Mansfield), all others think of the party instead of the dead man and his family. However, Laura is different from all of them. She stares at Godber’s man and then she informs Jose that they are going to stop the garden party. However, the privileges say that they cannot as they are from the upper family, and their response to her resistance is indifference (Mansfield). What others think about them is very beautifully summed up in the story in that they “were the greatest possible eyesore” with no right to live in such a neighborhood (Mansfield). In fact, she shows her true colors of belonging to the same humanity. That is why her mother warns her and makes her realize that this is a trivial issue. Her mother clearly tells in response to her surprise to a death that “my dear child, use your common sense” (Mansfield).  But her response is quite curt that it is “terribly heartless” (Mansfield). However, when she is told from every side from her brother to her father, sisters, and mother that she needs not worry about the dead man in the neighborhood and that she must enjoy her party,  she slowly starts succumbing to these pressures though with misgivings “Is mother right?” (Mansfield). This is the stage of communism in “The Garden Party”where it starts getting blurred and unreal and it is the point where she is going to stop resisting.

Conclusion

She starts accepting it when she is being mocked at this by her mother and she is made to feel odd about those poor people, showing traces of communism in “The Garden Party”. Her mother tells everybody in a mocking tone that “Laura insisted we should put it off” (Mansfield). It is where she starts accepting that she is from the upper class and when her mother asks to bring her a basket to send eatables to the family of the dead person, she has taken full circle in realizing her status “mother, do you really think it’s a good idea?” (Mansfield). Her mother has to make her realize that people in this class are impressed by such gestures and this is what she “couldn’t realize it” (Mansfield). She brings that basket and reaches there. She hands over it to that lady and when she questions herself “Am I being extravagant?” (Mansfield) and this is the point where she has realized that it is a part of life which she said at the end to her brother. This is how she has resisted and finally accepted it.

Work Cited

1. Mansfield, Katherin. “The Garden Party”. Katherine Mansfield Society. n.d. Web. 08 April 2014. http://www.katherinemansfieldsociety.org/assets/KM-Stories/THE-GARDEN-PARTY1921.pdf. Accessed Nov. 22, 2021.

Relevant Question about Communism in “The Garden Party”

1. How does Mansfield’s portrayal of the Sheridan family’s extravagant garden party reflect the social hierarchy of the time, and what parallels can be drawn between this class divide and the critiques of privilege often associated with communist ideology?
2. In “The Garden Party,” the Sheridan family’s affluence and detachment from their less privileged neighbors are evident. How might this stark contrast between the Sheridans and their neighbors resonate with discussions of social inequality and the class struggle, which are central to communist thought?
3. While “The Garden Party” doesn’t explicitly delve into communism, how does Mansfield’s narrative treatment of the Sheridan family’s luxurious lifestyle and their interaction with the lower-class workers prompt readers to contemplate broader societal issues, including economic disparities and the potential for class-consciousness?