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Canon in Literature & Literary Theory

Canon, in the realm of literature and the arts, comprises a select and culturally sanctioned collection of works that are deemed exemplary, influential, and indispensable in a specific literary tradition

Etymology of Canon

The term “canon” in literature refers to a collection or list of works considered to be authoritative, exemplary, or culturally significant in a specific literary tradition, genre, or period. The etymology of the word “canon” in this context could be traced back to ancient Greek and Latin:

Ancient Greek: The Greek word “κανών” (pronounced “kanón”) originally meant a straight rod or bar used for measuring or alignment. It was also used metaphorically to refer to a standard or rule. In the context of literature, “canon” drew from this metaphorical usage to denote a set of standard or accepted works.
Latin: The Latin language adopted the term “canon” from Greek, and it retained a similar meaning of a rule or standard. In Latin, “canon” was used in various fields, including religion and law, to refer to authoritative texts or doctrines.

Meanings of Canon

A straight rod or bar used for measuring or alignment, originally in ancient Greek.
Metaphorically, a standard or rule, also derived from ancient Greek.
In Latin, it continued to mean a rule or standard, applied in various fields.

In literature, a collection or list of works considered authoritative, exemplary, or culturally significant within a particular tradition, genre, or period.

Definition of Canon as a Theoretical Term

Canon, in the realm of literature and the arts, comprises a select and culturally sanctioned collection of works that are deemed exemplary, influential, and indispensable in a specific literary tradition, genre, or cultural milieu. These works establish fundamental benchmarks, shaping aesthetic and thematic criteria while also reflecting the prevailing values and norms of their time or community. The concept of a literary or artistic canon holds significant sway in guiding critical discourse, shaping scholarly analysis, and contributing to cultural identities and heritage.

Canon Used by Theorists

Theorists:

T.S. Eliot: Eliot discussed the literary canon as a means to define and uphold the cultural and literary traditions that contribute to the continuity and coherence of a society.

Harold Bloom: Bloom explored the concept of the Western literary canon and introduced the idea of the “anxiety of influence” regarding how later writers engage with established canonical works.
Michel Foucault: Foucault examined the idea of the literary and cultural canon as a tool of power, demonstrating how it can be used to shape and control cultural discourse.

Works Associated with Canon:

“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot: Eliot, In this poem, drew on various canonical works and literary traditions to create a complex and allusive modernist masterpiece.

The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages by Harold Bloom: Bloom, In this book, presents his influential ideas about the Western literary canon and its enduring importance.
The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences by Michel Foucault: Here Foucault explored how the concept of a cultural and literary canon has been used historically to classify and regulate knowledge.

Arguments About Canon:

Preservation of Cultural Heritage: Theorists argue that the canon in literature preserves important cultural and literary heritage, ensuring that future generations have access to foundational texts.

Gatekeeping and Exclusion: Critics also argue that the canon can be exclusive, perpetuating biases and overlooking marginalized voices and works.
Evolution and Expansion: Some theorists advocate for an evolving and expanding canon in literature that reflects changing societal values and includes a broader range of voices and perspectives.

Canon and Literary Theories

Theory	Canons
Marxist Literary Theory	– Economic Determinism: Emphasizes the role of economic structures and class struggle in literature. – Social Context: Analyzes how literature reflects and reinforces societal class divisions and power dynamics. – Material Conditions: Examines how the material conditions of society influence the creation and reception of literature. – Ideological Critique: Focuses on exposing and critiquing the ideologies embedded in literary works.
Feminist Literary Theory	– Gender Representation: Analyzes how literature portrays gender roles, stereotypes, and the experiences of women. – Patriarchy Critique: Investigates how literary texts may perpetuate or challenge patriarchal norms and power structures. – Intersectionality: Considers how race, class, and other factors intersect with gender in literature. – Recovery and Redefinition: Aims to recover and reinterpret the voices and contributions of marginalized female authors.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	– Colonial Legacy: Examines the impact of colonialism on literature, identity, and culture. – Subaltern Voices: Highlights the perspectives and voices of colonized or marginalized peoples. – Hybridity: Explores the blending of cultures and identities in postcolonial literature. – Resistance and Decolonization: Focuses on literature as a tool for resistance and decolonization.
Queer Literary Theory	– Sexuality and Gender Identity: Analyzes how literature represents and challenges normative notions of sexuality and gender. – Queer Reading: Interprets texts from queer perspectives, emphasizing non-normative sexualities. – Subversion of Norms: Explores how literature can subvert heteronormative narratives and binaries. – LGBTQ+ Representation: Examines how LGBTQ+ characters and themes are depicted in literature.
New Criticism	– Close Reading: Emphasizes a detailed analysis of the text itself, disregarding authorial intent or historical context. – Formal Elements: Focuses on the formal aspects of literature, such as structure, imagery, symbolism, and language. – Autotelic: Regards the literary work as self-contained and self-sufficient, with intrinsic value. – Objective Criticism: Strives for objectivity in the interpretation of literature.
Structuralist Literary Theory	– Structural Analysis: Concentrates on the underlying structures and systems in literature. – Language and Signs: Examines how language and signs function in literature. – Narrative Structures: Analyzes the underlying narrative patterns and conventions in literary texts. – Semiotics: Draws on semiotic theory to understand the sign systems at play in literature.

Canon as a Literary Device

As a literary device, “canon” refers to the deliberate inclusion or reference to a specific set of texts, ideas, or cultural elements within a literary work. Authors use this device to establish authority, create intertextual connections, explore themes, or make cultural commentary. It serves to enrich the depth and meaning of the narrative while contributing to character development and the overall context of the story.

Canon in Literature

Feature	Representative Work	How it is a Canon
Foundational Texts	Representative work: Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”	“Hamlet” is considered a foundational text in the Western literary canon, essential for understanding the development of drama and the complexities of human psychology.
Authoritative Influence	Representative work: Homer’s “The Odyssey”	“The Odyssey” by Homer has exerted authoritative influence on epic poetry and adventure narratives, setting stylistic and thematic standards for subsequent works.
Enduring Relevance	Representative work: Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice	*Pride and Prejudice* remains relevant due to its exploration of social class, relationships, and individualism, speaking to universal human experiences.
Cultural Significance	Representative work: Dante’s “Divine Comedy”	“The Divine Comedy” reflects the cultural and religious values of medieval Italy and has become a symbol of Italian literature and identity.
Exclusivity and Controversy	Representative work: James Joyce’s Ulysses	“Ulysses” is known for its controversial content and exclusion from some educational curricula, sparking debates about its place in the modernist canon.
Evolution and Revision	Representative work: Toni Morrison’s Beloved	*Beloved* challenged the traditional canon by introducing African American voices and narratives, prompting a reevaluation and expansion of literary canons.
Educational Importance	Representative work: Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn	*Huckleberry Finn* is a staple in literature courses, shaping curricula and providing a foundation for discussions of race, identity, and American culture.
Diversity and Inclusivity	Representative work: Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart	*Things Fall Apart* is instrumental in diversifying canons by introducing African literature and perspectives into global literary studies.
Interpretative Framework	Representative work: Aristotle’s “Poetics”	Aristotle’s “Poetics” serves as a foundational text for understanding the structure and principles of dramatic literature, providing an interpretative framework for analysis.

Alterity in Literary Theory

Alterity refers to the concept of encountering and recognizing the inherent otherness in individuals, cultures, or entities beyond oneself.

Etymology of Alterity

The term “alterity” traces its origins to the Latin word alter, meaning “other” or “different.” It emerged in philosophical discourse during the 20th century, notably associated with the works of philosophers such as Emmanuel Levinas and Jacques Derrida.

Alterity refers to the concept of encountering and recognizing the inherent otherness or difference in individuals, cultures, or entities beyond oneself. It serves as a foundational concept in existentialism and post-structuralism, highlighting the importance of acknowledging and engaging with the distinctiveness of the other as a means to understand the self and navigate complex intersubjective relationships.

Meanings of Alterity

Aspect	Description
As the State of Being Different or Other:	– Alterity refers to the fundamental concept of being different or distinct from something else. – It encapsulates the idea that entities or experiences can be perceived as “other” in relation to one’s own identity or perspective.
Philosophical Notions:	– In philosophy, alterity delves into the existential experience of encountering the Other as a separate and distinct entity. – Philosophers often explore questions related to how individuals perceive and engage with the Other, reflecting on the nature of self and otherness.
Social and Cultural Contexts:	– Alterity is frequently used to describe the experience of difference and otherness in social and cultural settings. – It encompasses how individuals and groups perceive and interact with those who have distinct cultural, social, or personal backgrounds.
Alterity in Postcolonial Theory:	– Postcolonial theory employs alterity to analyze how colonized peoples and cultures are constructed as “other” by the dominant culture. – It examines power dynamics, stereotypes, and narratives that contribute to the marginalization and subjugation of colonized groups.
Marginalization and Exclusion of Marginalized Groups:	– Alterity can also be applied to elucidate how marginalized groups are systematically excluded or treated as different within larger social structures. – It highlights the mechanisms that perpetuate discrimination and inequality based on perceived differences.
Linguistic Usage of Alterity:	– In linguistics, alterity manifests through the use of second-person pronouns to address someone as “other” or “different” from oneself. – This linguistic phenomenon underscores the role of language in expressing and reinforcing notions of alterity.
Challenging Dominant Narratives and Emphasizing Difference:	– Alterity serves as a tool for challenging or destabilizing dominant narratives and identities. – It emphasizes the importance of recognizing and valuing differences, promoting inclusivity, and resisting homogenizing or hegemonic perspectives in society.

Definition of Alterity

In literary theory, alterity refers to the representation of “otherness” in literature, where authors depict characters or cultures as distinct from the norm, often to explore themes of difference, identity, and power dynamics. This concept examines how texts portray and engage with the unfamiliar or marginalized, shedding light on the broader societal implications of these representations. Alterity plays a pivotal role in deconstructing dominant narratives and fostering critical analysis of literature’s socio-cultural and political dimensions.

Theorists on Alterity

Theorist	Work	Explanation of Alterity
Emmanuel Levinas	*Totality and Infinity*	Levinas explores ethical responsibility in relation to the Other, emphasizing the irreducibility of the Other and the demand for radical ethical responsibility.
Jacques Derrida	*Of Grammatology*	Derrida deconstructs binary oppositions and hierarchies in language and thought using alterity, challenging traditional structures and opening new possibilities for thought and language.
Homi Bhabha	*The Location of Culture*	Bhabha uses alterity to examine colonialism, identity, and hybridity, asserting that alterity challenges the dominance of imperial power and offers avenues for cultural and political change.
Mikhail Bakhtin	*Rabelais and His World*	Bakhtin explores language, dialogism, and carnival through alterity, highlighting the ambivalent nature of the world of carnival and the creation of new meanings through interaction.
Martin Heidegger	*Being and Time*	Heidegger delves into being and authenticity, positing that alterity is essential to understanding one’s own existence and the potential for authentic being.

Alterity in Different Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Extract and Work	Explanation of Alterity
Postcolonial Theory	Edward Said – Orientalism	Postcolonial theory examines how colonized peoples and cultures are constructed as “other” by the dominant culture. Said’s work shows how alterity is used as a tool of power and how it can challenge dominant discourses and representations.
Feminist Theory	bell hooks – Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center	Feminist theory explores questions of identity, power, and difference using alterity. hooks’ work demonstrates how alterity has historically been used to create and reinforce dominant narratives and identities, and how it can be used to challenge these structures.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Jacques Lacan – Écrits	Psychoanalytic theory delves into identity, desire, and the unconscious. Lacan’s work emphasizes how alterity is central to the formation of identity and subjectivity, allowing exploration of the complexities of human experience.
Reader-Response Theory	Wolfgang Iser – The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response	Reader-response theory explores how readers engage with texts and negotiate their identities and experiences. Iser’s work highlights how alterity is central to the reader’s experience of the text and interpretation.
Queer Theory	Judith Butler – Gender Trouble	Queer theory investigates sexuality, gender, and identity. Butler’s work reveals how alterity is used to construct and police dominant norms of gender and sexuality, as well as how it can challenge these structures.
Marxist Theory	Louis Althusser – Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays	Marxist theory examines power, class, and social change. Althusser’s work illustrates how alterity is used to construct and reinforce dominant power structures and can be used to challenge these structures.
Cultural Studies	Stuart Hall – Cultural Identity and Diaspora	Cultural studies explores identity, representation, and cultural production. Hall’s work argues that cultural identity is constructed through a process of difference and othering, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others.

Examples in Literature

Literary Work	Full Extract	Explanation of Alterity
*1. Heart of Darkness*	“The horror! The horror!” – Kurtz’s last words	In *Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness*, the character Kurtz embodies the enigmatic and foreign aspects of colonial Africa. Kurtz’s final words allude to his confrontation with a reality beyond human understanding, pushing him into madness.
*2. Beloved*	“She is a friend of my mind. She gather me, man. The pieces I am, she gather them and give them back to me in all the right order.”	In Toni Morrison’s Beloved, Beloved represents the haunting legacy of slavery. This quote illustrates Beloved’s ability to connect with Sethe on a profound level, transcending conventional boundaries of identity and experience.
*3. The Metamorphosis*	“He lay on his armor-hard back and saw, as he lifted his head up a little, his brown, arched abdomen divided up into rigid bow-like sections.”	In Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis, Gregor Samsa’s transformation into an insect symbolizes alterity. The description of his unfamiliar body emphasizes his alienation from his humanity and identity.
*4. The Stranger*	“I felt that I had been happy and that I was happy again.”	In Albert Camus’s The Stranger, alterity is explored through Meursault’s detachment from societal norms. This quote suggests that Meursault discovers a peculiar form of happiness in his indifference to conventional values.
*5. The Sound and the Fury*	“They endured.”	In William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury, the Compson family grapples with their past and the relentless passage of time, reflecting alterity. This quote underscores their ability to persevere despite their alienation.
6. Waiting for Godot	“Nothing to be done.”	Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot” explores alterity through the absurdity of waiting and uncertainty. The quote highlights the characters’ powerlessness to change their situation, emphasizing the fundamental alterity of their existence.

Alienation in Literary Theory

We live in a time where there’s an alienation factor. There’s a certain disconnection. We don’t have any real sense of community. Alan Ball

Etymology of Alienation

The term “alienation” finds its roots in Latin and Old French, where alienare and aliéner respectively meant “to transfer” or “to estrange.”

In an academic context, the concept gained prominence in the writings of Karl Marx, particularly in his exploration of the estrangement of laborers from the products of their labor under capitalism.

This etymological origin reflects the core notion of alienation as a process of separation, detachment, or estrangement, often referring to the disconnection of individuals from their labor, society, or even their own sense of self.

Different Meanings of Alienation in Literary Theory

These different meanings of alienation in literary criticism highlight the varied ways in which the theme of alienation can be explored in literature.

Types of Alienation	Definition	Literary Depiction
Social Alienation	– Refers to disconnection or isolation from society or social norms. – Depicted in literature through characters estranged from their communities or struggling to find belonging.	– Characters feeling estranged from their communities. – Struggles to find a sense of belonging.
Self-Alienation	– Refers to disconnection or estrangement from oneself, often due to trauma or psychological distress. – In literature, it is shown through characters struggling with identity or loss of agency.	– Characters experiencing disconnection from themselves. – Identity struggles and loss of agency.
Political Alienation	– Indicates disconnection or disillusionment with political systems or institutions. – In literature, it is depicted through characters resisting oppressive regimes or feeling powerless in political corruption.	– Characters resisting oppressive political regimes. – Feelings of powerlessness in the face of political corruption.
Cultural Alienation	– Denotes disconnection or separation from one’s cultural heritage or identity. – In literature, it is portrayed through characters navigating cultural clashes or torn between different traditions.	– Characters navigating cultural clashes. – Struggles when torn between different cultural traditions.
Ecological Alienation	– Involves disconnection or detachment from the natural world. – In literature, it is represented through characters struggling with environmental destruction or seeking a deeper connection to nature.	– Characters grappling with environmental destruction. – Desires for a deeper connection to nature.

These categories of alienation offer a framework for exploring various forms of disconnection and estrangement in literature and society.

Definition of Alienation

Alienation in literary theory refers to a multifaceted concept, comprising estrangement or disconnection individuals experience from various facets of their existence. It manifests as social alienation wherein characters feel isolated from their communities; self-alienation, marked by a detachment from one’s own identity often due to trauma; or political, cultural, and ecological alienation, where individuals experience disillusionment or detachment from political systems, cultural heritage, and the natural world, respectively.

Within literary analysis, alienation serves as a critical lens to examine characters’ experiences of detachment and the societal and psychological implications thereof.

Explanations of Alienation

Alienation refers to a sense of disconnection or separation from society, work, oneself, or others.
Alienation can be caused by various factors, including social, economic, psychological, and cultural factors.

Alienation can manifest in different forms, such as social isolation, loss of agency, psychological distress, or cultural clashes.
Alienation can be a product of structural or systemic factors, such as capitalism or social inequality, as well as personal experiences, such as trauma or loss.
Alienation can be a powerful tool for analyzing social, political, and cultural dynamics and for exploring the ways in which individuals and communities negotiate their relationships with the world around them.

Alienation is a prominent theme in modern literature, particularly in works that deal with social and political issues, such as dystopian novels or postcolonial literature.
Alienation can also be a source of creativity and resistance, as individuals and communities seek to assert their identities and agency in the face of social or cultural marginalization.

Alienation in Literary Theories

These theories of alienation provide valuable frameworks for analyzing literature from different perspectives and understanding how it reflects and responds to various forms of estrangement in society.

Theory	Works	Meaning	Usage
Marxist Theory	– The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels	The estrangement and alienation of individuals from their labor, products of labor, others, and themselves due to capitalist commodification of labor.	Analyzing literature’s reflection of capitalist social relations and advocating for societal transformation.
Existentialist Theory	– Being and Nothingness by Jean-Paul Sartre	The disconnection, alienation, and estrangement individuals feel from the world, others, and themselves due to awareness of mortality and existential choices.	Analyzing literature’s portrayal of human freedom, responsibility, and the search for meaning in an apparently meaningless world.
Psychoanalytic Theory	– The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud	Disconnection from unconscious desires and societal context leading to emptiness, anxiety, and neurosis.	Examining literature’s representation of conflicts between conscious and unconscious desires and exploring self-awareness and healing.
Feminist Theory	– The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir	The estrangement of women from their bodies, experiences, and male-dominated culture, leading to powerlessness and inferiority.	Analyzing literature’s reflection of gender-based oppression and exploring possibilities for feminist empowerment and consciousness-raising.
Postcolonial Theory	– Orientalism by Edward Said, Black Skin, White Masks by Frantz Fanon	Colonized peoples’ estrangement from their culture, history, and colonizer’s culture, leading to cultural inferiority and assimilation desire.	Examining literature’s engagement with colonial legacies and exploring decolonization and cultural revitalization possibilities.
Formalist Theory	– The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship by Boris Eichenbaum	Literary language’s capacity to estrange everyday reality, offering aesthetic pleasure and intellectual challenge.	Analyzing literature’s use of language to create new meanings and perspectives, and promoting innovation and experimentation in literary form.
Queer Theory	– Gender Trouble by Judith Butler, The History of Sexuality by Michel Foucault	LGBTQ+ individuals’ estrangement from their bodies, desires, and heteronormative culture, leading to isolation and marginalization.	Examining literature’s reflection on dominant sexuality and gender norms and advocating for queer liberation and societal change.

Examples in Alienation in Literature

Work	Context	Meaning/Explanation of Alienation
The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka	Context: The story follows Gregor Samsa, who wakes up one morning transformed into a giant insect. He becomes estranged from his body, family, and job, facing society’s treatment as a freak.	Explanation: Often interpreted as an allegory for alienation and dehumanization in capitalist society, where workers are reduced to mere cogs in the machine.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot	Context: The poem is a monologue by J. Alfred Prufrock, struggling with self-doubt and alienation in high society.	Explanation: Critique of modern life’s shallowness and emptiness, expressing existential angst and post-World War I alienation.
Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett	Context: Vladimir and Estragon wait for Godot, who never arrives. They become increasingly isolated and estranged as they wait.	Explanation: Commentary on the absurdity and meaninglessness of life, exploring the human condition of waiting for something that may never come.
The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman	Context: A woman with postpartum depression is confined to a room with yellow wallpaper by her husband, losing touch with reality.	Explanation: Feminist critique of the medical profession’s treatment of women’s mental health, revealing how women were confined and silenced in a patriarchal society.
Notes from Underground by Fyodor Dostoevsky	Context: A series of monologues by an unnamed narrator who rejects society’s rationalism and progressivism, embracing nihilism.	Explanation: Critique of rationalism and individualism of modernity, exploring the human condition of isolation and despair in an indifferent universe.

Suggesting Readings

Woolf, Virginia. Mrs. Dalloway. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1925.

Agency in Literary Theory

The concept of agency is central to literary theory and various critical approaches, including feminist and postcolonial theory, which seek to explore the ways in which marginalized groups exercise agency.

Etymoloy of Agency in Literary Theory

The term “agency” in literary theory is derived from the Latin word agens, meaning “acting” or “doing.” The concept of agency refers to the capacity of individuals or groups to act independently and make choices that influence their own lives and the world around them.

The term entered English in the mid-17th century and was originally used in the context of law, referring to the authority granted to an individual or group to act on behalf of another. In literary criticism, agency is used to describe the ways in which characters in a text exert their own will and make choices that shape the course of events.

Meanings of Agency in Literary Theory

Context	Definition and Application
General Definition	It refers to the capacity of individuals or groups to act independently. It involves making choices that impact their lives and the world around them.
Psychological Perspective	Agency in psychology relates to an individual’s sense of control over their behavior. It also includes the ability to influence the outcomes of their actions.
Sociological Notion	In sociology, agency describes the power of individuals or groups. It enables them to challenge or resist social norms and structures.
Business Context	In business, agency denotes the relationship between a principal and an agent. The agent acts on behalf of the principal, representing their interests.
Literary Criticism Application	In literary criticism, agency refers to how characters in a text exert their will. Characters make choices that shape the course of events in the narrative.
Multifaceted Concept	The concept of agency is versatile and can be applied in various fields and contexts.

Theorists on Agency

Theorist	Key Work	Key Concepts
Judith Butler	Gender Trouble (1990)	– Gender as performance. – Agency to challenge gender norms. – Gender identity as constituted through repeated acts.
Edward Said	Orientalism (1978)	– Western construction of an exotic and inferior image of the East. – Agency to challenge and resist these constructions. – Assertion of autonomy against Western hegemony.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak	Can the Subaltern Speak? (1988)	– Silencing and exclusion of colonized peoples from discourse. – Advocacy for giving voice to subaltern groups. – Recognition of hidden agency within subaltern groups.
Louis Althusser	Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (1970)	– Examination of ideology’s role in reproducing social and economic structures. – Concept of interpellation into subject positions. – Limited agency due to pervasive ideology.
Michel Foucault	Discipline and Punish (1975)	– Analysis of power through discipline and surveillance in modern society. – Acknowledgment of individual agency to resist power techniques. – Emphasis on the entanglement of agency with power relations.

Use of Agency in Different Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Key Points
Feminist Theory	– Central role of agency in feminist literary criticism. – Examines how female characters exercise agency in a patriarchal society. – Explores the denial of agency to women and their struggles to gain it in a limiting environment.
Postcolonial Theory	– In postcolonial literary criticism, agency describes how colonized peoples resist colonial power. – Explores how formerly colonized groups assert autonomy and challenge dominant colonial narratives.
Marxist Theory	– Marxist literary critics use agency to analyze how characters are shaped by social and economic contexts. – Examines characters’ constraints due to class and economic factors. – Explores how characters may use agency to challenge these constraints and work toward social change.
Psychoanalytic Theory	– In psychoanalytic literary criticism, agency relates to the ego and an individual’s sense of self. – Analyzes how characters’ actions reflect their desires and fears. – Explores how agency is influenced by unconscious factors.
Reader-Response Theory	– Reader-response theory views agency as shared between the reader and the text. – Sees readers as active agents who bring interpretations and responses to a text. – Reader agency shapes the meaning of the text itself.
Structuralist Theory	– Focuses on the structure of a text rather than individual agency. – Analyzes how elements within a text, such as language and symbols, interact to create meaning. – Downplays individual interpretation in favor of identifying universal structures.
Deconstructionist Theory	– Deconstructionist theory challenges the idea of fixed meanings in texts. – Emphasizes that texts contain inherent contradictions and ambiguities. – Encourages readers to engage with texts critically and recognize the instability of language.
Queer Theory	– Queer theory explores how sexuality and identity intersect in literature. – Challenges heteronormative narratives and highlights fluidity and diversity in sexual orientations and gender identities. – Examines how characters and texts can subvert normative sexual and gender roles.

Examples of Agency in Literature

Literary Work	Character	Exercise of Agency and Its Impact
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee	Scout Finch	– Scout challenges racial prejudices in her community. – She stands up for what she believes is right. – By questioning societal norms, she asserts her identity. – Scout emerges as a moral force for change and helps challenge and dismantle systemic racism in her community.
“The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman	Narrator	– The narrator resists patriarchal norms. – She asserts her identity in oppressive circumstances. – Through writing, she demonstrates the power of agency in the face of societal constraints. – The exercise of agency highlights the individual’s struggle against oppressive norms and the potential for empowerment through self-expression.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot	J. Alfred Prufrock	– Prufrock exercises agency through introspective exploration. – He confronts personal fears and insecurities. – Gains deeper self-understanding, even as he realizes the limitations of his agency. – Prufrock’s self-reflection demonstrates the potential for personal growth and understanding through the exercise of agency, even when it reveals the limits of control.
The Tempest by William Shakespeare	Prospero	– Prospero utilizes magic and manipulation of other characters. – He achieves personal goals through agency and restores order to the world. – However, his actions can be seen as controlling and oppressive, raising ethical questions about power. – Prospero’s exercise of agency is complex, achieving his goals while also raising ethical questions about control and power.
The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins	Katniss Everdeen	– Katniss resists the Capitol’s oppression and fights for her survival and that of her fellow tributes. – She becomes a symbol of resistance and exercises agency in the face of authoritarian control. – Katniss exemplifies how agency empowers individuals to resist oppression and become symbols of defiance and rebellion.
“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot	Multiple characters and voices	– The poem explores constraints imposed by social and cultural norms. – It suggests agency through interpretation and creation, with its fragmented structure implying agency in finding meaning. – The poem reflects agency in a chaotic world, where interpretation and creation offer empowerment and meaning even amid disorder.
*The Importance of Being Earnest* by Oscar Wilde	Various characters	– Characters use wit and subterfuge to navigate Victorian social conventions. – They achieve personal desires through clever maneuvering. – By challenging the authority of the ruling class, they suggest agency within societal norms. – The characters’ use of agency to navigate societal norms challenges traditional power structures and underscores the potential for individual empowerment even within the constraints of social expectations.

Suggesting Readings

You may read more on Theoretical Terms below:

Demystification in Literature & Literary Theory

Absurdism in Literary Theory

Etymology of Absurdism

The term “absurdism” originated in the 1940s and is derived from the Latin word “absurdus,” which means “out of tune” or “discordant.”

It was first used by French philosopher Albert Camus to describe the philosophy behind his play “Caligula” (1944) and his novel The Stranger (1942).

Definition of Absurdism

Absurdism in literary theory is a philosophical and literary movement that asserts the inherent meaninglessness and irrationality of human existence. It often portrays characters and situations that confront the absurdity of life, emphasizing the lack of purpose or coherence in the world. Prominent absurdist works include Albert Camus’ The Stranger and Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot.”

Meanings of Absurdism

Key Meanings of Absurdism	Description
Rejection of Traditional Beliefs and Systems of Thought	– Challenges inherent meaning or purpose in life – Often rejects traditional religious and philosophical systems
Emphasis on Individual Freedom and Responsibility	– Highlights the importance of individual agency – Argues individuals must create their own meaning in life
Use of Dark Humor and Satire	– Employed to critique societal norms and conventions – Reveals the absurdity of the human condition
Exploration of Existential Themes	– Associated with existentialism – Explores themes like freedom, choice, and authenticity
Portrayal of the World as Chaotic and Irrational	– Depicts the world as chaotic and indifferent – Emphasizes the futility of imposing order and meaning
Celebration of the Absurd	– Recognizes the absurdity of human existence – Leads to a sense of liberation and freedom

Absurdism in Different Literary Theories

Theory	Explanation	Example
Existentialism	– Absurdism is linked to existentialism, focusing on the individual quest for meaning in a meaningless world.	Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot” (1953)
Postmodernism	– Absurdism is seen as a precursor to postmodernism, challenging traditional narrative and meaning.	Franz Kafka’s “The Trial” (1925)
Deconstructionism	– Deconstructionists argue language is inherently absurd, incapable of fully representing reality.	Samuel Beckett’s “Endgame” (1957)
Marxism	– Some Marxists view absurdism as a critique of societal oppression.	Eugene Ionesco’s “Rhinoceros” (1959)
Feminism	– Absurdist worldview interpreted as a response to patriarchal structures, including gender role construction.	Marguerite Duras’s “The Ravishing of Lol Stein” (1964)

Theorists on Absurdism

Albert Camus:
- Explanation: French philosopher and author known for his exploration of absurdism. His novel The Stranger (1942) delves into the concept of life’s inherent meaninglessness and the necessity of rebellion against the absurdity of existence.
- Notable Quote: “The only way to deal with the absurdity of life is to rebel against it.”

Samuel Beckett:
- Explanation: An Irish playwright and novelist associated with the Theater of the Absurd. His works, such as “Waiting for Godot” (1953) and “Endgame” (1957), feature characters trapped in meaningless, repetitive routines, challenging traditional narratives.
- Notable Quote: “Nothing is funnier than unhappiness.”

Eugene Ionesco:
- Explanation: Romanian-French playwright prominent in the Theater of the Absurd. His plays, including “Rhinoceros” (1959) and “The Bald Soprano” (1950), depict characters grappling with communication and meaning in an increasingly absurd world.
- Notable Quote: “Cut off from his religious, metaphysical and transcendental roots, man is lost; all his actions become senseless, absurd, useless.

Jean-Paul Sartre:
- Explanation: A French philosopher and playwright, Sartre contributed to existentialism and absurdism. His play “No Exit” (1944) explores characters trapped in a room, confronting the meaninglessness of existence and emphasizing human freedom to create meaning.
- Notable Quote: “Man is condemned to be free.”

Franz Kafka:
- Explanation: A Czech-German novelist and short story writer, Kafka’s works, including “The Trial” (1925) and The Metamorphosis (1915), feature characters ensnared in absurd situations, often highlighting the oppressive nature of bureaucracy and social structures.
- Notable Quote: “In man’s struggle against the world, bet on the world.”

These figures played pivotal roles in the development of absurdism as a literary and philosophical movement, each contributing unique perspectives and ideas to the exploration of the absurd in human existence.

Absurdism Examples in Literature

Extract and Reference	Explanation
“Waiting for Godot” by Samuel Beckett	– Extract: Estragon: “Let’s go.” Vladimir: “We can’t.” Estragon: “Why not?” Vladimir: “We’re waiting for Godot.” – Explanation: The play illustrates the senselessness of Vladimir and Estragon’s lives as they wait for Godot, who may never arrive, highlighting the absurdity of their existence.
*The Stranger* by Albert Camus	– Extract: “I opened myself to the gentle indifference of the world.” – Explanation: The quote reflects the protagonist Meursault’s acceptance of life’s absurdity and the indifference of the universe toward human existence.
“Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead” by Tom Stoppard	– Extract: Rosencrantz: “Do you think death could possibly be a boat?” Guildenstern: “No, no, no… Death is… not. Death isn’t. You take my meaning. Death is the ultimate negative. Not-being. You can’t not be on a boat.” – Explanation: This exchange highlights the characters’ confusion about their existence and the limitations of language in expressing the ineffable, emphasizing the absurdity of their situation.
*The Metamorphosis* by Franz Kafka	– Extract: “When Gregor Samsa woke up one morning from unsettling dreams, he found himself changed in his bed into a monstrous vermin.” – Explanation: Gregor’s transformation into an insect and the world’s treatment of him as if he were still human exemplify the absurdity in this novella.
*Catch-22* by Joseph Heller	– Extract: “There was only one catch and that was Catch-22, which specified that a concern for one’s safety in the face of dangers that were real and immediate was the process of a rational mind.” – Explanation: Yossarian’s Catch-22 situation emphasizes the irrationality and absurdity of war and bureaucracy, where avoiding danger requires claiming insanity, but doing so proves sanity.

Absence / Presence in Literary Theory

“Absence” signifies elements deliberately omitted or left unexplored by the author, creating gaps or ambiguities that invite interpretation and engagement from the reader.

Etymology of Absence

The word “absence” comes from the Latin word absentia, which means “being away” or “not being present.” The Latin term is derived from the prefix “ab-,” meaning “away from,” and the verb “esse,” meaning “to be.”

In Old French, “absence” was spelled “absens,” and in Middle English, it was spelled “absens” or “absence.”

The concept of absence has been a part of human experience throughout history as people have long grappled with the absence of loved ones, the absence of things or ideas, and the absence of a sense of belonging or purpose.

The word “absence” is used to describe a state of being away or missing, and it has come to be associated with feelings of longing, emptiness, and loss.

Definition of Absence/Presence Concept

In literary theory, “absence” and “presence” refer to key concepts used to analyze the representation of characters, themes, or ideas in a narrative. “Absence” signifies elements deliberately omitted or left unexplored by the author, creating gaps or ambiguities that invite interpretation and engagement from the reader.

Conversely, “presence” indicates the deliberate inclusion and emphasis on certain elements within the text, often used to convey specific meanings or themes, thereby shaping the reader’s understanding of the work. These concepts help scholars analyze the deliberate choices authors make in crafting their narratives, shedding light on the complexities of textual interpretation and meaning-making.

Meanings of Theoretical Term “Absence / Presence”

Discipline	Meanings
Interdisciplinary	Theoretical term “Absence/Presence” occurs across various fields, including literature, philosophy, and cultural studies.
Literary Studies	In literary studies, absence/presence shows how an author or text creates a sense of something that is not physically present but is still felt or implied. Examples include the absence of a character, an event, or an idea suggested through the use of language or symbolism.
Philosophy	In philosophy, absence/presence relates to how objects or concepts are present in our consciousness or perception. It includes the idea that objects exist in our minds even when they are not physically present in our immediate environment. It also emphasizes that the absence of something can hold as much significance as its presence.
Cultural Studies	In cultural studies, absence/presence describes the representation or exclusion of certain groups or ideas in popular culture or media. It addresses issues such as the absence of particular voices or perspectives in a film or television show, highlighting broader concerns related to representation and power dynamics.

Use of “Absence / Presence” in Literary Theories

Structuralism: Structuralist literary theory explores how absence and presence work in the structure of a text, including the relationship between the implicit or hidden meanings of a text and its explicit content.
Psychoanalytic theory: Psychoanalytic literary theory uses the concept of absence/presence to explore how unconscious desires, anxieties, and traumas are represented in literature, often through absences or gaps in a text.

Deconstruction: Deconstructionist literary theory focuses on language how it creates gaps in meaning, and how these absences can be explored to challenge traditional interpretations of a text.
Postcolonial theory: Postcolonial literary theory examines how the absence/presence of certain types of language, cultural traditions, or perspectives can reflect larger power dynamics and histories of colonization and oppression.
Feminist theory: Feminist literary theory uses the concept of absence/presence to explore the ways in which gender roles and identities are constructed through language and representation, often through the absence or marginalization of women’s voices and experiences.

Queer theory: Queer literary theory examines the ways in which absence/presence are used to construct sexual and gender identities in literature, including the ways in which non-normative sexualities and genders are excluded or marginalized in literary traditions.

Different Theorists on “Absence / Presence”

Theorist	Work (Year)	Explanation of Concept
Jacques Derrida	“Différance” (1960s)	Derrida’s concept of “différance” describes how meaning is deferred and deferred, never fully present or fully *absent.* He argues that the concept of presence is always haunted by absence, and that meaning is created through the interplay between the two.
Roland Barthes	“The Death of the Author” (1967)	Barthes explores how meaning is created through the *absence/presence* of the author. He argues that the author’s intentions are always present in the text, even if not explicitly stated, and that readers must negotiate between the author’s presence and absence to create meaning.
Michel Foucault	“What is an Author?” (1969)	Foucault’s concept of “the absent author” is related to Barthes’ idea of the author’s absence/presence. He argues that the author’s identity is irrelevant to a text’s meaning, which is instead shaped by the reader’s interpretation within its historical and cultural context.
Julia Kristeva	“Powers of Horror” (1980)	Kristeva’s theory of “abjection” explores how the body is simultaneously present and absent. She argues that the body exists on the threshold between self and other, and that meaning is formed through this liminal space of abjection.
Edward Said	Orientalism (1978)	Said’s concept of “orientalism” examines how the East is present in the West through its absence. He argues that Western representations of the East are defined by what is missing from those representations, creating a sense of exoticism and otherness used to justify Western imperialism.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak	“Can the Subaltern Speak?” (1988)	Spivak’s concept of “strategic essentialism” explores how marginalized groups can use essentialist identity politics as a strategic tool to resist dominant power structures. She argues that these essentialisms are both present and absent simultaneously and must be used strategically for meaningful change.

These theorists have made significant contributions to our understanding of how meaning is constructed, often emphasizing the interplay between presence this concept in various contexts.Top of Form

Examples “Absence / Presence” from Literature

Hamlet by William Shakespeare: The absence of Hamlet’s father, who has been murdered by his own brother, is a major theme in the play. Although the character of the ghost appears to Hamlet to reveal the truth about his father’s death, the audience never sees the ghost itself, and its presence is always felt as an absence.

“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: The poem is characterized by a sense of absence or emptiness, both in the speaker’s internal life and in his external environment. The presence of the city is felt as an overwhelming absence of meaningful human connection, and the speaker’s sense of self is defined by what is missing from his life.
Beloved by Toni Morrison: The novel explores the concept of absence/presence through the character of Sethe’s deceased daughter, Beloved. Although Beloved is physically absent for much of the novel, her presence is felt throughout the story as a haunting presence that disrupts the lives of the characters.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: The character of Gatsby is defined by his absence as much as his presence. Although Gatsby is physically present throughout much of the novel, his true identity and history are shrouded in mystery, and his past is defined by its absence.

“The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The short story uses absence/presence to explore the mental state of the protagonist, who is confined to a room with yellow wallpaper. The wallpaper becomes a symbol of the protagonist’s mental state, and its presence is felt as an overwhelming absence of agency and control.
“Waiting for Godot” by Samuel Beckett: The play is characterized by a sense of emptiness, both in the physical environment and in the characters’ internal lives. The characters wait for the arrival of Godot, who never appears, and their conversations are defined by what is missing from their lives. The play’s use of absence/presence reflects larger existential themes about the nature of human existence.

Literary Theories and Absence

Literary Theory	Reference	Explanation
Deconstructionism	Derrida’s “Signature Event Context” (1972)	In Deconstructionism, Jacques Derrida’s work introduces the concept of différance, which posits that meaning is inherently elusive and that the presence of meaning is always interwoven with its absence. This theory underscores the instability of language and text, emphasizing how language defers meaning and how absence and presence are inextricably linked. Deconstructionist analysis delves into the textual gaps, contradictions, and aporias that highlight how meaning emerges from what remains unsaid, unexamined, or deferred in a text.
Structuralism	Influenced by structuralist theories	Structuralist literary theory, influenced by Ferdinand de Saussure’s linguistics, reveals this concept through binary oppositions and structural elements in narratives. Meaning is derived from the relationships and contrasts between these binary pairs. Absence becomes significant as it shapes the text’s underlying structures, where what is excluded or omitted contributes to the overall meaning of the narrative.
Reader-Response Theory	Iser’s “The Act of Reading” (1976)	Reader-Response Theory, as expounded by Wolfgang Iser, recognizes the pivotal role of the reader in the construction of meaning. It posits that readers actively engage with a text, making sense of what is present and absent. The concept of absence in this theory is manifested in the spaces between the lines, where readers must interpret and fill in the gaps. The reader’s experience becomes an act of negotiation between what is explicitly stated and what remains implied, forming a dynamic process of meaning-making.
Feminist Literary Theory	Butler’s “Gender Trouble” (1990)	Feminist Literary Theory frequently addresses the absence or marginalization of women’s voices, experiences, and perspectives within literature. It asserts that what is missing or underrepresented holds significant implications. This concept within this theory prompts critical examinations of patriarchal norms and the amplification of silenced perspectives. Feminist critics aim to illuminate the gender-related gaps and absences in texts to challenge dominant narratives.
Postcolonial Theory	Said’s “Orientalism” (1978)	Postcolonial Theory, as elucidated by Edward Said, draws attention to the concept of absence in the context of colonial representations. It examines how Western texts often portray non-Western cultures through what is missing, misunderstood, or misrepresented. These absences create a sense of exoticism and otherness, reinforcing colonial power structures. Postcolonial scholars engage in deconstructing these representations and revealing the hidden narratives and voices within the colonized regions.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Freud’s “Interpretation of Dreams” (1899)	Psychoanalytic Literary Theory, rooted in Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis and Jacques Lacan’s concepts, explores this concept in terms of repressed thoughts, desires, and anxieties. Characters in literature often exhibit neuroses or engage in symbolic actions as a means of compensating for what is absent or suppressed within their psyches. The narrative thus becomes a space where unconscious elements manifest symbolically, offering insights into character motivations and psychological conflicts.

Abject/Abjection in Literary Theory

The term is often used in the context of psychoanalytic theory, where it refers to a state of being cast out or rejected by society, leading to feelings of disgust, shame, and powerlessness.

Etymology of Abject/Abjection

The word “abject” comes from the Latin word “abiectus”, which means “thrown away, cast off, or degraded.” The prefix “ab-” means “away from” or “off,” while the root “iectus” means “thrown.” The word “abject” first appeared in English in the late 14th century. It was used to describe someone cast off or rejected from society often due to poverty or illness.

The related term “abjection” comes from the Latin word “abjectio,” which means an act of “throwing away” or “a rejection.”

In English, “abjection” first appeared in the early 16th century to describe a state of extreme humiliation or degradation.

Usage of Abject/Abjection

The term is often used in the context of psychoanalytic theory, where it refers to a state of being cast out or rejected by society, leading to feelings of disgust, shame, and powerlessness.

Both “abject” and “abjection” are used to describe situations or individuals that are low, degraded, or cast off from society. They can also be used to describe a feeling of extreme disgust or revulsion. The words have been used extensively in literature and philosophy, particularly in the works of theorists such as Julia Kristeva and Jacques Lacan.

Meaning of Abject/Abjection

Aspect	Description
Definition	In literature and literary theory, “abject” and “abjection” refer to a state of being or a subject matter that is considered low, degraded, or disgusting.
Examples	This can include physical objects or substances associated with bodily waste or decay, as well as individuals who have been cast off or rejected from society.
Literary Exploration	The concept of the abject is often used in literature to explore the boundaries of human experience and the limits of social norms.
Psychoanalytic Connection	In literary theory, the concept of the abject is closely tied to psychoanalytic theory, particularly the work of French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan.
Lacan’s Perspective	According to Lacan, the abject represents a state of being that is outside of the symbolic order of language and social norms, and is therefore terrifying and repulsive to us.
Limitations of Language	The abject can be seen as a way of exploring the limits of language and representation, and understanding how our social and cultural constructions can both create and limit our experiences of the world.
Feminist Contribution	The concept of the abject has been widely used in literary and cultural studies, especially in the work of feminist theorists such as Julia Kristeva.

Origin of Abject/Abjection

Origin: The term “abject” and “abjection” come from the Latin word “abjectus,” which means “thrown away” or “cast out.”

First usage: The first usage of “abject” in English was in the 15th century, meaning “cast out or rejected.”
Theoretical usage: The theoretical usage of “abjection” was first developed by French philosopher Julia Kristeva in her 1980 book Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection. She quotes Victor Hugo;

No Beast is there without glimmer of infinity,

No eye so vile nor abject that brushes not

Against lightning from on high, now tender, now fierce.

Victor Hugo, La Legende des siecles

Explanation: According to Kristeva, “abjection” refers to the state of being cast out or rejected from the symbolic order, which is the realm of language, culture, and meaning. The abject is that which is excluded from the symbolic order and is therefore seen as impure or threatening to the boundaries of the self. Examples of abject objects or experiences include bodily waste, death, and the maternal body. She explains saying “Food loathing is perhaps the most elementary and most archaic form of abjection.”

Explanation Abject /Abjection

Abject refers to a state of being or subject matter that is considered low, degraded, or disgusting.
Abjection is the process of casting off or rejecting something from society or culture.

The concept of the abject is closely tied to psychoanalytic theory, particularly the work of Jacques Lacan and Julia Kristeva.
The abject represents a state of being that is outside of the symbolic order of language and social norms.
The abject is a necessary part of human experience, as it allows us to define ourselves and our social norms by excluding that which is seen as unacceptable.

The abject has been used in literary and cultural studies to explore a variety of phenomena, including the relationship between the body and society, the construction of identity, and the politics of exclusion and marginalization.
The abject has also been used in postcolonial theory and queer theory to explore the ways in which marginalized groups are cast off and rejected by society.
Overall, the concept of the abject helps us understand the ways in which societies define themselves by excluding that which is seen as other or unacceptable.

Relationship of Aetiology and Abject/Abjection

Aspect	Aetiology	Abject/Abjection
Exploration	Investigates origins and causes.	Deals with societal rejection and degradation.
Factors	Uncovers contributing factors.	Reveals why things are considered repulsive.
Context	Considers cultural and historical context.	Explains how context shapes what’s abject.
Factor Interplay	Recognizes multiple factors at play.	Acknowledges societal, psychological, and symbolic influences.
Causality Analysis	Involves deep causal analysis.	Probes complex reasons behind abjection.
Comprehensive Understanding	Provides a holistic understanding.	Offers insights into marginalization and repugnance.
Holistic Perspective	Takes a holistic view of development.	Provides a holistic understanding of abjection’s dimensions.

Theorists on Abject/Abjection

Theorist	Dates	Key Concepts and Contributions
Julia Kristeva	1941-present	– Introduced the concept of abjection in “Powers of Horror” (1980). – Explored abjection as a psychological state resulting from boundary breakdown between self and other. – Analyzed societal rejection and marginalization related to abjection.
Jacques Lacan	1901-1981	– Foundational in psychoanalytic theories underpinning the understanding of abjection. – Argued that the abject exists outside the symbolic order, eliciting fear and repulsion.
Kristeva’s Semiotic Theory		– Kristeva’s semiotic theory, precursor to abjection, focuses on pre-linguistic, bodily experiences of meaning. – Informs her exploration of the abject disrupting linguistic and social norms.
Gayle Rubin	1949-present	– Incorporates abjection in her work on the “Sexual Politics of Meat” (1980). – Explores links between the abjection of women and animals, highlighting gender and abjection intersections.
Judith Butler	1956-present	– While not primarily an abjection theorist, Butler’s performativity and gender identity work intersects with abjection. – Influences understanding of how abject identities are constructed and challenged.
Teresa Brennan	1952-2003	– Explored abjection and affect transfer in “The Transmission of Affect” (2004). – Connects abjection to emotional states and interpersonal relationships.
Hélène Cixous	1937-present	– Cixous’ feminist theories, including “writing the body,” intersect with abjection. – Explores how women’s writing challenges societal norms, including those tied to abjection.

Examples of Abject /Abjection in Literature

The character of Gregor Samsa in Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis is a classic example of abjection in literature. After waking up one morning to find that he has been transformed into a giant insect, Gregor is cast off by his family and becomes increasingly isolated and degraded. His physical transformation represents a symbolic rejection of his identity and place in society, and his eventual death represents the ultimate abjection.
William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury explores the theme of abjection through the character of Benjy Compson, a mentally disabled man who is often cast off and ignored by his family. Benjy’s inability to communicate effectively or understand the social norms of his community makes him an outcast, and his struggles to connect with others are a powerful example of the ways in which abjection can lead to isolation and loneliness.
In Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot,” the characters Vladimir and Estragon are trapped in a cycle of abjection and degradation, as they wait endlessly for a mysterious figure who may never arrive. Their physical and emotional deterioration represents a rejection of the human need for meaning and purpose, and their eventual acceptance of their own abjection is a powerful commentary on the human condition.

Tennessee Williams’ play “A Streetcar Named Desire” explores the theme of abjection through the character of Blanche DuBois, a fading Southern belle who is rejected and cast off by her family and society. Blanche’s descent into madness and isolation is a powerful example of the ways in which societal expectations and norms can lead to the rejection and marginalization of individuals.
The character of Gollum in J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings represents a powerful example of abjection in literature. Gollum is a former hobbit who has been transformed by the power of the ring, and his physical and emotional degradation represents a rejection of his former identity and a descent into darkness and isolation. His struggle to reclaim his former self and connect with others is a powerful example of the human need for connection and belonging.

Suggested Readings

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