Tag: Theory Article Summaries

Introduction: “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

“Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” by Harold Bloom appeared in the Fall 1976 issue of The Georgia Review (495-524). He explores the intricate relationship between rhetoric and psychology within the realm of poetry. Bloom argues that poets strategically employ language and figurative devices to manipulate the reader’s experience. The essay opens with a thought-provoking juxtaposition of quotes, hinting at the exploration of veiled aspects within the creative process of poetry. Bloom then utilizes Wallace Stevens’ poem “Domination of Black” as a springboard for his analysis. Through this example, he demonstrates how Stevens utilizes deceptively simple descriptions, imbued with figurative language and a psychological defense mechanism known as “reaction-formation,” to imbue the poem with profounder themes of mortality and the anxieties surrounding death.

Summary of “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

• Rhetorical Foundations of Poetry:
  • Bloom examines poetry through a blend of rhetoric and psychology, where tropes serve as a bridge between these disciplines.
  • “The language of poetry… is overdetermined in its patternings and underdetermined in its meanings” (p. 497), emphasizing poetry’s layered complexity in both expression and understanding.
• Presence and Absence in Poetry:
  • A recurring theme is the dialectic of presence and absence, as poems often arise from the absence of something that needs to be depicted.
  • “A poem begins because there is too strong a presence, which needs to be imaged as an absence” (p. 495), highlighting how poetry addresses what is missing by making it present in language.
• Stevens’ “Domination of Black” as a Case Study:
  • Wallace Stevens’ “Domination of Black” is used to illustrate the psychological and rhetorical mechanisms at work in poetry.
  • Bloom notes how the poem creates a “reaction-formation,” where “Stevens is vulnerable to the black dominant of the hemlocks and that other cry of mortality, of the peacocks” (p. 497), linking the tropes of color and death.
• Psychology of Tropes in Poetry:
  • Bloom traces tropes to Freudian psychology, identifying how they serve as defense mechanisms.
  • “It was left to Freud to discover how, in a scientific age, we still feel and think in figurative formations” (p. 496). This connects metaphors, synecdoche, and metonymy to psychological states.
• The Role of Repetition in Stevens’ Work:
  • Repetition plays a key role in Stevens’ poetry, with the idea of repeating oneself as a trope of survival.
  • “The colors of the fallen leaves are repeating themselves” (p. 496). Stevens’ repeated use of repetition symbolizes the struggle with both life’s mutability and the permanence of death.
• Romantic Imagery and the Role of Memory:
  • Bloom explores the Romantic image through Wordsworth and Barfield, noting how memory serves to replace lost “participation” with nature.
  • “Barfield’s high evaluation of Romanticism results from his conviction that the Romantic image was an idol-smashing weapon” (p. 499), reflecting the shift from experiencing nature directly to representing it through memory-images.
• Crossing of Tropes and Psychological Defenses:
  • Bloom introduces the concept of “crossing”, where a poet navigates figurative and psychological conflicts.
  • “A crossing is a crucial point or turning point” (p. 519), which manifests as a trope moving between ethos (character) and pathos (passion) in a poet’s work.
• The Crisis of Belatedness:
  • One of the essay’s central insights is the crisis of belatedness in modern poetry, where poets must deal with the weight of tradition and their position in literary history.
  • “Stevens is content to taste the defeat of belatedness” (p. 499), indicating that modern poets, including Stevens, feel the burden of following in the footsteps of earlier, great poets.
• Rhetoric as the Bridge Between Thought and Will:
  • The essay proposes that rhetoric is not merely a system of tropes but a mechanism for translating will into verbal action.
  • “A trope is one of two possibilities: either the will translating itself into a verbal act or figure of ethos, or else the will failing to translate itself” (p. 520), illustrating how rhetoric and psychology intertwine in poetic creation.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Quotation/Reference
Trope	A figurative or metaphorical use of a word or expression; often involves substitution of one thing for another.	“Tropes are perverse; they are para-phusis, unnatural, deviant.” (p. 508)
Rhetoric	The art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, often analyzed through figurative language and structure.	“Rhetoric is a text in that it allows for two incompatible, mutually self-destructive points of view and therefore puts an insurmountable obstacle in the way of any reading or understanding.” (p. 511)
Crossing	A point in a poem where rhetorical and psychological tensions meet, leading to a figurative or thematic shift.	“A crossing is a crucial point or turning point, going back to the Greek krisis, which derived from krinein, ‘to separate’ or ‘to decide.'” (p. 519)
Irony	A rhetorical device or situation where meaning is opposite to what is stated or expected.	“In poetry, a trope of action is always an irony, until it is further reduced to metonymy and metaphor.” (p. 520)
Metonymy	A figure of speech in which a thing is referred to by the name of something closely associated with it.	“This reduction as an obsessive undoing of that synecdoche.” (p. 497)
Synecdoche	A figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole, or vice versa.	“Stevens must give us a synecdoche for death in the domination of the black color of the heavy hemlocks.” (p. 497)
Metaphor	A figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unlike things.	“But the peacocks, like the leaves, are in the room only as colors or turnings…” (p. 497)
Hyperbole	Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.	“The peacocks, wonderfully caught up in the synaesthesia of ‘the loud fire.'” (p. 497)
Romantic Imagery	Visual or sensory descriptions in Romantic poetry aimed at expressing emotional experience or the sublime.	“Barfield’s high evaluation of Romanticism results from his conviction that the Romantic image was an idol-smashing weapon meant to return men to their original participation in the phenomena.” (p. 499)
Pathos	A quality in writing that evokes pity, sadness, or compassion.	“Pathos or recognition becomes a defect of response, or the survival of a will-to-representation after representation has been attained.” (p. 505)
Ethos	The character or spirit of a culture, era, or community as manifested in its beliefs and aspirations.	“Ethos has become limitation, a contraction or withdrawal of meaning, that opens the way for a re-thinking that is necessarily a re-meaning.” (p. 504)
Logos	A principle of order and knowledge; often associated with logic and reason.	“Rhetoric, conceived as a text or system of tropes, is an ethos, while rhetoric-as-persuasion falls under pathos, with an aporia between them as a logos.” (p. 503)
Reaction-Formation	A Freudian defense mechanism where one expresses the opposite of their repressed desires.	“Stevens had begun his poem with what the Freudians… call a ‘reaction-formation,’ a defensive movement of the spirit.” (p. 497)
Belatedness	A sense of coming after or being influenced by predecessors, common in modern poetry.	“The length of the oncoming night’s steps renders the blackness more vividly, because the tropic ‘striding’ itself undoes an earlier trope.” (p. 499)
Sublimation	A Freudian concept where socially unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable actions or art.	“Sublimation and introjection… between substituting some labor for one’s own prohibited instincts.” (p. 522)
Nachträglichkeit (“Aftering”)	A Freudian term for delayed emotional processing or deferred action.	“This is very akin… to the delayed signification that Freud calls Nachträglichkeit or ‘aftering.'” (p. 504)
Gnosis	Knowledge of spiritual mysteries, often associated with esoteric traditions like Kabbalah.	“A vision that is Gnostic and Kabbalistic, in its ultimate origins.” (p. 520)
Deconstruction	A critical approach that seeks to uncover the multiple meanings and contradictions within a text.	“Deconstruction… is to indicate the precise location of its figuration of doubt, its uncertain notice of that limit where persuasion yields to a dance or interplay of tropes.” (p. 506)
Aporia	A rhetorical or philosophical puzzle or state of doubt, often signaling an impasse in understanding.	“De Man’s achievement is to have defined, following Nietzsche, the aporia or figuration of doubt that the principle of rhetorical substitution always constitutes, in any poetic text.” (p. 511)

Contribution of “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Author	Critique Through Bloom’s “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric and Psychology”	Concepts/References from Bloom
“The Waste Land”	T.S. Eliot	Belatedness: Eliot’s poem reflects a crisis of belatedness, where modern poets struggle under the burden of literary tradition. The fragmented structure reveals Eliot’s anxiety about following in the footsteps of his precursors, particularly the Romantics.	“Stevens is content to taste the defeat of belatedness” (p. 499), showing how modern poets acknowledge their lateness in the literary tradition, using tropes of fragmentation and irony to overcome their inheritance.
“Ode to a Nightingale”	John Keats	Crossing of Solipsism: Keats’ use of metonymy (nightingale as a symbol of escape) and hyperbole (idealized escape to immortality) reflects the poet’s inner conflict between wanting to transcend life and the impossibility of escaping mortality.	“The second crossing… struggles with the death of love… between metonymy and hyperbole” (p. 522). Bloom’s concept of crossings can be used to critique how Keats navigates between metonymy and hyperbole in his desire for escape from reality.
“Song of Myself”	Walt Whitman	Sublimation and Representation: Whitman’s expansive cataloging and sensory imagery reflect a sublimation of desires into language, transforming the individual into a universal figure. Whitman uses rhetorical excess to transcend individual experience.	“Sublimation and introjection… between substituting some labor for one’s own prohibited instincts” (p. 522). Whitman’s use of expansive tropes embodies sublimation, as he channels personal desires into a broader collective representation.
“To His Coy Mistress”	Andrew Marvell	Crossing of Identification: Marvell’s poem navigates between metaphor (the lover’s plea) and metalepsis (time’s constraints), reflecting a psychological conflict with mortality and unfulfilled desire. The poem’s urgency comes from the death drive.	“The dilemma here is the confrontation with mortality, with total death… the prohibited instinct is the drive towards death” (p. 522). Marvell’s metaphysical wit can be seen as navigating the tension between desire and the awareness of death’s limits.

Analysis of Critique Through Bloom’s Framework

1. T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land”:
   • Concept Applied: Eliot’s fragmented style is interpreted through Bloom’s theory of belatedness. The poem reflects an anxiety about coming after the Romantics and the fragmentation symbolizes an inability to fully overcome that influence.
   • Concept from Bloom: Bloom’s idea that modern poets feel a “defeat of belatedness” (p. 499) applies well to Eliot’s sense of fragmentation and disjunction, reflecting a crisis of inheritance from the literary past.
2. John Keats’ “Ode to a Nightingale”:
   • Concept Applied: Keats’ desire to transcend reality through the nightingale is analyzed via the crossing of solipsism. The oscillation between metonymy and hyperbole reveals his internal struggle between staying grounded and escaping into immortality.
   • Concept from Bloom: Keats’ poem represents Bloom’s second crossing, where the poet’s metonymy (symbolic language) meets his hyperbole (desire to transcend) in a confrontation with solipsism (p. 522).
3. Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself”:
   • Concept Applied: Whitman’s use of extensive imagery and cataloging is understood as an act of sublimation. He sublimates his individual desires into a broader, collective voice, thus merging the personal and universal.
   • Concept from Bloom: Bloom’s idea of sublimation and representation (p. 522) captures Whitman’s transcendence of the personal self through the expansive language of “Song of Myself”, which is an act of self-transformation via poetry.
4. Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress”:
   • Concept Applied: Marvell’s manipulation of time, with its focus on impending death and the fleeting nature of life, is linked to Bloom’s crossing of identification, where the poet confronts mortality through metaphor and metalepsis.
   • Concept from Bloom: Marvell’s urgent tone and focus on time reflect Bloom’s identification crossing, where the prohibited instinct of death drives the poem’s emotional intensity (p. 522). The tension between desire and mortality becomes a rhetorical trope.

Criticism Against “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

• Over-Reliance on Psychoanalysis:
  • Bloom heavily relies on Freudian concepts like reaction-formation, sublimation, and introjection to explain poetic tropes, which can be seen as an overextension of psychoanalytic theory into literary analysis. Critics might argue that this limits his approach by forcing poetry into a psychological framework that not all poems may adhere to.
• Obscurity and Complexity:
  • The essay is often criticized for being overly complex and difficult to follow, with dense and intricate language. Bloom’s reliance on esoteric concepts from Gnosticism, Kabbalah, and psychoanalysis may alienate readers unfamiliar with these intellectual traditions. This complexity can make his arguments less accessible to broader audiences.
• Lack of Historical and Cultural Context:
  • While Bloom’s focus on rhetoric and psychology is insightful, critics may argue that he neglects the broader historical, social, and cultural contexts of the poems he analyzes. His approach sometimes overlooks the external factors influencing poets, such as political or social realities, in favor of an individualistic, internalized reading of poetic language.
• Reduction of Poetic Language to Tropes:
  • By framing poetic language almost exclusively in terms of tropes and psychological defenses, Bloom risks reducing the richness of poetry to a technical, mechanical process. Some critics argue that his model diminishes the emotional and aesthetic impact of poetry by focusing too much on structural and figurative analysis.
• Narrow Focus on the Western Canon:
  • Bloom’s framework is built around canonical Western poets, particularly the Romantics and modernists. Critics might argue that his theory is Eurocentric and doesn’t adequately account for non-Western literary traditions or marginalized voices. His focus on a limited literary tradition limits the application of his theory to global or diverse poetic forms.
• Neglect of Feminist or Postcolonial Perspectives:
  • Bloom’s work largely ignores feminist and postcolonial approaches to literature, which critique the power dynamics and patriarchal structures present in many canonical texts. Critics may argue that Bloom’s framework doesn’t engage with how gender, race, and colonialism shape poetic expression and interpretation.
• Ambiguity in Defining Key Concepts:
  • Some key concepts in Bloom’s essay, such as crossings and belatedness, are vaguely defined and left open to interpretation. This ambiguity can weaken the clarity of his arguments and leave readers unsure of how to apply his theoretical models to specific poems.
• Overemphasis on Intertextuality and Influence:
  • Critics might argue that Bloom’s theory, particularly his emphasis on belatedness and the anxiety of influence, places too much importance on how poets relate to their predecessors. This focus on intertextuality risks downplaying the originality and individual creativity of poets, implying that all poetry is merely a response to previous works.

Representative Quotations from “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“A poem begins because there is too strong a presence, which needs to be imaged as an absence.” (p. 495)	Bloom suggests that poetry arises from a tension between presence and absence—a key psychological and rhetorical concept. A poem comes into existence to give form to what is absent or what is too present, reflecting the psychological struggle at the heart of poetic creation.
“Stevens is vulnerable to the black dominant of the hemlocks and that other cry of mortality, of the peacocks.” (p. 497)	This quote captures Wallace Stevens’ use of imagery to reflect the poet’s encounter with death and mortality. The “cry of mortality” symbolizes Stevens’ struggle with life’s transience, where rhetoric and psychological defense mechanisms (like reaction-formation) come into play.
“Ethos has become limitation, a contraction or withdrawal of meaning, that opens the way for a re-thinking that is necessarily a re-meaning.” (p. 504)	Bloom argues that ethos (character or spirit) in poetry signals a limitation of meaning, but this limitation allows for a reinterpretation, creating space for new meanings. This reflects his view that rhetoric works as a dynamic process of meaning and revision in poetry.
“Rhetoric is a text in that it allows for two incompatible, mutually self-destructive points of view.” (p. 511)	Bloom highlights the inherent contradictions within rhetorical structures, influenced by deconstruction. In poetry, tropes often contain opposing meanings, leading to tensions that prevent a stable, singular interpretation, contributing to the poem’s richness and complexity.
“Deconstruction… is to indicate the precise location of its figuration of doubt, its uncertain notice of that limit where persuasion yields to a dance of tropes.” (p. 506)	This quote aligns deconstruction with poetic interpretation. Bloom explains that deconstruction reveals the limits of persuasion within a poem, leading to a space where tropes take over, reflecting the uncertainties and ambiguities that form the heart of poetic language.
“A crossing is a crucial point or turning point, going back to the Greek krisis, which derived from krinein, ‘to separate’ or ‘to decide’.” (p. 519)	Bloom introduces the concept of crossing, a critical moment in poetry where rhetorical and psychological conflicts intersect. It marks a turning point that shapes the poem’s meaning, echoing the idea that poetry is a space of decision and transformation.
“A trope is one of two possibilities: either the will translating itself into a verbal act or figure of ethos, or else the will failing to translate itself.” (p. 520)	Bloom views tropes as acts of will, either successfully expressing a poet’s intent or failing to do so. This quote emphasizes his belief that poetic language is driven by the will to meaning, where tropes function as the medium through which the poet navigates personal conflicts.
“Stevens is content to taste the defeat of belatedness.” (p. 499)	Belatedness refers to a poet’s anxiety of being overshadowed by predecessors. Bloom suggests that Stevens accepts this defeat as part of the modern poetic condition, highlighting how poets must grapple with the weight of literary tradition and find new ways to create meaning.
“The aporia between system-of-tropes and persuasion as the logos, a valorization that audaciously redefines poetic thinking.” (p. 511)	Bloom addresses the aporia (or gap) between rhetorical tropes and persuasion, a central tension in poetry. He argues that this unresolved conflict defines poetic thinking, where meaning emerges through the interplay of logical structures and emotional persuasion.
“Pathos or recognition becomes a defect of response, or the survival of a will-to-representation after representation has been attained.” (p. 505)	Bloom describes pathos as an emotional excess or defective response that follows after the poet has achieved representation through language. This quote highlights the difficulty in fully capturing emotional depth, as language often falls short of communicating desire or feeling.

Suggested Readings: “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

1. Bloom, Harold. “POETIC CROSSING: RHETORIC AND PSYCHOLOGY.” The Georgia Review, vol. 30, no. 3, 1976, pp. 495–524. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41397273. Accessed 6 Oct. 2024.
2. Bloom, Harold. “Auras: The Sublime Crossing and the Death of Love.” Oxford Literary Review, vol. 4, no. 3, 1981, pp. 3–19. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43973628. Accessed 6 Oct. 2024.
3. Fite, David. “Kenner/Bloom: Canonmaking and the Resources of Rhetoric.” Boundary 2, vol. 15/16, 1988, pp. 117–45. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/303254. Accessed 6 Oct. 2024.
4. Eiland, Howard. “Harold Bloom and High Modernism.” Boundary 2, vol. 5, no. 3, 1977, pp. 935–42. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/302580. Accessed 6 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

“Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom first appeared in PMLA (Publications of the Modern Language Association) in December 1958 (Vol. 73, No. 5, Part 1, pp. 501-504). This article, published by the Modern Language Association, is a critical examination of William Blake’s The Marriage of Heaven and Hell and its dialectical structure. Bloom delves into Blake’s unique interplay of contraries, emphasizing the work’s intricate blend of theological and ethical oppositions, along with its satirical and prophetic tones. Bloom highlights how Blake’s rhetoric overtakes dialectic, asserting that true comprehension of the work demands engagement with the unresolved tension between opposing ideas. This piece is significant in literary theory as it contributes to the ongoing discussion of apocalyptic literature, irony, and the role of contraries in human existence. Bloom’s analysis also serves as a crucial touchstone in the interpretation of Blake’s poetic vision, influencing subsequent readings of Blake’s works, including their dialectical complexities in the context of Romanticism and modern literary criticism.

Summary of “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

 Literary Terms/Concepts in “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Bloom’s Analysis	Quotation/Reference
Dialectic	A method of argument that involves a dialogue between opposing forces or ideas to reveal the truth.	Bloom emphasizes how Blake’s work is inherently dialectical, showcasing the tension between opposing forces (contraries).	“The Marriage compounds ethical and theological ‘contraries’; in form it mocks the categorical techniques that seek to make the contraries appear as ‘negations.'”
Contraries	Opposing forces or concepts that coexist without negating each other.	Central to Blake’s philosophy, contraries such as good and evil are necessary for human existence and progression.	“Without Contraries is no progression. Attraction and Repulsion, Reason and Energy, Love and Hate, are necessary to Human existence.”
Irony	A rhetorical device where the intended meaning is opposite of the literal meaning.	Blake uses prophetic irony in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell to challenge institutionalized systems of thought.	“The great difficulty of dialectical apocalypse is that it has got to present itself as prophetic irony, in which the abyss between aspiration and institution is both anticipated and denounced.”
Apocalypse	A literary genre involving the revelation of hidden truths, often associated with the end of the world.	Blake’s work is described as a dialectical apocalypse that combines visionary and satirical elements.	“Apocalypse is dialectical in the Marriage, as much so as in Shelley’s Prometheus or the poems by Yeats… in which the abyss between aspiration and institution is both anticipated and denounced.”
Rhetoric	The art of persuasive speaking or writing.	In Blake’s work, rhetoric often overtakes dialectic, making it difficult to determine when Blake speaks ironically.	“In Blake, rhetoric subsumes dialectic, and usurps its place of privilege.”
Antinomianism	A belief that rejects established moral laws, particularly in the context of religion.	The “Proverbs of Hell” embody Blake’s antinomian stance, rejecting Christian dualism and embracing rebellious energy.	“The Proverbs of Hell… where dialectic and rhetoric come together combatively in what could be judged the most brilliant aphorisms written in English.”
Satire	A genre of literature that uses humor, irony, or ridicule to criticize societal flaws or institutions.	Blake’s work contains satirical elements, especially in its critique of religious and philosophical institutions.	“The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is a miniature ‘anatomy,’ in Northrop Frye’s recently formulated sense of the term, and reserves to itself the anatomy’s peculiar right to mingle satire with vision.”
Prophetic Poetry	A form of visionary poetry that conveys predictions or warnings about the future.	Blake’s poem is considered prophetic, warning against the limitations of institutionalized religion and thought.	“The poem is a prelude, establishing the tone of prophetic fury which is to run beneath the Marriage; the indignation of Rintrah presages the turning over of a cycle.”
Dualism	The division of something into two opposing aspects.	Blake critiques traditional Christian dualism by presenting contraries as necessary and complementary forces.	“This is a dialectic without transcendence, in which heaven and hell are to be married but without becoming altogether one flesh or one family.”
Anatomy (Literary Genre)	A work that mixes philosophical ideas with satire, often presenting a broad survey of human knowledge.	Bloom associates The Marriage of Heaven and Hell with this genre, citing Northrop Frye’s use of the term “anatomy.”	“The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is a miniature ‘anatomy,’ in Northrop Frye’s recently formulated sense of the term, and reserves to itself the anatomy’s peculiar right to mingle satire with vision.”
Phenomenology	A philosophical approach that emphasizes the study of consciousness and human experience.	Bloom connects Blake’s vision to phenomenology, noting that Blake explores human existence and sensory experience.	“Blake gives a definitive statement of the phenomenology of existence, the ceaseless dialectic of daily appearance.”

Contribution of “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Critique Through Bloom’s Framework	Key Concept from Bloom’s Analysis	Quotation from Bloom’s Article
John Milton’s Paradise Lost	Bloom suggests Blake read Paradise Lost “in its infernal or poetic sense,” seeing Satan as a tragic hero, subverting traditional readings of Satan as purely evil.	Blake’s dialectic challenges Christian dualism, viewing “evil” as necessary for progression.	“When, in another turn of the critical wheel, we go back to reading Paradise Lost in its infernal or poetic sense… we will have to condemn a generation of critical dogmatists.”
Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Prometheus Unbound	Similar to Blake’s apocalyptic vision, Shelley’s work reflects a dialectical apocalypse that critiques societal and religious structures.	Bloom connects Blake’s work to other apocalyptic Romantic works, showing how they embody dialectical tensions.	“Apocalypse is dialectical in the Marriage, as much so as in Shelley’s Prometheus or the poems by Yeats written out of A Vision.”
William Butler Yeats’ A Vision	Bloom critiques Yeats’ complex visionary system, seeing it as an extension of Blake’s dialectical method, but with more systematic elements.	Bloom suggests that Blake’s epics and visionary works, while dialectical, defy systems imposed by critics such as Frye.	“The schemata of those epics, though dialectical, are yet systematic; the local life in them maddeningly (but gratefully) defies the system.”
D.H. Lawrence’s Women in Love	Bloom contrasts Lawrence’s vision of sexual energy and human conflict with Blake’s dialectic, noting that Blake doesn’t fully accept the cyclical recurrence that Lawrence embraces.	Blake’s rejection of purely cyclical views of human existence, emphasizing instead the potential for progression through contraries.	“Blake is as earnest as Lawrence, and will not tolerate the vision of recurrence, as Nietzsche and Yeats do.”
Friedrich Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra	Nietzsche’s concept of eternal recurrence is rejected by Blake’s dialectic. While both embrace contraries, Blake denies that these cycles are eternal or static.	Bloom shows how Blake’s dialectic offers a more fluid progression, rejecting Nietzschean recurrence as restrictive.	“The altogether human escapes cycle, evades irony, cannot be categorized discursively.”
John Keats’ Ode to a Nightingale	Through Bloom’s lens, Keats’ dialectic between life and death in the poem reflects Blake’s emphasis on the necessity of contraries for human experience.	The tension between opposites, such as joy and sorrow or life and death, mirrors Blake’s idea that contraries drive human existence.	“Without Contraries is no progression. Attraction and Repulsion, Reason and Energy, Love and Hate, are necessary to Human existence.”
James Joyce’s Ulysses	Bloom’s critique can be extended to Joyce’s stream-of-consciousness technique, which embodies a dialectical interplay between chaos and order in human experience.	Blake’s rejection of rigid forms and reliance on the interplay of contraries can be seen in Joyce’s modernist narrative technique.	“Blake does not build truth by dialectic, being neither a rational mystic like Plato nor a mystic rationalist like Hegel.”
Franz Kafka’s The Trial	Bloom’s framework can be applied to Kafka’s vision of the absurd, where the dialectic between justice and injustice is never resolved, reflecting the tensions in Blake’s work.	Kafka’s existential view of authority and law echoes Blake’s critique of institutional systems, showing how both writers leave tensions unresolved.	“The Marriage preaches the risen body breaking bounds, exploding upwards into psychic abundance… the altogether human escapes cycle.”
T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land	The fragmented structure and tension between hope and despair in The Waste Land can be critiqued using Blake’s dialectic of contraries.	Eliot’s juxtaposition of spiritual desolation and potential rebirth mirrors the dialectical tensions in Blake’s vision of apocalypse.	“Blake seeks reality in appearances, though he rejects appearance as it is perceived by the lowest-common-denominator kind of observer.”

Summary of Key Concepts:

• Contraries vs. Negations: Blake’s contraries, unlike negations, coexist and are necessary for human experience and progression.
• Dialectical Apocalypse: Literary works that challenge institutional structures and present visionary or apocalyptic tensions can be critiqued using Blake’s dialectical approach.
• Irony and Rhetoric: Bloom’s focus on the limits of irony in Blake’s work allows for critiques of modernist and postmodernist texts that emphasize indeterminacy and unresolved tensions.
• Satirical Critique of Institutions: Blake’s work critiques religious and societal norms through satire, offering a framework for analyzing works that critique authority.

Criticism Against “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

Representative Quotations from “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “Without Contraries is no progression. Attraction and Repulsion, Reason and Energy, Love and Hate, are necessary to Human existence.”	This quotation encapsulates Blake’s core philosophy, emphasizing the necessity of contraries (opposing forces) for growth and human experience. Bloom uses this as the foundation for his analysis of Blake’s dialectical worldview.
2. “The Marriage compounds ethical and theological ‘contraries’; in form it mocks the categorical techniques that seek to make the contraries appear as ‘negations.’”	Here, Bloom explains how The Marriage of Heaven and Hell contrasts opposites like good and evil, but does not resolve them into a single truth. Instead, Blake mocks the tendency to simplify these contraries into mere negations.
3. “The unity of the Marriage is in itself dialectical, and cannot be grasped except by the mind in motion, moving between the Blakean contraries of discursive irony and mythical visualization.”	Bloom highlights the difficulty of interpreting Blake’s work, arguing that readers must engage with its dialectical complexity, constantly shifting between different perspectives. The “mind in motion” reflects the active nature of understanding.
4. “Apocalypse is dialectical in the Marriage, as much so as in Shelley’s Prometheus or the poems by Yeats written out of A Vision.”	This quotation links Blake’s apocalyptic vision with other Romantic and visionary writers, suggesting that Blake’s portrayal of apocalyptic transformation is deeply dialectical, like those in works by Shelley and Yeats.
5. “The great difficulty of dialectical apocalypse is that it has got to present itself as prophetic irony, in which the abyss between aspiration and institution is both anticipated and denounced.”	Bloom emphasizes that Blake’s apocalyptic vision includes irony, wherein societal aspirations and institutions are both critiqued and anticipated. This highlights the duality of Blake’s vision, which foresees change while mocking institutions.
6. “Blake seeks reality in appearances, though he rejects appearance as it is perceived by the lowest-common-denominator kind of observer.”	This quotation shows Blake’s rejection of simplistic views of reality. According to Bloom, Blake values appearances, but only when they are interpreted through imaginative and intellectual lenses rather than through surface-level perception.
7. “Blake does not build truth by dialectic, being neither a rational mystic like Plato nor a mystic rationalist like Hegel.”	Bloom distances Blake from traditional dialectical thinkers like Plato and Hegel, arguing that Blake’s approach is neither purely mystical nor purely rational. Blake’s vision resists easy categorization and creates a unique approach to dialectic.
8. “The ‘Memorable Fancies,’ brilliant exercises in satire and humanism, form the bulk of the Marriage, and tend to evade Blake’s own dialectic.”	Bloom points out that Blake’s satirical passages, known as the “Memorable Fancies,” often escape the dialectical structure of the work. These passages playfully critique established systems, while not being bound by Blake’s own philosophical approach.
9. “Blake is as earnest as Lawrence, and will not tolerate the vision of recurrence, as Nietzsche and Yeats do.”	Bloom contrasts Blake with Nietzsche and Yeats, arguing that while all three explore the cycle of contraries, Blake rejects the idea of eternal recurrence. Blake sees human progression as capable of transcending cyclical limitations.
10. “Religion seeks to end the warfare of contraries because it claims to know a reality beyond existence; Blake wants the warfare to continue because he seeks a reality within existence.”	This quotation contrasts Blake’s view with religious orthodoxy. Bloom explains that while religion seeks to resolve or end the tension between opposites, Blake embraces the ongoing struggle of contraries as essential to human existence and experience.

Suggested Readings: “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

1. Gross, David. “Infinite Indignation: Teaching, Dialectical Vision, and Blake’s Marriage of Heaven and Hell.” College English, vol. 48, no. 2, 1986, pp. 175–86. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/377299. Accessed 7 Oct. 2024.
2. Bloom, Harold. “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell.” PMLA, vol. 73, no. 5, 1958, pp. 501–04. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/460292. Accessed 7 Oct. 2024.
3. Schock, Peter A. “The Marriage of Heaven and Hell: Blake’s Myth of Satan and Its Cultural Matrix.” ELH, vol. 60, no. 2, 1993, pp. 441–70. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2873386. Accessed 7 Oct. 2024.
4. Grant, John E. “THE ART AND ARGUMENT OF ‘THE TYGER.’” Texas Studies in Literature and Language, vol. 2, no. 1, 1960, pp. 38–60. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40753660. Accessed 7 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom

“Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom first appeared in 1975 in the journal Critical Inquiry, is considered a seminal work in literary theory, particularly within the framework of American Romanticism. Bloom argues that poets engage in a process of “revisionism” against their predecessors, striving to assert their originality and poetic authority. This revisionism, however, often involves the “repression” of earlier poetic influences, which are subsequently internalized and transformed within the poet’s own work. Bloom’s essay has been influential in shaping our understanding of poetic influence, intertextuality, and the dynamics of literary tradition. It continues to be a valuable resource for scholars and students of literature.

Summary of “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom

• Introduction of Key Concepts
  Bloom opens the essay by interrogating the relationship between psyche and text, framing poetry as a battlefield where authentic forces struggle for victory over oblivion. He emphasizes the psychoanalytical framework, notably the “psyche,” “text,” and “represented,” as key terms, arguing that poetry is not self-contained but continuously woven into the broader fabric of literary tradition.
• The Will of the Strong Poet
  Bloom describes strong poets as those driven by desire, a concept he attributes to Nietzsche’s philosophy. He argues that poets, particularly the strong ones, are engaged in a search for pleasure rather than truth, leading to a continuous process of interpreting past works in ways that serve their personal artistic visions. This revisionism is not a simple act of homage, but an essential struggle against the past, a battle for originality and survival in the literary canon.
• Poetry as a Form of Rewriting
  In Bloom’s view, every poem is inherently a “rewriting” of previous works, meaning that no poem can claim true autonomy. He introduces the idea of “poetic misprision,” where poets creatively misread their precursors to assert their individuality. This echoes Freud’s concept of “retroactive meaningfulness,” wherein meaning is constructed by selecting and repressing influences from prior texts.
• Intertextuality and Influence
  Drawing on the theories of Vico and Freud, Bloom outlines how poets are always belated—born into a literary tradition they cannot escape. Every poet must repress the weight of precursors, but in doing so, they create their own unique, exaggerated style that becomes their signature. The act of revision, whether conscious or subconscious, is central to poetic creation.
• The Role of Rhetoric and Tropes in Poetry
  Bloom emphasizes the importance of rhetoric in poetry, especially through the use of tropes such as irony, metonymy, and hyperbole. He contends that rhetoric is not merely a tool of persuasion but a mode of survival in the world of literary competition. Poets use these devices to revise and reinterpret the works of their predecessors, which he aligns with Vico’s idea that “ignorance is the mother of wonder.”
• Defense Mechanisms in Poetry
  He links poetic creation to psychic defense mechanisms, suggesting that poets engage in a process of repression and substitution that mirrors Freud’s concept of defense against instincts. For Bloom, poetry involves “defensive processes,” where strong poets must continually wrestle with their influences to forge new meanings.
• Gnosticism and Revisionism
  Bloom draws parallels between Gnosticism and poetic misprision, arguing that strong poets, much like Gnostics, seek to rewrite and reinterpret traditional narratives to claim authority over their creative output. This revisionism is presented as a struggle for poetic freedom, an attempt to transcend the limitations imposed by history and tradition.
• The Sublime and the Strong Poet
  Bloom concludes by exploring the concept of the Sublime, identifying Milton and Satan in Paradise Lost as exemplars of this mode. He asserts that the strongest poets achieve a kind of “Counter-Sublime” by transforming repression into creative power. In Bloom’s framework, repression is not merely a psychological burden but a source of poetic strength that allows the poet to transcend time and tradition.

Quote from Bloom:
“Poems are not psyches, nor things…they are defensive processes in constant change, which is to say that poems themselves are acts of reading.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in Bloom’s Essay
Psyche	Refers to the human mind or soul, often linked to internal forces, desires, and instincts.	Bloom explores the psyche as a battlefield where the poet’s internal desires clash with literary tradition, driving the creative process.
Text	A woven construct, a fabrication of words that engages in continuous intertextuality.	Poetry is framed as a text that exists within a broader network of literary works, always referring to or rewriting prior texts.
Revisionism	The act of reinterpreting or rewriting earlier works to assert new meanings or personal interpretations.	Central to Bloom’s theory, where poets revise their precursors’ works to create original interpretations and assert their individuality.
Misprision	A “creative misreading” of precursor texts, where poets reinterpret earlier works to forge new meanings.	Poets must misread the works of their predecessors to create space for their own creative expression, avoiding direct imitation.
Intertextuality	The idea that all texts are interconnected, and no text exists in isolation from other literary works.	Bloom emphasizes that every poem is an inter-poem, inherently tied to a network of previous texts, thus rejecting the notion of poetic autonomy.
Poetic Repression	The poet’s need to suppress certain influences or predecessors in order to create original work.	Poets selectively repress traces of their precursors’ works to assert their own voice, but this repression is always partial, leading to a complex relationship with literary history.
Strong Poet	A poet who engages deeply with tradition and struggles to assert their individuality by creatively revising past works.	The “strong poet” dares to challenge the influence of past poets, driven by personal desire rather than the pursuit of objective truth.
Tropes	Figures of speech or rhetorical devices used to shape meaning in poetry (e.g., irony, metaphor, metonymy).	Tropes are seen as central to poetic creation, with strong poets using them to revise and reinterpret previous works, thus engaging in rhetorical revisionism.
The Sublime	A concept in literature that refers to overwhelming grandeur or emotional intensity, often linked to transcendence.	Bloom discusses how strong poets, like Milton’s Satan, achieve the Sublime through their struggle with tradition, leading to a heightened, often paradoxical, form of poetic expression.
Nachträglichkeit (Retroactive Meaning)	A Freudian term referring to the process by which later events give new meanings to earlier ones.	Bloom applies this concept to poetry, where later poets reinterpret earlier works in ways that create new meanings for both the precursor and the later poet’s own work.
Rhetoric	The art of persuasion through language, often employing figures of speech or argumentation.	Bloom argues that rhetoric is central to poetry, with poets using it not just for persuasion but as a means of defending their originality and resisting the influence of their precursors.
Clinamen	A swerve or deviation in literary creation, a concept borrowed from Lucretius to describe the act of misreading or revision.	Bloom uses the term “clinamen” to explain how poets deviate from their precursors in order to assert their own creativity, representing the initial stage in the process of revision.
Tessera	A completion or “filling in” of the gaps left by precursor texts, often through reinterpretation or antithetical completion.	Tessera refers to the poet’s attempt to complete or respond to their precursors’ works, adding to or transforming the original text’s meaning, often in a contradictory or opposing manner.
Askesis	A process of self-restraint or reduction, often seen as a form of creative discipline in poetry.	Bloom uses “askesis” to describe how poets limit or restrain themselves to focus their creativity, often as a way of sublimating their struggle with their literary predecessors.
Daemonization	The stage where the poet intensifies their creative process, often through hyperbole, to assert their individuality.	In Bloom’s framework, daemonization represents the poet’s heightened struggle to overcome the influence of their precursors, often marked by extreme or exaggerated poetic expression.
Metalepsis (Transumption)	The substitution of one term for another, often in a complex chain of figurative associations that transforms earlier meanings.	Bloom sees metalepsis as a final trope in the revisionary process, where the poet transcends previous meanings by transforming and reinterpreting the works of their precursors in profound ways.
Freudian Repression	The psychological process of pushing desires or memories out of conscious awareness, often linked to creative expression.	Bloom relates Freudian repression to the poet’s need to suppress certain influences or aspects of their own creativity, using this suppression as a source of poetic power.

Contribution of “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Intertextuality

• Contribution: Bloom asserts that no poem is self-contained, and every poem exists in a network of interrelated texts. He emphasizes that a poem is always a “rewriting” of previous poems, building on the idea that literature is inherently dialogical.
• Reference: Bloom argues, “Any poem is an inter-poem, and any reading of a poem is an inter-reading. A poem is not writing, but rewriting, and though a strong poem is a fresh start, such a start is a starting-again” (p. 234). This statement reinforces the idea that poems are deeply enmeshed in a web of prior literary works, adding to the theory of intertextuality introduced by thinkers like Julia Kristeva and Mikhail Bakhtin.

2. Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism

• Contribution: Bloom’s exploration of repression and poetic creation is heavily influenced by Freudian psychoanalysis, particularly in terms of how poets handle their influences. He adapts the Freudian concept of repression, using it to describe how poets deal with the weight of literary precursors. Bloom links the creative process to psychic defenses, arguing that poetry is a result of both conscious and unconscious processes.
• Reference: Bloom discusses the role of repression in poetic creativity, asserting that “even the strongest poet must take up his stance within literary language” (p. 236), implying that repression of past influences is a key element in the creation of strong poetry. This connection to Freudian repression contributes to Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism, particularly how unconscious influences shape literary texts.

3. Anxiety of Influence and Revisionist Criticism

• Contribution: Bloom’s most significant contribution to literary theory is his Anxiety of Influence, which he expands on in this essay. He argues that poets are driven by a competitive relationship with their predecessors, and the act of poetic creation is a struggle to overcome the influence of earlier poets. The process of creative misreading or misprision is how a poet establishes their own originality.
• Reference: Bloom states, “The strong poet dares the error of reading all of reality as a text, and all prior texts as openings for its own totalizing and unique interpretations” (p. 233). This idea is central to his Revisionist Criticism, where poets must wrestle with and revise the works of their precursors to assert their own poetic identities. This approach influenced deconstruction and post-structuralist theories, particularly those concerning authorship and textuality.

4. Rhetorical Theory

• Contribution: Bloom situates poetry as deeply rhetorical, focusing on the use of tropes and rhetoric as key mechanisms through which poets engage in revision. He argues that poetry is not merely about meaning but about persuading the reader through rhetorical strategies, suggesting that the act of writing poetry is fundamentally rhetorical.
• Reference: He claims, “Rhetoric can be seconded only by rhetoric, for all that rhetoric can intend is more rhetoric” (p. 233). In this view, poetry becomes a persuasive system of tropes, aligning with the ancient rhetorical tradition while also contributing to modern rhetorical theory, where language is seen as a means of constructing reality.

5. Poetic Misprision as a Mechanism of Literary Development

• Contribution: Bloom’s theory of misprision—a creative misreading of past works—positions poetic creation as an inherently revisionist act. He suggests that poets must misinterpret their predecessors to create new meanings and establish their own voices.
• Reference: Bloom asserts, “This remembering is a misprision, or creative misreading, but no matter how strong a misprision, it cannot achieve an autonomy of meaning, or a meaning fully present, that is, free from all literary context” (p. 235). His theory of misprision is a crucial element of literary evolution, suggesting that literature progresses through acts of misinterpretation rather than direct influence, a concept that engages with post-structuralist notions of difference and deferral in meaning (as discussed by Derrida).

6. The Sublime in Post-Enlightenment Poetry

• Contribution: Bloom revises the notion of the Sublime, which traditionally refers to an overwhelming sense of awe or grandeur in art and literature. He argues that in the post-Enlightenment era, the Sublime is achieved through the poet’s struggle with their precursors, an inner conflict that results in hyperbolic, extreme expression.
• Reference: Bloom writes, “The strongest artists…prevail by reattaining the Sublime, though a greatly altered Sublime” (p. 247). This redefinition of the Sublime places it within the context of literary revisionism, suggesting that the Sublime is no longer about external grandeur but about internal, psychological struggle.

7. Poetic Immortality and Gnosticism

• Contribution: Bloom incorporates Gnostic philosophy into his theory of poetic creation, arguing that strong poets, like Gnostics, seek to “divine” their own origins through their work, striving for a form of poetic immortality. This aligns with the Gnostic rejection of conventional religious tradition, mirroring the poet’s rejection of literary tradition to assert originality.
• Reference: Bloom states, “A strong poet, for Vico or for us, is precisely like a gentile nation; he must divine or invent himself, and so attempt the impossibility of originating himself” (p. 237). This Gnostic approach to poetry contributes to theories of authorship and individual genius in literature, where the poet is seen as a self-creator.

Examples of Critiques Through “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Critique Through Bloom’s Lens (Poetry, Revisionism, Repression)	Key Bloomian Concepts Applied
John Milton’s Paradise Lost	Milton’s depiction of Satan reflects the strong poet’s struggle to achieve the Sublime by resisting the influence of previous epic traditions (e.g., Homer, Virgil). Satan, with his rebellious and rhetorical brilliance, represents a figure who asserts himself through creative misprision, turning the traditional model of epic heroism on its head.	Sublime, Poetic Misprision, Daemonization: Satan embodies Milton’s engagement in revisionism by hyperbolically reimagining the hero, defying predecessors like Dante’s Satan.
William Wordsworth’s Prelude	Wordsworth can be viewed as revising Milton and attempting to overcome his anxiety of influence through the creation of a deeply personal and introspective epic. His repression of Milton’s grand theological scope allows him to develop a more subjective, Romantic vision of nature and self. Wordsworth’s work is an attempt to rewrite epic poetry in his own image, emphasizing human consciousness over grand cosmological themes.	Repression, Intertextuality, Anxiety of Influence: Wordsworth represses the influence of Milton to construct a more personal, psychological epic focused on individual experience.
T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land	Eliot’s intertextuality and allusive style showcase the poet’s awareness of literary precursors and his need to engage in revisionism. Through his fragmented form and collage of references, Eliot performs a creative misreading of prior texts (e.g., Dante, Shakespeare, and the Bible). His work embodies a modernist anxiety of influence, where he both draws upon and subverts the meanings of his literary heritage.	Intertextuality, Poetic Misprision, Anxiety of Influence: Eliot consciously rewrites and revises earlier texts, creating a mosaic of fragmented influences to reflect modernity’s fractured experience.
Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind	Shelley’s ode can be seen as a struggle with his Romantic precursors, particularly Wordsworth and Milton. The West Wind symbolizes a force of transformation, reflecting Shelley’s desire to assert his poetic autonomy through a powerful, elemental image. He revises Wordsworth’s naturalism by portraying nature as a revolutionary and destructive force, rather than a peaceful, pastoral presence.	Misprision, Clinamen, Revisionism: Shelley swerves from Wordsworth’s view of nature, reinterpreting it as a force for radical change, thereby asserting his own poetic vision.

Explanation of the Critiques:

1. John Milton’s Paradise Lost:
   Through Bloom’s lens, Paradise Lost is a profound example of the Sublime achieved through poetic misprision. Satan’s rhetoric and rebellious nature are a reflection of Milton’s struggle to transcend his literary predecessors (e.g., Homer, Dante). Milton’s Satan represents a daemonization of previous epic heroes, where the protagonist’s hyperbolic self-assertion becomes a method of achieving poetic strength.
2. William Wordsworth’s Prelude:
   Wordsworth’s Prelude rewrites the epic tradition by focusing on subjective experience rather than grand religious or cosmological themes. His approach reflects repression of Milton’s theological concerns, allowing Wordsworth to create a uniquely Romantic form of the epic that centers on the individual’s relationship with nature and consciousness. This repression enables Wordsworth to engage in poetic misprision by asserting his own vision against Miltonic influence.
3. T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land:
   Eliot’s The Waste Land is an exemplary text for intertextuality, in which Eliot both engages with and revises a multitude of earlier texts. His use of fragmentation, allusion, and myth reflects an intense anxiety of influence where Eliot wrestles with the overwhelming presence of literary tradition. By misreading these sources, Eliot crafts a modernist work that simultaneously acknowledges and subverts its precursors.
4. Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind:
   In Ode to the West Wind, Shelley revises the naturalism of Wordsworth by presenting nature as a transformative, revolutionary force rather than a source of tranquility. This represents a clinamen, or swerve, from the Romantic tradition, where Shelley seeks to assert his own poetic power through the imagery of the West Wind. The poem embodies Bloom’s concept of revisionism by reinterpreting nature in a more dynamic, volatile manner.

Criticism Against “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom

• Overemphasis on Influence and Anxiety
  Critics argue that Bloom places too much importance on the concept of anxiety of influence, suggesting that it oversimplifies the creative process by reducing it to a struggle against predecessors. This focus diminishes other factors such as historical context, social influences, or personal experiences in the creative act.
• Neglect of Diversity in Literary Traditions
  Bloom’s theory is criticized for being overly focused on a narrow Western canon, particularly the Romantic and post-Enlightenment tradition. His exclusion of non-Western, minority, or feminist voices has been seen as limiting and outdated, ignoring the diversity of global literary traditions and how different cultural backgrounds might influence poetic creation.
• Psychological Reductionism
  Some critics contend that Bloom’s reliance on Freudian psychoanalysis to explain the poet’s creative process is overly reductive. They argue that framing poetry as a battle of repressed desires and misreadings limits the broader understanding of literary creativity and fails to account for other psychological, philosophical, or aesthetic influences beyond repression and revision.
• Elitism and Canon Worship
  Bloom’s focus on “strong poets” and his promotion of the Western literary canon have been criticized as elitist. His valorization of canonical figures (e.g., Milton, Wordsworth) tends to dismiss contemporary, experimental, or non-canonical writers, reinforcing traditional literary hierarchies rather than opening up space for new voices.
• Obscurantism and Complexity
  Some critics find Bloom’s writing unnecessarily dense, with his use of terms like misprision, daemonization, and clinamen perceived as arcane or overly complex. This has led to accusations that Bloom’s work is inaccessible and obscures rather than clarifies the process of poetic creation.
• Lack of Engagement with Formalist or Structuralist Criticism
  Bloom’s theory is often criticized for its lack of attention to formalist and structuralist concerns. By focusing predominantly on the relationship between poets and their precursors, he neglects to consider the formal and structural aspects of the text itself, such as language, syntax, and narrative technique.
• Gender Bias and Marginalization of Female Poets
  Bloom’s critical framework is seen by some as marginalizing female poets, focusing predominantly on male figures within the Western canon. His theory, critics argue, does not adequately address how female poets may engage with literary tradition and influence differently, nor does it challenge patriarchal structures within the literary canon.

Representative Quotations from “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“A poem is not writing, but rewriting, and though a strong poem is a fresh start, such a start is a starting-again.”	Bloom emphasizes that all poetry is inherently intertextual and revisionist, building on previous works rather than emerging as wholly original creations.
“The strong poet dares the error of reading all of reality as a text, and all prior texts as openings for its own totalizing and unique interpretations.”	This highlights the boldness of strong poets, who reinterpret reality and previous literary works through their personal, often unique, perspectives, turning tradition into opportunity.
“Any poem is an inter-poem, and any reading of a poem is an inter-reading.”	Bloom reinforces the idea that every poem exists within a network of other texts, denying the notion of a self-contained or isolated literary work.
“Rhetoric can be seconded only by rhetoric, for all that rhetoric can intend is more rhetoric.”	Bloom suggests that poetry is a series of rhetorical acts, and one rhetorical system can only be answered or revised by another. This places rhetoric at the heart of poetic creation.
“Even the strongest poet must take up his stance within literary language.”	A strong poet cannot escape the confines of literary tradition, but must work within it to create something new and individual through the act of revision.
“Poetry lives always under the shadow of poetry.”	This quote reflects Bloom’s belief that influence is unavoidable in poetry, and every new poem is haunted by the works of previous poets.
“Repression becomes contaminated by instinct, and so becomes compulsive and at least partly repressed, which rhetorically means hyperbolical or Sublime.”	Bloom links Freudian repression to the poetic process, arguing that repression leads to the Sublime, a heightened or exaggerated poetic expression driven by unconscious forces.
“The curse of an increased belatedness, a dangerously self-conscious belatedness, is that creative envy becomes the ecstasy, the Sublime, of the sign-system of poetic language.”	This describes how modern poets are increasingly aware of their belatedness (coming after a long literary tradition), and their creative envy manifests as intense, Sublime expression.
“Every poet is belated, that every poem is an instance of what Freud called Nachträglichkeit or ‘retroactive meaningfulness.'”	Bloom applies Freud’s notion of retroactive meaning to poetry, arguing that every poem gains significance through its relationship with, and revision of, earlier works.
“Poems are not psyches, nor things, nor are they renewable archetypes in a verbal universe… They are defensive processes in constant change.”	Bloom argues that poems are not static objects but dynamic processes, continuously evolving through revision and misprision as they engage with both the past and the present.

Explanation of the Quotations:

These quotes and their explanations showcase the core ideas of Bloom’s theory from “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression”. Central to Bloom’s framework are the concepts of revisionism, intertextuality, and repression, where strong poets engage in a struggle with their precursors, misreading and revising earlier works to assert their own creative voices. Bloom also emphasizes the dynamic and rhetorical nature of poetry, asserting that it is always a process of rewriting and reinterpretation rather than an isolated act of creation.

Suggested Readings: “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom

1. Bloom, Harold. “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 2, no. 2, 1975, pp. 233–51. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1342901. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
2. Diehl, Joanne Feit. “‘Come Slowly: Eden’: An Exploration of Women Poets and Their Muse.” Signs, vol. 3, no. 3, 1978, pp. 572–87. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3173172. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
3. Purser, J. W. R. The Review of English Studies, vol. 14, no. 54, 1963, pp. 209–11. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/513524. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
4. Beach, Christopher. “Ezra Pound and Harold Bloom: Influences, Canons, Traditions, and the Making of Modern Poetry.” ELH, vol. 56, no. 2, 1989, pp. 463–83. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2873068. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
5. Schultz, Susan M. “‘Returning to Bloom’: John Ashbery’s Critique of Harold Bloom.” Contemporary Literature, vol. 37, no. 1, 1996, pp. 24–48. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1208749. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom

“First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom appeared in 1970 in the journal Studies in Romanticism, is considered a seminal work in the field of Romanticism studies. Bloom argues that the Romantic poets, particularly William Blake, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats, represent the “first and last” Romantics because they embody the essence of the Romantic spirit more fully than any other writers. He further highlights their main qualities as their emphasis on the individual imagination, their rejection of traditional authority, and their exploration of the mysteries of existence. These arguments of Bloom have had a profound influence on literature and literary theory, shaping the way we understand and appreciate Romantic literature and its legacy.

Summary of “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom

• Romanticism as Quest and Journey:
  • Bloom begins by exploring the idea that the “Odyssey” is the original Romantic poem, embodying the essential characteristics of a quest romance. The hero embarks on a journey not just toward home, but toward an ideal home, or a “supreme trial,” and this motif becomes a defining element of Romantic literature.
  • He states that “romance is a journey towards home, the hero’s home though not the reader’s” and this journey, in Romanticism, is more about the process than the destination, as exemplified by works like Browning, Kafka, and Yeats (“Demonic romance values the journey more than the destination”).
• Romanticism as Fusion of Romance and Prophecy:
  • Bloom argues that Romanticism blends traditional romance with prophetic vision, creating a new form of artistic and spiritual expression. He contrasts Romanticism with earlier literary forms by emphasizing its prophetic nature, drawn from figures like St. John the Apocalyptic rather than just ancient poets like Homer.
  • “Romanticism fused romance and prophecy,” suggesting that Romantic poets were not merely telling stories but were attempting to create new visions of reality, where prophecy plays a critical role.
• Historical Perspective on Romanticism:
  • Bloom discusses the idea that both “First” and “Last” Romantics can be freely chosen by critics, as every critic situates their understanding of Romanticism in relation to their own context. By choosing one’s first Romantic figure, Bloom argues, one also reveals the kind of last Romantic or anti-Romantic one might aspire to be.
  • He notes, “Choose your first Romantic, or your first Romanticism, and you tell us what kind of last Romantic you yourself are,” highlighting the subjectivity involved in defining Romanticism.
• Romanticism as Renaissance of the Renaissance:
  • Bloom identifies English Romanticism as a revival of the Renaissance tradition, looking back to poets like Spenser and Shakespeare rather than the Augustan poets such as Pope and Johnson. He emphasizes how this selective return to Renaissance ideals was central to shaping Romantic imagination.
  • He explains, “English Romanticism, as opposed to Continental, was a renaissance of the Renaissance,” stressing the Romantic movement’s continuity with earlier literary traditions.
• Tensions with Anti-Romanticism:
  • Bloom addresses the counter-arguments of critics like Dr. Samuel Johnson, who viewed the Romantic celebration of the marvelous with skepticism. Johnson dismissed such invention as “fabulous appendages of spectres and predictions” and called for poetry that engages with the real and the imitable.
  • Johnson’s criticism of Gray’s “The Bard” exemplifies this anti-Romantic stance, wherein he valued “original invention” grounded in realism over the supernatural elements Romantic poets cherished.
• Romanticism and the Divine or Eternal:
  • A recurring theme in Romanticism, as Bloom notes, is the poet’s quest for divination or immortality, often expressed through the symbolism of gods, myths, and visionary experiences. Bloom references Borges, who illustrates this with a parable about scholars joyfully killing degenerate gods, showing both the allure and the danger of the Romantic return to divine themes.
  • Bloom describes Romantic poets as “Olympian bards who sung divine ideas below,” poets seeking a form of eternal life through their imaginative powers and divinatory abilities.
• Shamanism and Romanticism:
  • The essay explores the influence of shamanistic traditions on certain strands of Romanticism, particularly in poets like Yeats and Lawrence, whose works show elements of ritual and psychic transformation. However, Bloom notes that the High Romantics (e.g., Blake, Browning) largely moved beyond these magical elements to embrace a more rational, imaginative catharsis.
  • “The shamanism of Empedocles, so strangely re-born in Yeats’s A Vision,” illustrates how mystical traditions permeate the work of later Romantics, though Bloom points out that this is less central to the High Romanticism of the earlier nineteenth century.
• Invention as Divination:
  • Bloom asserts that for the strongest Romantic poets, invention itself becomes a form of divination—a way of creating new realities through imagination. This contrasts with the shamanistic, magical forms of divination, which seek control over nature. Romantic invention, he argues, creates a “world in which the Real Man, the Imagination, can never die.”
  • He notes, “Invention is a positive mode of divination… since it seeks not the heterocosm, but actual power over nature,” thereby elevating the Romantic poet’s creative powers to a quasi-divine status.
• Conclusion: Romanticism’s Legacy:
  • Bloom concludes by discussing the enduring legacy of Romanticism, asserting that modern poets must align themselves with the right precursors within the Romantic tradition to avoid the pitfalls of illusion and phantasmagoria. He names poets like Hardy and Stevens as examples of those who have successfully inherited this tradition without succumbing to its excesses.
  • He emphasizes that the “dark luminous” quality of Romantic poetry can help navigate challenging times, provided poets draw from the right Romantic ancestors.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference in Text
Quest Romance	A narrative centered around a hero’s journey toward an idealized goal, often more about the process and challenges than the final destination.	“Romance is a journey towards home… a supreme trial, after which home is possible, or else homelessness will suffice.”
Demonic Romance	A subversion of traditional romance where the quest’s goal is revealed to be delusive or unattainable, focusing more on the journey’s value than the destination’s fulfillment.	“Demonic romance values the journey more than the destination, and leaves us something other than a sense of loss.”
Prophetic Vision	The role of prophecy in Romanticism, blending the visionary aspect with poetic imagination to create a new form of spiritual and artistic revelation.	“Romanticism fused romance and prophecy… What the late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Romantics named as vision might better be termed a making and a hearing.”
Anxiety of Influence	A term coined by Bloom referring to a poet’s struggle to assert originality in the shadow of predecessors, dealing with the creative pressure exerted by earlier literary giants.	“Johnson, who wrote only a few strong poems, had felt deeply the anxiety of influence, as yet another variety of melancholy to add to his afflictions.”
Renaissance of the Renaissance	The idea that English Romanticism was a revival of the Renaissance tradition, selectively returning to figures like Spenser, Shakespeare, and Milton rather than more recent predecessors.	“English Romanticism, as opposed to Continental, was a renaissance of the Renaissance.”
Shamanism	A concept describing mystical, magical elements in literature, often involving rituals or psychic transformations. Bloom explores its presence in Romantic poetry.	“The shamanism of Empedocles, so strangely re-born in Yeats’s A Vision…”
Divination	The act of gaining insight or knowledge, often supernatural or prophetic, a central theme in Romanticism’s quest for immortality and transcendence.	“The return of the Gods means then, for Romanticism, the divination of immortality for and by poets…”
Phantasmagoria	A sequence of real or imagined images, often surreal, used by Bloom to describe illusions in Romantic poetry that poets must navigate or resist.	“Every Romantic has a tendency to drink unnecessarily from the Circean cup of illusion…”
Invention	Refers to the poet’s creative originality, seen by Bloom as a positive mode of divination, where the Romantic poet creates new worlds or realities through imagination.	“Invention is a positive mode of divination… The strong Romantic poet, when he is most himself, makes a world in which his Real Man, the Imagination, can never die.”

Contribution of “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

• Development of the “Anxiety of Influence” Theory:
  • Bloom expands on his theory of poetic influence in this work, emphasizing how Romantic poets struggled to assert their originality in the shadow of literary giants like Homer, Milton, and Shakespeare.
  • He writes that poets like Samuel Johnson felt “deeply the anxiety of influence,” revealing how later poets were burdened by their predecessors’ achievements, which shaped their own creative processes.
• Romanticism as Fusion of Romance and Prophecy:
  • Bloom’s contribution includes defining Romanticism as a unique fusion of the traditional quest romance with prophetic vision. This idea adds to the understanding of Romantic poetry not just as storytelling but as a form of visionary literature.
  • He explains, “Romanticism fused romance and prophecy,” and by doing so, Romantic poets became creators of new spiritual and imaginative realms, marking a shift in the purpose of poetry.
• Elevation of Imaginative Creation as Divination:
  • Bloom highlights the Romantic poet’s creative process as a form of divination, where invention itself becomes a mystical act. This emphasizes the poet’s role as a visionary who creates new worlds through imagination, contributing to theories of literary creation and originality.
  • “Invention is a positive mode of divination… The strong Romantic poet, when he is most himself, makes a world in which his Real Man, the Imagination, can never die.”
• Concept of the “Demonic Romance”:
  • Bloom introduces the idea of “demonic romance,” where the quest’s goal becomes delusive or unattainable, yet the journey remains valuable. This concept enriches literary theory by challenging the traditional hero’s journey and reinterpreting the Romantic quest as inherently ambiguous.
  • He discusses how works like Hart Crane’s The Bridge exemplify this idea, with “quest fulfilled to no consequence, or fulfillment revealed as a parody of the goal.”
• Return to the Renaissance as Source of Romantic Imagination:
  • Bloom redefines the lineage of English Romanticism by arguing that it is a “renaissance of the Renaissance,” positioning the Romantics as heirs to Renaissance figures like Spenser and Shakespeare. This perspective reframes Romanticism within a broader historical and literary tradition, influencing how later critics understand its roots.
  • He writes, “English Romanticism, as opposed to Continental, was a renaissance of the Renaissance,” placing Romantic poets in a selective dialogue with their Renaissance predecessors.
• Critique of Anti-Romanticism and Traditional Invention:
  • Bloom engages with anti-Romantic critics, particularly Samuel Johnson, who viewed the Romantic imagination with skepticism. This dialogue adds depth to literary theory by juxtaposing Romantic ideals with realist, rational critiques, showing the tension between invention and imitation in poetic creation.
  • Johnson’s dismissal of Romantic invention as “fabulous appendages of spectres and predictions” represents this critical tension.
• Influence of Shamanism and Myth in Romanticism:
  • Bloom introduces the idea that Romantic poets engage with shamanistic traditions, connecting their poetic inspiration to ancient forms of psychic transformation and ritual. This links Romanticism to broader theories of myth and archetype in literature, offering a framework to analyze mystical elements in poetry.
  • “The shamanism of Empedocles, so strangely re-born in Yeats’s A Vision,” exemplifies this mystical aspect of Romanticism that Bloom explores.
• Incorporation of Psychological and Philosophical Elements:
  • Bloom’s essay contributes to the intersection of literary theory with psychology and philosophy, particularly through his analysis of how poets like Byron and Shelley grappled with existential and metaphysical themes, such as immortality, self-recognition, and divination.
  • He delves into the poets’ “obsessive need for a literal immortality,” positioning Romanticism as a response to human existential concerns, thereby influencing psychoanalytic and existential readings of literature.

Examples of Critiques Through “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom

Literary Work and Author	Critique through Bloom’s Lens	Reference in Text
The Odyssey by Homer	Bloom identifies The Odyssey as the “first Romantic poem” and a foundational quest romance, where the journey (more than the destination) defines the Romantic essence of the hero’s narrative.	“The Odyssey is the fundamental quest romance, and the first Romantic poem… Romance is a journey towards home.”
The Bard by Thomas Gray	Bloom critiques Johnson’s dismissal of The Bard as overly fantastical and disconnected from reality, highlighting the tension between Romantic imagination and anti-Romantic realism.	“To select a singular event, and swell it to a giant’s bulk by fabulous appendages of spectres and predictions, has little difficulty…”
The Bridge by Hart Crane	Bloom interprets The Bridge as a “demonic romance” in which the quest is fulfilled with no meaningful consequence, reflecting Romanticism’s focus on the journey and disillusionment with the goal.	“Hart Crane’s The Bridge… would be seen more clearly as demonic romance, quest fulfilled to no consequence, or fulfillment revealed as a parody of the goal.”
Paradise Lost by John Milton	Bloom examines Milton’s work in relation to his anxieties about poetic divination, interpreting Paradise Lost as an epic where the poet cannot evade the fall or death, unlike other Romantic works.	“Milton… feared from the start that a demon of transformations would mock his career. Lycidas laments the loss of the poetic power of divination…”

Criticism Against “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom

• Overemphasis on Poetic Influence:
  • Critics argue that Bloom’s focus on the “anxiety of influence” overshadows the individuality of Romantic poets, reducing their originality by framing their work primarily as responses to predecessors like Milton, Homer, and Shakespeare.
  • This perspective diminishes the cultural, social, and historical contexts that shaped Romanticism, prioritizing literary lineage over broader influences.
• Neglect of Non-Western and Female Voices:
  • Bloom’s analysis primarily centers on Western male poets, ignoring significant contributions from female writers and non-Western literary traditions. This exclusion limits the scope of his definition of Romanticism, which could benefit from a more diverse range of voices.
  • By focusing mainly on figures like Byron, Keats, and Shelley, Bloom’s study is criticized for reinforcing a narrow, Eurocentric view of literary history.
• Romanticism as Too Mystical and Abstract:
  • Some scholars argue that Bloom’s interpretation of Romanticism, especially his emphasis on divination, prophecy, and shamanism, pushes the concept into a mystical, abstract realm that detaches it from the real-world concerns of Romantic poets.
  • Romanticism often addressed political, social, and personal struggles, but Bloom’s focus on the visionary and supernatural aspects risks overlooking the grounded, human elements of the movement.
• Simplification of Anti-Romanticism:
  • Bloom’s treatment of anti-Romantic critics like Samuel Johnson is seen as overly simplified. By positioning Johnson as a foil to Romantic creativity, Bloom reduces the complexity of anti-Romantic criticism, which often addressed significant concerns about realism and moral values in literature.
  • His portrayal of Johnson’s skepticism as merely anti-Romantic downplays the nuanced critical perspectives of the period.
• Subjectivity in Defining First and Last Romantics:
  • Bloom’s suggestion that critics can choose their “First and Last Romantics” according to personal preference has been criticized for its subjectivity. This approach implies that Romanticism’s boundaries are flexible and potentially arbitrary, weakening the theoretical foundation of his argument.
  • Critics argue that literary movements need clearer historical and thematic definitions rather than being open to individual interpretation.

Representative Quotations from “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The Odyssey is the fundamental quest romance, and the first Romantic poem.”	Bloom identifies The Odyssey as the archetypal Romantic journey, establishing a connection between classical literature and Romanticism’s themes of quests, trials, and idealized homecomings.
“Romanticism fused romance and prophecy.”	This phrase captures Bloom’s central thesis that Romantic poets combined the narrative form of romance with the visionary qualities of prophecy, creating a new genre of imaginative expression.
“Demonic romance values the journey more than the destination.”	Bloom introduces the concept of “demonic romance,” where the process of the quest is valued over its conclusion, reflecting the Romantic disillusionment with traditional notions of fulfillment.
“Choose your first Romantic, or your first Romanticism, and you tell us what kind of last Romantic you yourself are.”	This quote suggests the subjective nature of defining Romanticism, where identifying a “First Romantic” reflects a critic’s own biases and intellectual positioning within literary history.
“English Romanticism, as opposed to Continental, was a renaissance of the Renaissance.”	Bloom argues that English Romanticism revived Renaissance ideals and looked to figures like Spenser and Shakespeare, rather than later poets, as primary influences.
“Invention is a positive mode of divination… The strong Romantic poet, when he is most himself, makes a world in which his Real Man, the Imagination, can never die.”	This reflects Bloom’s view that poetic creation (invention) in Romanticism is a form of divination, where imagination transcends mortality, linking creativity to immortality.
“Johnson, who wrote only a few strong poems, had felt deeply the anxiety of influence.”	Bloom highlights Samuel Johnson’s experience of the “anxiety of influence,” which he argues is central to understanding the struggles of Romantic poets in relation to their predecessors.
“Every Romantic has a tendency to drink unnecessarily from the Circean cup of illusion.”	This metaphor refers to the Romantics’ temptation to indulge in illusion and fantasy, drawing from the myth of Circe, a recurrent theme of transformation and seduction in Romantic literature.
“The return of the Gods means then, for Romanticism, the divination of immortality for and by poets.”	Bloom associates Romanticism with a quest for divination and immortality, framing poets as creators of visionary worlds that challenge the limitations of mortality.
“Romantic poetry, in its long history, has been saved from those worst difficulties by its sense of its own tradition, by the liberating burden of poetic influence.”	Bloom emphasizes that Romanticism’s strength lies in its awareness of and dialogue with its literary tradition, even as poets struggle under the “burden” of influence from past greats.

Suggested Readings: “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom

1. Bloom, Harold. “First and Last Romantics.” Studies in Romanticism, vol. 9, no. 4, 1970, pp. 225–32. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/25599769. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024
2. Altevers, Nannette. “The Revisionary Company: Harold Bloom’s ‘Last Romanticism.’” New Literary History, vol. 23, no. 2, 1992, pp. 361–82. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/469241. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
3. Giraldi, William. “Bloomian Stride.” The Kenyon Review, vol. 35, no. 2, 2013, pp. 175–85. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24242006. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom

“Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom first appeared in Diacritics, Spring 1972″ and explores the complex relationship between Samuel Taylor Coleridge and his literary influences, particularly the towering figure of John Milton. Bloom argues that Coleridge, despite possessing the potential to be a strong poet, never fully developed his abilities due to the anxiety he felt about living up to his predecessors.

Key points:

• Source Study vs. Influence: Bloom criticizes traditional source studies that simply identify influences on a poet’s work. Instead, he proposes a concept of “poetic misprision,” where the later poet actively reinterprets and challenges the work of the earlier one.
• Revisionary Ratios: Bloom outlines six stages (“revisionary ratios”) a strong poet goes through as they grapple with their influences. These include clinamen (swerving away), tessera (completing and contrasting), kenosis (self-emptying), daemonization (creating a counter-sublime), askesis (self-purgation), and apophrades (the return of the dead).
• Coleridge’s Case: Bloom argues that Coleridge never fully engaged with these revisionary ratios. While he attempted to escape Milton’s influence through poems like “Frost at Midnight,” he ultimately shied away from the full confrontation necessary to become a truly strong poet.
• Later Works: In Coleridge’s later works, like “Dejection: an Ode” and “To William Wordsworth,” Bloom sees an attempt to create an askesis, purging himself of the combined influence of Milton and Wordsworth. However, this effort ultimately led to a decline in his poetic ambitions. It offers a valuable framework for understanding the complex relationship between poets and their influences. Bloom’s concept of “anxiety of influence” has been influential in literary criticism, prompting scholars to examine how poets negotiate their relationship with literary giants of the past.

Summary of “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Bloom’s Essay
Anxiety of Influence	The psychological struggle of a poet to overcome the influence of their predecessors in order to create original work.	Bloom applies this concept to Coleridge, suggesting that his poetic ambition was inhibited by his reverence for Milton and Wordsworth.
Poetic Misprision	A creative misreading or misinterpretation of a precursor’s work by a later poet.	Coleridge’s poetry, according to Bloom, involves a series of misreadings of Milton, in which he tries to revise or alter Milton’s legacy.
Clinamen	The swerve or deviation of a poet from their precursor’s work to assert originality.	Bloom argues that Coleridge executed a “swerve” away from Milton in poems like “Frost at Midnight.”
Tessera	A term for completing or antithetically extending a precursor’s work, using its elements but altering their meaning.	Bloom suggests that Coleridge attempts this in moments of philosophical divergence, but often fails to fully break free of Milton’s shadow.
Kenosis	A deliberate self-emptying or reduction in poetic power to resist the overwhelming influence of a precursor.	In “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,” Coleridge humbles himself by reducing the concept of sin from Milton’s grandiose vision to mere ignorance.
Daemonization	A poet’s engagement with a “Counter-Sublime” force, often dark or daemonic, to counteract the precursor’s influence.	Coleridge attempts this in “Kubla Khan” and “Christabel,” where he confronts darker, daemonic aspects of poetic genius.
Askesis	A self-purgation or curtailment of certain poetic faculties in order to achieve solitude or independence from a precursor.	Coleridge’s later poems, like “Dejection: An Ode,” reflect a self-limiting move to distance himself from the overwhelming influence of Milton and Wordsworth.
Apophrades	The “return of the dead,” where the later poet’s work seems to be haunted by the presence of the precursor’s influence.	Bloom interprets Coleridge’s late fragments, such as “Limbo,” as haunted by Milton’s influence, marking Coleridge’s inability to escape it.
Organic Analogue	The belief that a work of art grows naturally and organically, without external influence, like a living organism.	Bloom critiques Coleridge’s reliance on this concept, arguing that it limited his ability to engage fully with the creative struggle needed to overcome his predecessors.

Contribution of “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Influence Theory / Anxiety of Influence

• Contribution: Bloom’s essay is pivotal in advancing his theory of the “anxiety of influence”, which explores the psychological struggle that poets face when they engage with their literary predecessors. This concept revolutionized the understanding of how poets relate to their influences, emphasizing the tensions between originality and imitation.
• Reference: “Poetic influence, in this sense, is actually poetic misprision, a poet’s taking or doing amiss of a parent-poem.” Bloom argues that Coleridge’s career was shaped by his engagement with Milton, and this struggle led to both creative limitations and breakthroughs.
• Impact on Theory: Bloom’s model of influence is now a foundational concept in literary theory. It suggests that all literature is dialogical, meaning that later works are responses to and revisions of earlier ones. This idea challenges earlier notions that viewed literary works as self-contained or purely original.

2. Intertextuality

• Contribution: Bloom’s analysis of Coleridge is deeply rooted in intertextuality, the idea that texts are interconnected and that no text exists in isolation. His discussion of how Coleridge’s poetry is a response to Milton’s influence highlights the complex web of literary connections that exist across time.
• Reference: “The meaning of a strong poem is another strong poem, a precursor’s poem which is being misinterpreted, revised, corrected, evaded, twisted askew…” Bloom suggests that Coleridge’s poetry can only be fully understood by examining its relationship to Milton’s work.
• Impact on Theory: This contribution reinforces the concept of dialogic relationships between texts (as later expanded by theorists like Julia Kristeva and Mikhail Bakhtin). Bloom’s insights into Coleridge emphasize how literary texts derive meaning through their engagement with previous works, shaping the broader study of intertextuality.

3. Romanticism and Poetic Legacy

• Contribution: Bloom redefines the relationship between Romanticism and its predecessors, particularly through Coleridge’s struggles with Milton. He asserts that the central task of the Romantic poet was to humanize the Miltonic Sublime, yet Coleridge, unlike Blake or Wordsworth, was overwhelmed by the grandeur of Milton.
• Reference: “Milton’s greatness is purchased at the cost of something dear to Coleridge, a principle of difference.” Bloom shows how Coleridge’s poetic identity was formed and constrained by Milton’s shadow.
• Impact on Theory: Bloom’s reading reshapes how scholars understand Romanticism. Instead of seeing Romantic poets as merely reacting against Enlightenment ideas or creating in isolation, Bloom highlights their deep, anxious engagement with their literary ancestors, which enriches the understanding of Romantic intertextuality and continuity within literary traditions.

4. Revisionary Ratios / Creative Struggle

• Contribution: Bloom introduces his revisionary ratios, six stages in which poets engage with and revise their predecessors. These include clinamen (swerve), tessera (completion), kenosis (emptying), daemonization, askesis (self-purgation), and apophrades (return of the dead).
• Reference: “These are six revisionary ratios, and I think they can be observed, usually in cyclic appearance, in the life’s work of every Post-Enlightenment strong poet…” Bloom identifies Coleridge’s use of kenosis in “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,” where he humbles himself by revising Milton’s grand narrative of sin and disobedience.
• Impact on Theory: This theoretical framework offers a structured approach to understanding how poets engage with influence. It has been widely influential in the study of literary inheritance and innovation, helping scholars trace how poets revise and transform their precursors’ work.

5. Organic Analogue and its Critique

• Contribution: Bloom critiques Coleridge’s adherence to the Organic Analogue, the belief that poems grow naturally from within like living organisms. While Coleridge viewed this as central to his creative process, Bloom and others argue that this concept inhibited Coleridge from fully realizing his creative potential.
• Reference: “The Organic Analogue… appealed so overwhelmingly to Coleridge because it seemed to preclude the anxiety of influence.”
• Impact on Theory: This critique of the organic theory of creation challenges idealistic notions of natural, effortless artistic creation. Bloom’s argument suggests that the true creative process involves struggle, revision, and conscious engagement with external influences rather than natural growth alone.

6. Romantic Sublime and Counter-Sublime

• Contribution: Bloom explores the Romantic poet’s relationship to the Sublime, particularly how Coleridge’s attempt to humanize the Sublime faltered. Bloom contrasts Coleridge’s failures with the successful humanization of the Sublime in poets like Blake and Wordsworth.
• Reference: “Kubla Khan” and “Christabel” represent Coleridge’s attempt at a Counter-Sublime, wherein he engaged with darker, daemonic forces, but ultimately failed to sustain this engagement.
• Impact on Theory: This concept of the Counter-Sublime offers a new way to understand the Romantic poet’s struggle with the overwhelming grandeur of the Sublime, adding nuance to the study of Romantic aesthetics and the psychological dimensions of poetic creation.

Examples of Critiques Through “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Author	Critique Through “The Anxiety of Influence”	Explanation
“Paradise Lost”	John Milton	Coleridge is haunted by Milton’s overwhelming influence, which stifles his own poetic ambition.	Milton represents the pinnacle of the Sublime, and Coleridge’s admiration and envy for Milton inhibit him from fully realizing his own potential as a strong poet.
“The Prelude”	William Wordsworth	Coleridge struggles to match Wordsworth’s poetic achievements, resulting in both admiration and creative paralysis.	Wordsworth serves as both friend and rival. Coleridge seeks to revise and respond to Wordsworth’s greatness, especially regarding the themes of nature and the self.
“Frost at Midnight”	Samuel Taylor Coleridge	This poem represents Coleridge’s clinamen (swerve) away from Milton by softening and domesticating the Miltonic Sublime.	Instead of confronting Milton directly, Coleridge finds his own voice by focusing on personal and domestic themes, avoiding Milton’s grand, cosmic vision.
“Kubla Khan”	Samuel Taylor Coleridge	Coleridge engages with the Counter-Sublime through daemonic and visionary forces but fails to sustain this revisionary step.	In “Kubla Khan,” Coleridge attempts to counteract Milton’s influence by invoking daemonic powers, but his retreat from full engagement reveals his creative anxiety.

Summary:

This table illustrates how “The Anxiety of Influence” manifests in Coleridge’s relationship with Milton and Wordsworth, as well as his own works. Coleridge’s poetry reflects Bloom’s revisionary steps, such as clinamen (a swerve from Milton in “Frost at Midnight”) and daemonization (in “Kubla Khan”). These critiques highlight the tension between admiration for poetic precursors and the struggle for creative independence.

Criticism Against “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom

Representative Quotations from “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Coleridge could have been a strong poet… another mighty antagonist for the Great Spectre Milton.”	Bloom sets the stage for his analysis, arguing that Coleridge had the potential to rival Milton but was inhibited by the overpowering influence of Milton’s poetic legacy.
“Poetic influence, in this sense, is actually poetic misprision.”	This is the core of Bloom’s theory, suggesting that influence involves a creative misinterpretation of predecessor poets, where the later poet both revises and resists them.
“The meaning of a strong poem is another strong poem.”	Bloom argues that great poetry derives its meaning in dialogue with other great works, reinforcing his theory of influence and intertextuality.
“Milton’s greatness is purchased at the cost of something dear to Coleridge, a principle of difference.”	Bloom emphasizes how Milton’s influence overwhelmed Coleridge’s ability to establish his own unique poetic voice, leading to creative tension and struggle.
“That exaggerated inwardness is barren… it cheats the senses and the emotions of their triumph.”	Bloom, referencing Pater, critiques Coleridge’s tendency toward philosophical inwardness, which Pater saw as limiting his ability to express a full range of emotions in poetry.
“Coleridge’s Counter-Sublime, his answer to the anxiety of influence, in strong poets.”	Bloom introduces the idea of the “Counter-Sublime,” showing how Coleridge attempted to respond to the overwhelming Sublime of Milton by engaging with darker, daemonic forces.
“Frost at Midnight swerves away from Milton by softening him, by domesticating his style.”	Bloom uses clinamen, the idea of a “swerve,” to explain how Coleridge moved away from Milton’s grand themes, focusing on more personal, intimate settings in his poetry.
“Kubla Khan” represents Coleridge’s attempt to counteract Milton’s influence by invoking daemonic powers.”	Coleridge’s “Kubla Khan” reflects Bloom’s concept of daemonization, where the poet interacts with otherworldly forces to challenge the influence of a powerful precursor.
“Coleridge had the potential of the strong poet, but declined the full process of developing into one.”	Bloom suggests that Coleridge, unlike Blake or Wordsworth, did not fully embrace the necessary struggles to become a “strong poet” and reach his highest creative potential.
“The Organic Analogue… appealed so overwhelmingly to Coleridge because it seemed to preclude the anxiety of influence.”	Bloom critiques Coleridge’s reliance on the Organic Analogue, arguing that this concept allowed him to avoid facing the creative tension posed by the anxiety of influence.

Suggested Readings: “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom

1. Bloom, Harold. “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence.” Diacritics, vol. 2, no. 1, 1972, pp. 36–41. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/464923. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
2. Polansky, Steve. “A Family Romance-Northrop Frye and Harold Bloom: A Study of Critical Influence.” Boundary 2, vol. 9, no. 2, 1981, pp. 227–46. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/303059. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
3. Robinson, Daniel. “‘Work without Hope’: Anxiety and Embarrassment in Coleridge’s Sonnets.” Studies in Romanticism, vol. 39, no. 1, 2000, pp. 81–110. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/25601432. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
4. Bloom, Harold. “Water Pater: The Intoxication of Belatedness.” Yale French Studies, no. 50, 1974, pp. 163–89. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2929474. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
5. Bloom, Harold. “Antithetical Criticism: An Introduction.” Diacritics, vol. 1, no. 2, 1971, pp. 39–46. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/465081. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Antithetical Criticism: An Introduction” by Harold Bloom

“Antithetical Criticism: An Introduction” by Harold Bloom was written and published in 1971 ina  journal, Diacritics. This essay holds great significance in literary criticism and literary theory due to its unique perspective and main points. Bloom argues that literary criticism often falls into two opposing camps: either too reverent or too dismissive of authors and their works. He proposes a new approach, “antithetical criticism,” which focuses on the inherent tension and conflict between an author and their predecessors. Bloom believes that by understanding these antagonistic relationships, we can gain deeper insights into the originality and significance of an author’s contribution to literature.

Summary of “Antithetical Criticism: An Introduction” by Harold Bloom

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Antithetical Criticism: An Introduction” by Harold Bloom

Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation from Bloom’s Text
Anxiety of Influence	A poet’s fear or anxiety of being overshadowed by their predecessors.	Poets experience anxiety when they feel creatively influenced by earlier poets, which can inhibit originality.
Misprision	The deliberate misinterpretation or distortion of a predecessor’s work to create something new.	Strong poets misinterpret their precursors as a way of escaping their influence and creating new poetry.
Clinamen	A “swerve” or deviation from a precursor’s work.	Derived from Lucretius, it refers to the poet’s creative move away from a precursor’s work to establish their own poetic identity.
Tessera	A process of completing or “completing” a predecessor’s work.	The poet views the precursor’s work as incomplete and seeks to complete it in their own poetic vision.
Antithetical Criticism	A form of criticism that focuses on how poets misinterpret their predecessors.	Bloom’s proposed criticism highlights the tension between a poet and their precursor, reading newer works in light of deviations from older ones.
Family Romance	A psychological concept borrowed from Freud, used to describe a poet’s relationship with precursors.	Poets relate to their predecessors as children relate to parents, seeking to assert their independence but often repeating patterns.
Primal Words	Words that carry opposing meanings, reflecting ambivalence.	Bloom links this concept to Freud’s discussion of primal words, noting that poets’ works often contain inherent contradictions or oppositions.
Ephebe	A young or beginning poet.	The ephebe (or young poet) struggles to overcome the influence of older, more established poets.
Swerve	A deviation or shift from an earlier poetic model.	This is another term for “clinamen,” referring to the poet’s movement away from the path of a precursor to create their own work.
Misinterpretation	A crucial aspect of the creative process where the poet distorts the work of their precursor.	Bloom argues that every poem is a misinterpretation of an earlier poem, and this misinterpretation is essential for poetic creation.
Metaphor of Combat	Poets are engaged in a struggle with their precursors.	Bloom uses the metaphor of combat to describe the poet’s effort to “overcome” the influence of their literary ancestors.

Contribution of “Antithetical Criticism: An Introduction” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

• Intertextuality
• Contribution:
  Bloom’s theory provides a distinct perspective on intertextuality, where texts are seen as not merely interconnected but deeply shaped by the anxiety of influence. Unlike traditional intertextuality, which often views literary works as equal participants in a dialogue, Bloom emphasizes that later poets engage in a struggle with their precursors.
• Key Reference:
• “Every poem is a misinterpretation of a parent poem. A poem is not an overcoming of anxiety, but is that anxiety.”
• Here, Bloom positions each poetic creation as inherently derivative, not in a collaborative sense, but in a competitive and revisionary relationship with earlier works. This reshapes the discussion of how texts are interconnected by introducing the notion of misreading or misprision as an essential part of creation.
• Relation to Theory:
  Intertextuality in Bloom’s view is not merely about reference or homage, but about deliberate distortion of predecessors to assert originality, distinguishing his approach from scholars like Julia Kristeva, who emphasize a more symbiotic relationship between texts.
• Reader-Response Theory
• Contribution:
  While Bloom’s essay does not directly engage with reader-response theory, his focus on misprision highlights the active role of the poet as a reader who reshapes the meaning of precursor texts through personal anxiety and struggle. In this way, poets are readers first, and their interpretation (or misinterpretation) of earlier works is crucial in shaping their own creations.
• Key Reference:
• “To imagine is to misinterpret. But alas—to misinterpret is not necessarily to imagine (or re-imagine).”
• Relation to Theory:
  In Bloom’s view, each poet’s reading of past works is subjective and creative. This anticipates the reader’s role in co-creating meaning in reader-response theory, where the meaning of a text is not fixed but is generated through the interaction between text and reader. Bloom applies this idea to poets, who as readers engage in a highly personal, psychological interpretation of earlier poetry.
• Connection to Stanley Fish’s Reader-Response Theory:
  Bloom’s idea aligns with Stanley Fish’s theory that meaning is not embedded in the text but generated by the reader. Here, the poet as reader becomes an active participant in generating new meanings by misreading past poets.
• Psychoanalytic Literary Theory
• Contribution:
  Bloom’s theory is deeply informed by psychoanalysis, particularly in its focus on the family romance and the Freudian concept of repression and sublimation. He frames the relationship between poets and their predecessors in terms of psychological conflict and anxiety, which becomes a driving force behind poetic creation.
• Key Reference:
• “The strong poet-like the Hegelian great man-is both hero of poetic history, and victim of it.”
• This reference to Hegelian dialectics in combination with the Freudian family romance illustrates how Bloom views poets as both creators and victims of their psychological inheritance, paralleling the familial struggle for identity. Poets must “kill” their precursors, similar to the Oedipal complex, to establish their own creative autonomy.
• Relation to Theory:
  Bloom’s theory directly engages with Freudian psychoanalytic theory, applying the notion of family dynamics (the precursor as symbolic father) to literary influence. This shifts psychoanalytic criticism from a focus on character analysis within texts to an examination of the creative process itself as a form of psychological drama.
• Historicism and the Role of Tradition
• Contribution:
  Bloom challenges traditional historicism and tradition, particularly the ways in which past texts influence the present. He argues that poets are both burdened and inspired by the literary tradition, but must revise and misinterpret this tradition to create something new. He rejects the positivist historical view that places poets as mere products of their times or literary traditions.
• Key Reference:
• “Poetry is thus both contraction and expansion, for both clinamen and tessera are contracting movements, yet making is an expansive one.”
• Relation to Theory:
  Bloom’s approach critiques traditional historicism, which often sees texts as firmly rooted in the context of their production. Instead, he positions poets as revisionary figures who engage with history not by simply inheriting it but by reworking it. His work aligns with New Historicism, in its focus on the dynamic relationship between past and present texts, but Bloom emphasizes the psychological struggle over the socio-political context.
• Deconstruction
• Contribution:
  Bloom’s idea that all interpretation is misinterpretation has echoes of deconstruction, particularly its emphasis on the instability of meaning. Like deconstruction, Bloom argues that no text can fully transcend its influences or achieve absolute originality. There is always a degree of misinterpretation involved in any creative or critical act.
• Key Reference:
• “There are no interpretations but only misinterpretations, and so all criticism is prose poetry.”
• Relation to Theory:
  This statement aligns with the deconstructive idea that meaning is always unstable and that texts are constantly being reinterpreted and revised. Bloom takes this a step further by focusing on poetic creation as a form of deconstructive misreading where the poet’s work is always already entangled with past texts.
• Romanticism and Post-Romanticism
• Contribution:
  Bloom’s theory is also a contribution to the understanding of Romanticism, especially in his use of ephebe and the struggle for originality. He highlights the Romantic poet’s need to reconcile individual genius with the influence of predecessors.
• Key Reference:
• “Romanticism’s quest is to re-beget one’s own self, to become one’s own great original.”
• Relation to Theory:
  Bloom provides a Post-Romantic revision of traditional Romantic ideals of genius and originality, asserting that true creativity arises not in isolation but in response to the anxiety caused by earlier works. This reinterpretation emphasizes the paradox of originality in Romantic and post-Romantic poetry.

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Examples of Critiques Through “Antithetical Criticism: An Introduction” by Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Precursor/Influence	Bloom’s Antithetical Critique	Key Concepts
“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot	The Bible, Shakespeare, and Dante	Eliot’s poem deliberately misinterprets the sacred and mythic texts (The Bible, Shakespeare’s The Tempest, Dante’s Divine Comedy) to convey modern disillusionment. He appropriates fragments from these precursors but subverts their meanings, signaling a clinamen or “swerve” that reflects his struggle with the overwhelming literary past.	Misprision, Clinamen (swerve), Anxiety of Influence
“Ulysses” by James Joyce	Homer’s Odyssey	Joyce’s Ulysses is a revisionary retelling of Homer’s Odyssey, where he re-envisions the heroic quest in a modern, mundane setting. Through his misprision of the classical epic, Joyce diminishes the grandeur of Homer’s characters, showing that modern heroes are ordinary people like Leopold Bloom. This is Joyce’s way of both embracing and defying Homer’s literary dominance.	Tessera (completion), Misprision, Family Romance
“Paradise Lost” by John Milton	The Bible, Greek Epics (Homer, Virgil)	Milton engages in a profound struggle with his precursors, especially The Bible and classical epics like The Iliad and The Aeneid. Milton attempts to surpass these texts by presenting Satan as a tragic, almost heroic figure, thereby misinterpreting the traditional Christian depiction of the fall. This signals a radical swerve from religious orthodoxy, re-casting epic traditions through a lens of individual freedom and rebellion.	Clinamen, Misprision, Anxiety of Influence
“Song of Myself” by Walt Whitman	Ralph Waldo Emerson, Bible	Whitman’s work can be seen as a tessera, where he seeks to complete Emerson’s vision of self-reliance and transcendentalism, extending it into a more radical, democratic embrace of the individual’s connection to the cosmos. However, Whitman misinterprets Emerson by focusing less on the spiritual and intellectual aspects and more on the sensual, bodily experience of existence. This is Whitman’s way of asserting his own poetic authority.	Tessera (completion), Misprision, Anxiety of Influence

Key Concepts in the Table:

• Clinamen (Swerve): A poet’s deviation from their precursor’s work, signaling an effort to escape being overwhelmed by past influence.
• Tessera (Completion): A poet seeks to “complete” the precursor’s work, viewing it as incomplete or lacking in some aspect.
• Misprision: The act of deliberately misinterpreting or revising a predecessor’s work to establish originality.
• Anxiety of Influence: The psychological struggle poets experience when they feel overshadowed by their precursors.
• Family Romance: A psychoanalytic lens where the relationship between poets and their predecessors is akin to a child’s relationship with their parents, filled with both admiration and rebellion.

Criticism Against “Antithetical Criticism: An Introduction” by Harold Bloom

• Overemphasis on Psychological Conflict
  Bloom’s theory heavily relies on the psychological struggle between poets and their precursors, often framing literary creation as a personal conflict rooted in anxiety. Critics argue that this reduces the complexity of literary production to a singular psychoanalytic model, ignoring broader social, political, and cultural factors that also shape creative processes.
• Neglect of Collaborative and Symbiotic Influences
  Bloom’s focus on misprision and the competitive struggle for originality between poets overlooks more collaborative and symbiotic relationships between writers. Some literary traditions, especially non-Western or communal cultures, may not experience influence through the anxiety Bloom emphasizes but rather through mutual enrichment and dialogue.
• Dismissal of Non-Canonical Writers and Voices
  Bloom’s theory primarily centers on a Eurocentric, male-dominated literary canon (e.g., Shakespeare, Milton, and Dante), often disregarding non-canonical, female, or marginalized voices. His framework has been criticized for perpetuating a narrow literary tradition that excludes diverse authors who do not fit into his model of agonistic literary relations.
• Reduction of Literary Creativity to Influence
  Critics contend that Bloom’s focus on poetic influence diminishes the role of original creativity. By asserting that all literary creation is essentially a product of anxiety and influence from predecessors, Bloom underplays the possibility that poets and writers generate new, independent ideas and innovations that are not simply responses to past works.
• Limited Applicability Across Genres and Forms
  Bloom’s theory is largely focused on poetry, particularly on the relationship between strong poets and their predecessors. This narrow focus raises concerns about the theory’s applicability to other genres like prose fiction, drama, or contemporary experimental forms, which might not follow the same dynamics of influence and anxiety.
• Neglect of Reader’s Role in Interpretation
  While Bloom emphasizes the role of the poet as a reader of precursors, he gives little attention to the role of the audience or reader in the interpretation of texts. This exclusion undermines the relevance of reader-response theory and suggests that the meaning of a text is primarily determined by the author’s relationship with their precursor, not by the interaction between the text and its readers.
• Overemphasis on Western Romantic and Modernist Traditions
  Bloom’s ideas are deeply rooted in Western Romantic and Modernist traditions, with a strong focus on individual genius and originality. This has drawn criticism for being too narrow and specific to certain literary movements, making it less relevant to other literary traditions, such as postcolonial, feminist, or collective literary movements, which may not prioritize individual struggle in the same way.
• Exaggeration of the Struggle for Originality
  Some critics argue that Bloom’s preoccupation with the anxiety of originality is overstated. They believe many poets and writers do not experience creativity as a struggle against predecessors, but instead see it as a process of inspiration, adaptation, or homage, where influence can be a positive force rather than a burden.

Representative Quotations from “Antithetical Criticism: An Introduction” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Every poem is a misinterpretation of a parent poem.”	Bloom asserts that all poetry is fundamentally influenced by previous works and that each poem is, in essence, a deliberate misreading or reinterpretation of its predecessors. This underscores his concept of misprision, where new poems rework and distort older ones to assert their originality.
“A poem is not an overcoming of anxiety, but is that anxiety.”	Bloom highlights that the act of poetic creation is driven by the anxiety of influence. Poets do not simply overcome their predecessors’ influence; instead, this anxiety is embedded in the poem itself and fuels its creation.
“To imagine is to misinterpret.”	Imagination, in Bloom’s framework, is equated with misinterpretation. To create something new, a poet must first misinterpret the work of predecessors, reimagining it in a way that allows the new poem to emerge.
“Influence is Influenza—an astral disease.”	Bloom uses this metaphor to suggest that influence is a pervasive and unavoidable force in poetry, much like a contagious disease. It affects all poets, often unconsciously, shaping their work in ways they cannot control.
“Poetry is misunderstanding, misinterpretation, misalliance.”	Here, Bloom summarizes his view that poetry is inherently a process of misunderstanding and reworking previous texts. The creative act is not about producing something entirely new, but about reinterpreting past works through deliberate misreading.
“The meaning of a poem can only be another poem.”	Bloom argues that the meaning of a poem is not self-contained. It can only be understood in relation to other poems, particularly those that influenced it. This is a key aspect of his theory of antithetical criticism, where poetry is always in dialogue with past works.
“The strong poet, like the Hegelian great man, is both hero of poetic history, and victim of it.”	Bloom suggests that the strongest poets are those who actively engage with and transform literary tradition, but they are also victimized by it, as their work is forever marked by the anxiety of trying to escape the shadow of their predecessors.
“To imagine is to misinterpret. But alas—to misinterpret is not necessarily to imagine (or re-imagine).”	Bloom acknowledges the difficulty of true creative imagination. While misinterpretation is a central part of poetic creation, not all misinterpretations result in successful re-imaginings. This points to the uncertainty and difficulty in producing truly original poetry.
“A poem is a poet’s melancholy at his lack of priority.”	This quote reflects Bloom’s idea that poems are born from a melancholic recognition that the poet is not the first to explore certain themes or ideas. The act of writing is, in part, an expression of the poet’s struggle to achieve originality in a world where much has already been said.
“Poetry is the enchantment of incest, disciplined by resistance to that enchantment.”	Bloom uses the metaphor of incest to describe the close, often uncomfortable relationship between poets and their predecessors. Poets are drawn to their precursors but must discipline this intense attraction by resisting their influence to create something new.

Suggested Readings: “Antithetical Criticism: An Introduction” by Harold Bloom

1. Bloom, Harold. “Antithetical Criticism: An Introduction.” Diacritics, vol. 1, no. 2, 1971, pp. 39–46. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/465081. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
2. Barzilai, Shuli. “A Review of Paul de Man’s ‘Review of Harold Bloom’s Anxiety of Influence.’” Yale French Studies, no. 69, 1985, pp. 134–41. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2929930. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
3. Bloom, Harold. “The Necessity of Misreading.” The Georgia Review, vol. 55/56, 2001, pp. 69–87. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41402122. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
4. Colilli, Paul. “Harold Bloom and the Post-Theological Dante.” Annali d’Italianistica, vol. 8, 1990, pp. 132–43. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24004257. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Tradition and the Individual Talent” by T. S. Eliot

“Tradition and the Individual Talent” by T. S. Eliot was first published in 1919 as the introductory essay to the anthology Selected Essays by Eliot himself. The essay was later reprinted in the The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry collection, published in 1920. This seminal piece of literary criticism explores the complex relationship between tradition and the individual poet. Eliot argues that a poet must be aware of the literary tradition they are working within while also striving for originality. The essay’s emphasis on the importance of literary history and the concept of the “impersonal” poet has had a profound influence on literary theory and criticism, shaping debates about the nature of artistic creation and the role of tradition in shaping individual expression.

Summary of “Tradition and the Individual Talent” by T. S. Eliot

1. The Misunderstood Concept of Tradition:

• Eliot begins by noting how the word “tradition” is seldom used positively in English writing, often associated with a censure of being too “traditional” or outdated.
• He argues that tradition should not be limited to the repetition of the immediate past but rather involves the “historical sense,” a recognition of both the “pastness of the past” and its presence in the contemporary moment.
• Quotation: “Tradition cannot be inherited, and if you want it you must obtain it by great labor.”

2. The Role of the Poet in Tradition:

• Eliot emphasizes that no poet or artist exists in isolation; their work must be understood in relation to the works of the past. The true value of a poet is found in their place within a continuous historical literary tradition.
• The creation of new works affects the entire body of past literature, as each new work slightly alters the “ideal order” of past works.
• Quotation: “No poet, no artist of any art, has his complete meaning alone.”

3. The Relationship Between the Old and the New:

• Eliot argues that the relationship between a new work of art and the tradition it fits into is dynamic. The past informs the present, but the present can also influence our perception of the past.
• Quotation: “Whoever has approved this idea of order… will not find it preposterous that the past should be altered by the present as much as the present is directed by the past.”

4. The Impersonal Nature of Poetry:

• Eliot rejects the Romantic notion that poetry is the expression of the poet’s personal emotions. Instead, he advocates for a depersonalization of the poet in their work, where the art becomes independent of the poet’s personality.
• Using an analogy of a chemical reaction, Eliot explains that the poet’s mind should act as a catalyst, facilitating the combination of emotions and experiences into art, without leaving a personal trace.
• Quotation: “The progress of an artist is a continual self-sacrifice, a continual extinction of personality.”

5. The Artistic Process:

• Eliot distinguishes between emotions and feelings, noting that great poetry is often the product of a complex fusion of these elements. The intensity of the artistic process, rather than the intensity of emotions themselves, is what counts.
• Quotation: “The business of the poet is not to find new emotions, but to use the ordinary ones and, in working them up into poetry, to express feelings which are not in actual emotions at all.”

6. Poetry as an Escape from Personality:

• Eliot posits that true art is an “escape from personality,” not an expression of it. He criticizes poets who focus too much on their own experiences, arguing that the best poetry transcends the poet’s personal emotions.
• Quotation: “Poetry is not a turning loose of emotion, but an escape from emotion; it is not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality.”

7. The Importance of Impersonal Criticism:

• Eliot concludes by stressing that criticism should focus on the poetry itself, not on the poet. Understanding poetry requires appreciating its technical execution and how it relates to the whole tradition of poetry.
• Quotation: “To divert interest from the poet to the poetry is a laudable aim.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Tradition and the Individual Talent” by T. S. Eliot

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference/Context
Tradition	The accumulated wisdom and literary history that a poet must consciously engage with and build upon.	Eliot argues that “tradition” involves the “historical sense” and is essential to producing meaningful art. It cannot be inherited but requires conscious effort and labor. (“Tradition cannot be inherited…”)
Historical Sense	A sense of the past, where a poet writes with an awareness of both the past and present as simultaneous realities.	Eliot claims that the historical sense makes a poet both traditional and acutely conscious of their contemporaneity. (“The historical sense compels a man to write…with a feeling that the whole of the literature of Europe…exists.”)
Depersonalization	The process through which a poet’s personality is removed from their poetry, allowing the art to stand independently.	Eliot emphasizes that great poetry is not a reflection of personal emotion but a product of a depersonalized mind. (“The progress of an artist is a continual self-sacrifice, a continual extinction of personality.”)
Objective Correlative	A technique where external objects, situations, or events evoke a particular emotion, making the emotion impersonal.	Although not explicitly discussed in this essay, Eliot later develops this idea, consistent with the notion of depersonalization.
Impersonal Theory of Poetry	The idea that poetry should not be a personal outpouring but a product of craftsmanship where emotions are transformed.	Eliot asserts that poetry is an “escape from emotion” and personality, focusing on the artistic process rather than individual feelings. (“Poetry is not a turning loose of emotion…”)
Aesthetic Judgment	The evaluation of art not based on individual sentiment, but in relation to its place within a larger tradition.	Eliot insists that poets must be judged not in isolation but in relation to past writers and the literary tradition. (“You cannot value him alone…”)
Fusion of Elements	The blending of various emotions, feelings, and experiences into a unified whole within a poem.	Eliot describes how poets combine disparate elements into a coherent artistic work, highlighting the complexity of the artistic process. (“The intensity of the artistic process…under which the fusion takes place…”)
The Catalyst Analogy	A comparison between the poet’s mind and a catalytic substance, which facilitates the transformation of emotions into art.	Eliot compares the poet’s mind to platinum in a chemical reaction, remaining unchanged as it facilitates the creation of something new. (“The mind of the poet is the shred of platinum…”)
Living Tradition	The idea that the present moment of literature coexists with and modifies the past.	Eliot argues that tradition is not static but living, as each new work slightly alters the entire history of past literature. (“The past should be altered by the present as much as the present is directed by the past.”)

Contribution of “Tradition and the Individual Talent” by T. S. Eliot to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution by T.S. Eliot	Reference/Explanation
New Criticism	Eliot’s emphasis on the text itself as an autonomous entity aligns with the core principles of New Criticism, which advocates for close reading without concern for the author’s biography or historical context.	Eliot diverts attention from the poet’s personal life and emotions, arguing that criticism should focus on the poetry itself, not the poet. (“To divert interest from the poet to the poetry is a laudable aim…”)
Impersonal Theory of Art	Eliot proposes that poetry is impersonal and requires the poet to separate personal emotion from artistic creation. This approach is foundational to his Impersonal Theory of Art, contributing significantly to modernist literary theory.	Eliot rejects the idea of poetry as the expression of personal emotion, advocating instead for a depersonalization process where the poet becomes a “medium” for artistic fusion. (“The progress of an artist is a continual self-sacrifice… extinction of personality.”)
Historical Criticism (Revisionist)	Eliot redefines historical criticism, arguing that the past and present are not distinct but intertwined. New works influence our perception of past literature, altering its meaning. This dynamic view reshapes the traditional notion of historical influence.	Eliot states that the past is not static; new works modify the entire literary tradition, suggesting a reciprocal relationship between past and present. (“The past should be altered by the present as much as the present is directed by the past.”)
Tradition and Influence Theory	Eliot’s concept of tradition goes beyond mere imitation of past works. He introduces the idea that true tradition involves an awareness of European and national literary history, compelling poets to recognize their place within the larger continuum.	Eliot asserts that tradition involves a “historical sense,” where the poet writes with the whole literary tradition in mind, from Homer to present. (“The whole of the literature of Europe from Homer…has a simultaneous existence and composes a simultaneous order.”)
Theories of Artistic Autonomy	Eliot’s view contributes to theories of artistic autonomy by emphasizing that art must stand apart from the artist’s personal identity or emotions. Art should be valued on its own merits, judged in relation to other works of art rather than personal sentiment.	Eliot advocates for an objective approach to art, focusing on its aesthetic value and its place within the literary tradition, independent of personal context. (“The emotion of art is impersonal… the poet cannot reach this impersonality without surrendering himself…”)
Theories of Intertextuality	Eliot contributes to the early ideas of intertextuality, suggesting that no work of art exists in isolation. All texts are in dialogue with prior works, and each new text changes the reader’s understanding of past literature.	Eliot posits that the meaning of a new work is shaped by its relationship to previous texts, and that all works form a dynamic literary tradition. (“No poet, no artist of any art, has his complete meaning alone…”)
Objective Correlative	Although not fully explored in this essay, Eliot’s idea of the Objective Correlative—a method of expressing emotions through a set of objects, situations, or events that evoke an emotion—contributes to Modernist literary techniques.	Eliot hints at the separation of personal emotion and poetry, focusing on how the artistic process transforms raw emotions into a structured, aesthetic form, paving the way for his development of the Objective Correlative concept later.
Aestheticism	Eliot’s theory emphasizes form and craftsmanship over personal expression, aligning with aesthetic principles that value the work of art itself over its moral, political, or emotional content.	Eliot states that poetry is not a release of emotion but a fusion of feelings transformed into art through deliberate craft, suggesting that aesthetic value derives from the structure and intensity of the artistic process. (“Poetry is not a turning loose of emotion…”)
Poetics of Innovation and Continuity	Eliot advocates for a balance between innovation and continuity in art. A new work must bring something novel but still fit within the existing literary tradition, thus contributing to theories of literary evolution and development.	Eliot explains that a new work of art must slightly alter the entire past literary tradition, ensuring continuity while also introducing innovation. (“The existing order is complete before the new work arrives… but the whole order must be altered…”)

Summary of Eliot‘s Contributions to Literary Theory:

T.S. Eliot’s “Tradition and the Individual Talent” reshaped critical thought by proposing that the value of art lies in its relationship to tradition and that poetry should be seen as an impersonal craft rather than a personal expression of emotion. He also contributed to the evolving intertextuality of modern literature, where new works engage in an ongoing dialogue with past literature, altering and being altered by it. Eliot’s ideas remain foundational in modern literary criticism, particularly in New Criticism, where the emphasis is placed on the text rather than the poet’s biography.

Examples of Critiques Through “Tradition and the Individual Talent” by T. S. Eliot

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1. William Shakespeare’s Hamlet (1609)

Critique Through Eliot’s Lens:

• Impersonal Theory of Art: Eliot would critique Hamlet for Shakespeare’s perceived failure to fully achieve the impersonality Eliot advocates. He famously critiqued Hamlet as an artistic failure because it lacks an appropriate “objective correlative” to express the overwhelming emotions Hamlet experiences. Eliot argues that the feelings Shakespeare is trying to convey are inadequately represented through the dramatic action.

Quotation from Eliot: “The only way of expressing emotion in the form of art is by finding an ‘objective correlative’… a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events which shall be the formula of that particular emotion.”

Eliot’s Critique: The disconnection between Hamlet’s emotions and the events of the play reveals a lack of coherence, leading to what Eliot described as a “problem” in terms of the relation between the emotion and its expression.

• Tradition and Innovation: However, Eliot might praise Hamlet for its participation in the broader Shakespearean tradition, as the play reshapes elements from its sources (like Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy) while adding complexity and innovation in terms of character and psychology. This fusion of tradition with originality is key in Eliot’s theory.

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2. James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922)

Critique Through Eliot’s Lens:

• Tradition and Historical Sense: Eliot would likely appreciate Joyce’s Ulysses for its deep engagement with the European literary tradition. Joyce consciously rewrites Homer’s Odyssey, giving it a modern twist. According to Eliot’s theory, Joyce’s achievement lies in his ability to situate himself within the grand tradition of European literature while simultaneously altering how the past is viewed.

Quotation from Eliot: “The historical sense involves a perception, not only of the pastness of the past, but of its presence.”

Eliot’s Critique: Joyce’s work succeeds because it illustrates how a modern writer can be “traditional” by being acutely aware of the entire literary history that precedes him. By connecting ancient myth with contemporary life, Joyce exemplifies Eliot’s idea that new works transform the past while being influenced by it.

• Impersonal Art: Ulysses is also notable for its depersonalization, where Joyce, through various narrative techniques like stream of consciousness, allows his characters and the form itself to become the focus, rather than Joyce’s personal emotions. This detachment from personal expression aligns with Eliot’s Impersonal Theory of Art.

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3. John Keats’s Ode to a Nightingale (1819)

Critique Through Eliot’s Lens:

• Fusion of Emotions and Tradition: Eliot might commend Ode to a Nightingale for its complex fusion of feelings (joy, melancholy, transcendence) and its subtle engagement with the Romantic tradition. Keats’s ode draws on a broader literary tradition (the nightingale as a symbol in classical and English poetry) while introducing his own personal reflection on beauty and transience, illustrating how a poet works within and modifies tradition.

Quotation from Eliot: “The poet must develop or procure the consciousness of the past… He must be very conscious of the main current, which does not at all flow invariably through the most distinguished reputations.”

Eliot’s Critique: Keats, despite being heavily influenced by earlier poets like Shakespeare and Milton, does not merely imitate them. Instead, he brings new depth to the symbolic use of the nightingale. This transformation and modification of traditional themes and symbols aligns with Eliot’s view of how a poet should engage with tradition.

• Impersonal Theory: However, Eliot might critique the personal lyricism of Keats, suggesting that it remains too tied to Keats’s individual experience. In Eliot’s view, a stronger depersonalization would have elevated the poem from personal reflection to something more universally significant.

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4. Dante Alighieri’s The Divine Comedy (1320)

Critique Through Eliot’s Lens:

• Tradition and the Historical Sense: Eliot would likely hold up Dante as an example of a poet who embodies the ideal historical sense. Dante’s Divine Comedy reflects a deep awareness of classical literature (Homer, Virgil) and the Christian theological tradition while transforming these influences into an original and personal vision of the afterlife. Dante works within a historical framework, yet his innovation lies in how he reshapes that tradition to reflect his contemporary concerns.

Quotation from Eliot: “No poet, no artist of any art, has his complete meaning alone. His significance, his appreciation is the appreciation of his relation to the dead poets and artists.”

Eliot’s Critique: Dante’s Divine Comedy fits perfectly with Eliot’s notion that a great work of art must be appreciated in relation to what came before it. Dante’s use of Virgil as a guide in Inferno demonstrates this clear dialogue with the past, while his unique poetic structure and vision alter the reader’s perception of both classical and medieval traditions.

• Impersonality in Art: Eliot might also admire how Dante’s personal spiritual journey in The Divine Comedy is not merely a personal narrative but a representation of universal human struggles. While Dante’s personal experiences inform the poem, the work transcends his individual life, aligning with Eliot’s concept of impersonal art.

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Summary of Critique Examples:

• William Shakespeare’s Hamlet: Critiqued for lacking a proper objective correlative, making it an “artistic failure” according to Eliot, though it innovates within the Shakespearean tradition.
• James Joyce’s Ulysses: Praised for its engagement with the European tradition and depersonalization, fitting Eliot’s model of a modern work that reshapes the past.
• John Keats’s Ode to a Nightingale: Recognized for its fusion of emotions and modification of traditional symbols, though critiqued for being overly personal.
• Dante’s The Divine Comedy: Celebrated as a perfect example of the historical sense and impersonality, where personal narrative becomes universal.

Criticism Against “Tradition and the Individual Talent” by T. S. Eliot

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• Overemphasis on Tradition and Erasure of Individual Creativity:
  • Critics argue that Eliot’s focus on tradition places too much importance on the past, potentially stifling the poet’s individual creativity and innovation. It risks turning poetry into a mechanical exercise of aligning with tradition rather than fostering personal expression.
• Elitism and Exclusionary View of Literary Canon:
  • Eliot’s view of tradition, which he bases largely on the European literary canon, has been criticized for being elitist and exclusionary. His focus on a specific, Eurocentric tradition neglects non-Western literatures and marginal voices, which can diminish the recognition of diverse cultural contributions to art.
• Rejection of Personal Emotion is Unrealistic:
  • Eliot’s call for the depersonalization of poetry has been seen as impractical or even impossible. Critics argue that personal experiences and emotions are inherent to artistic creation, and trying to separate the poet from their work contradicts the natural, emotional basis of art.
• Subjectivity in Defining Tradition:
  • Eliot’s definition of tradition is vague and subjective, making it difficult to determine what exactly constitutes tradition. His emphasis on an undefined “historical sense” can be interpreted differently by different readers, leading to inconsistencies in application.
• Neglect of the Reader’s Role:
  • Eliot focuses heavily on the relationship between the poet and the past but largely neglects the role of the reader in interpreting the text. Reader-response critics argue that meaning is not fixed within the relationship of the poet to tradition but is created in the interaction between text and reader.
• Potential for Conservatism in Artistic Innovation:
  • By suggesting that a poet’s value comes from how they conform to tradition, Eliot may implicitly discourage radical innovation in art. This could lead to a conservative approach to poetry, where artistic experimentation is undervalued in favor of maintaining continuity with the past.
• Inconsistency in Eliot’s Own Work:
  • Some critics point out the inconsistency between Eliot’s theory and his own poetry. Eliot’s personal experiences and emotions, especially in works like The Waste Land, seem to contradict his insistence on depersonalization.
• Undermining Subjective Interpretation:
  • Eliot’s dismissal of the poet’s emotions risks undermining subjective interpretation. Critics argue that readers naturally relate to literature through personal experiences and emotions, and Eliot’s insistence on impersonal criticism may alienate those seeking a deeper, emotional connection with the text.

Representative Quotations from “Tradition and the Individual Talent” by T. S. Eliot with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “Tradition cannot be inherited, and if you want it you must obtain it by great labor.”	Eliot emphasizes that tradition is not something that a poet passively inherits. Instead, the poet must actively engage with and understand the literary past through effort and learning.
2. “The historical sense involves a perception, not only of the pastness of the past, but of its presence.”	This quotation highlights Eliot’s concept of the historical sense, where the poet not only understands the past but also recognizes its active role in shaping contemporary literature.
3. “No poet, no artist of any art, has his complete meaning alone. His significance… is the appreciation of his relation to the dead poets and artists.”	Eliot argues that the value of a poet’s work cannot be judged in isolation but must be understood within the broader tradition of past writers, contributing to the intertextual nature of art.
4. “The progress of an artist is a continual self-sacrifice, a continual extinction of personality.”	This introduces Eliot’s impersonal theory of art, suggesting that a poet must remove their personal emotions and ego from their work, focusing instead on the art itself.
5. “Poetry is not a turning loose of emotion, but an escape from emotion; it is not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality.”	Eliot critiques the Romantic emphasis on personal expression, proposing instead that great poetry requires a detachment from personal feelings in order to achieve artistic objectivity.
6. “What happens when a new work of art is created is something that happens simultaneously to all the works of art which preceded it.”	Eliot explains how new art modifies the entire tradition, asserting that a new work changes how we understand all previous works, creating a dynamic relationship between the old and the new.
7. “The past should be altered by the present as much as the present is directed by the past.”	Eliot further develops the idea that tradition and innovation are mutually influential, with the present reshaping our understanding of the past, just as the past informs the present.
8. “The emotion of art is impersonal. And the poet cannot reach this impersonality without surrendering himself wholly to the work to be done.”	Eliot emphasizes that the emotion in poetry should not be the poet’s own, but rather something crafted and impersonal, achieved through the act of creation rather than personal experience.
9. “Honest criticism and sensitive appreciation is directed not upon the poet but upon the poetry.”	Here, Eliot promotes an impersonal approach to criticism, suggesting that evaluation should focus solely on the poem itself, independent of the poet’s life, emotions, or intentions.
10. “The existing monuments form an ideal order among themselves, which is modified by the introduction of the new… the relations, proportions, values of each work of art… are readjusted.”	Eliot articulates his idea that art exists in a continuous tradition, where new works alter the relationships between older works, readjusting how they are perceived and valued.

Suggested Readings: “Tradition and the Individual Talent” by T. S. Eliot

1. White, Peter. “‘Tradition and the Individual Talent’ Revisited.” The Review of English Studies, vol. 58, no. 235, 2007, pp. 364–92. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4501601. Accessed 3 Oct. 2024.
2. Eliot, T. S. “Tradition and the Individual Talent.” Perspecta, vol. 19, 1982, pp. 36–42. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1567048. Accessed 3 Oct. 2024.
3. HUGHES-FREELAND, FELICIA. “‘TRADITION AND THE INDIVIDUAL TALENT’: T.S. ELIOT FOR ANTHROPOLOGISTS.” Cambridge Anthropology, vol. 25, no. 2, 2005, pp. 20–35. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23820746. Accessed 3 Oct. 2024.
4. Williamson, George. “The Talent of T. S. Eliot.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 35, no. 3, 1927, pp. 284–95. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27534171. Accessed 3 Oct. 2024.
5. Bergonzi, Bernard. “Hopkins, Tradition and the Individual Talent.” The Hopkins Quarterly, vol. 31, no. 1/4, 2004, pp. 1–10. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45241415. Accessed 3 Oct. 2024.
6. Sultan, Stanley. “Tradition and the Individual Talent in ‘Prufrock.'” Journal of Modern Literature, vol. 12, no. 1, 1985, pp. 77–90. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3831143. Accessed 3 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

The chapter “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams is a key component of his larger work, Modern Tragedy, published in 1966. This chapter stands out for its in-depth analysis of the tragic figures in the works of T.S. Eliot and Boris Pasternak. Williams explores the concept of resignation to fate and its role in shaping the modern tragic hero. His analysis sheds light on the unique qualities of modern tragedy, such as its focus on individual struggle and existential themes. This chapter has been influential in shaping our understanding of modern literature and has contributed significantly to the field of literary theory.

Summary of “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

• Rhythm of Sacrifice and its Complexity in Tragedy:
  • The rhythm of tragedy in modern works often revolves around sacrifice, but its meaning and significance have evolved from classical contexts.
  • Williams suggests that while sacrifice traditionally meant a man’s death would renew life, this notion is now fraught with ambiguity. In modern tragedy, heroes are often perceived as victims rather than agents of renewal.
• Ambiguity in the Concept of Sacrifice:
  • The concept of sacrifice in modern culture is layered with ambiguity. Williams notes, “The idea of sacrifice is profoundly ambiguous,” especially when it lacks divine or transcendent significance (Williams, p. 190).
  • In the modern world, sacrifice is often reinterpreted as martyrdom, where the victim is mourned more than celebrated, signifying a shift in how sacrifice is perceived (Williams, p. 191).
• Contextual Understanding of Sacrifice:
  • For sacrifice to retain its tragic power, the context—whether divine, historical, or social—must be evident in the literary work. Without this, the action may lose its significance, reducing it to an autonomous form of art detached from deeper meaning (Williams, p. 192).
• Sacrifice in Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral:
  • Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral portrays the death of Becket as a martyr, aligning the individual’s sacrifice with an eternal divine plan rather than a historical event. This shifts focus from the heroism of Becket’s martyrdom to his submission to a divine, timeless law:

“I give my life / To the Law of God above the Law of Man” (Williams, p. 193).

• Williams highlights that Eliot’s play focuses on the “fertilizing effects of his [Becket’s] blood,” suggesting a continuity between individual sacrifice and the redemption of the larger order (Williams, p. 194).
• Sacrifice and Resignation in Eliot’s The Cocktail Party:
  • In The Cocktail Party, the character Celia Coplestone’s death embodies a modern version of sacrifice, but Williams argues it is more a resignation to a meaningless condition rather than a tragic redemption:

“The real tragedy is not in the death but in the life” (Williams, p. 198).

• The play, Williams suggests, blurs the line between sacrifice and resignation, where Celia’s death neither redeems nor revitalizes the world, but rather affirms the hollow lives of the other characters who continue with “the cocktail party” (Williams, p. 199).
• Tragic Resignation vs. Sacrifice in Eliot:
  • Eliot’s works, according to Williams, do not fully embrace the Christian notion of redemption through sacrifice but instead offer a form of tragic resignation. In The Cocktail Party, for example, the blood of sacrifice becomes a symbolic gesture that ratifies the world as it is, without bringing true renewal:

“Sacrifice now does not redeem the world… but ratifies the world as it is” (Williams, p. 199).

• Pasternak’s Sacrificial Vision in Doctor Zhivago:
  • In contrast to Eliot, Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago portrays life and sacrifice as deeply intertwined with history. The novel centers on the personal and social sacrifices during the Russian Revolution, framed as part of an ongoing process of suffering, loss, and rebirth.
  • Williams asserts that Pasternak presents sacrifice as essential to life’s continuity:

“The revolution is fire and redemption, but it is also fire and hardening, fire and destruction” (Williams, p. 204).

• Zhivago’s life and death are part of a larger historical pattern of renewal, blending individual sacrifice with social upheaval.
• Fusion of Christian Redemption and Marxist History in Pasternak:
  • Williams highlights the originality of Pasternak’s work in merging Christian themes of redemption with Marxist concepts of history, showing how personal sacrifice can lead to a collective rebirth:

“The extraordinary vitality of Pasternak’s novel makes the essential contrast” (Williams, p. 207).

• In Pasternak’s vision, the tragedy lies not in the individual’s death, but in the broader loss of personality within the destructive force of revolution, ultimately leading to a collective redemption.
• Comparison between Eliot and Pasternak:
  • Williams contrasts the two authors, stating that while Eliot’s notion of sacrifice is often tied to resignation and social stagnation, Pasternak’s vision is one of renewal through suffering. Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago offers a deeper, more dynamic portrayal of sacrifice as a force for both personal and societal transformation (Williams, p. 206-207).

Key Quotations:

• “The tragedy is not in the death, but in the life” (The Cocktail Party) (Williams, p. 198).
• “The extraordinary vitality of Pasternak’s novel makes the essential contrast” (Doctor Zhivago) (Williams, p. 207).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Examples/References
Tragedy	A dramatic genre characterized by serious themes and the suffering or downfall of a protagonist. Tragedy often explores human limitations and existential questions.	Williams analyzes tragedy in both Eliot and Pasternak’s works, showing how sacrifice and suffering are central to their tragic narratives.
Sacrifice	The act of giving up something valuable, often life itself, for a higher purpose or cause. In tragedy, it’s a key element symbolizing loss and potential renewal.	In Murder in the Cathedral, Becket’s martyrdom is framed as an act of sacrifice for divine law (Williams, p. 193). In Doctor Zhivago, sacrifice is intertwined with historical processes, symbolizing both loss and creation (Williams, p. 204).
Martyrdom	The death or suffering of an individual for a cause, particularly religious or political. Martyrdom often implies a higher moral or spiritual significance to the sacrifice.	Becket in Murder in the Cathedral is portrayed as a martyr who dies not for personal glory but to fulfill a divine order (Williams, p. 193). Celia Coplestone in The Cocktail Party also becomes a martyr, though with less tragic grandeur (Williams, p. 196).
Resignation	A passive acceptance of one’s fate, often linked with a sense of inevitability and lack of power to change the outcome.	Williams describes the resignation in The Cocktail Party, where characters like Celia accept their fate without transformative impact (Williams, p. 199). Eliot’s work shifts from tragic redemption to tragic resignation (Williams, p. 200).
Redemption	The idea of salvation or deliverance from sin, error, or evil. Often involves sacrifice or suffering as a necessary path to renewal.	In Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago, redemption is tied to the collective suffering of the revolution. It blends Christian and Marxist ideas, emphasizing personal and societal transformation through sacrifice (Williams, p. 206).
Fate and Destiny	Forces believed to predetermine the course of events, often uncontrollable and inescapable, guiding characters toward inevitable outcomes.	In Murder in the Cathedral, Becket’s death is framed as a willed submission to divine fate, not merely personal choice (Williams, p. 194). In contrast, the fates of Zhivago and Lara in Doctor Zhivago are shaped by the broader historical forces of revolution.
Heroism	The qualities of a hero, often including courage, self-sacrifice, and the pursuit of noble goals. In modern tragedy, heroism is frequently questioned or redefined.	Williams contrasts the traditional heroism of martyrdom with modern tragedy’s focus on characters like Willy Loman in Death of a Salesman, whose sacrifice is more of an indictment than a heroic act (Williams, p. 192).
Scapegoat	A person or entity that is unfairly blamed for the misfortunes of others, often serving as a symbolic sacrifice to alleviate collective guilt.	Williams links the concept of scapegoating to the modern understanding of sacrifice, where the victim’s death often generates guilt rather than renewal (Williams, p. 191).
Historical Context	The specific social, political, and cultural environment in which a work of literature is set or created, which influences its themes and significance.	The Russian Revolution provides the historical context in Doctor Zhivago, shaping the narrative’s exploration of personal and societal sacrifice (Williams, p. 203). Murder in the Cathedral’s historical context is downplayed to emphasize eternal themes (p. 194).
Ritual and Pattern	Repeated symbolic actions or behaviors, often tied to religious or cultural traditions, which give meaning to sacrifice and tragedy.	In Murder in the Cathedral, the pattern of ritual sacrifice is central to the martyrdom of Becket, symbolizing eternal truths (Williams, p. 193). Pasternak’s use of repeated patterns in Doctor Zhivago reflects the broader cycles of life, death, and renewal (p. 204).

Examples of Critiques Through “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

Literary Work	Critique through Williams’ Lens	References from the Essay
Murder in the Cathedral by T.S. Eliot	Williams critiques Murder in the Cathedral for focusing on martyrdom as a preordained divine sacrifice. The tragedy lies in Becket’s submission to an eternal, timeless law rather than heroic action. The emphasis is on his martyrdom’s ritualistic nature rather than historical reality.	“It is not to the heroic will of the martyr that our response is directed, but to his subjection of himself to his part in the pattern, and then to the fertilizing effects of his blood” (Williams, p. 194).
The Cocktail Party by T.S. Eliot	Williams sees The Cocktail Party as a representation of tragic resignation rather than heroic sacrifice. Celia’s death is ratified as necessary but does not redeem or renew the world. Instead, it serves to affirm the shallow, resigned lives of the other characters.	“Sacrifice now does not redeem the world, or bring new life to the waste land. Rather, in an obscure way, it ratifies the world as it is” (Williams, p. 199).
Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller	Williams contrasts Willy Loman’s sacrifice in Death of a Salesman with other forms of sacrifice, noting that Loman’s death is more of an indictment of his life and society, rather than an act of tragic heroism. The sacrifice is ultimately meaningless and indicts the surrounding world.	“Willy Loman… ends by deliberately sacrificing his life, but the sacrifice, like the whole life, comes through as an indictment” (Williams, p. 192).
Doctor Zhivago by Boris Pasternak	Williams argues that Doctor Zhivago presents a complex relationship between personal and social sacrifice. Zhivago’s individual suffering mirrors the broader historical process of the Russian Revolution, where personal sacrifice leads to societal renewal but also the loss of personality.	“The Revolution… is seen as a sacrifice of life for life: not simply the killing, to make way for a new order, but the loss of the reality of life while a new life is being made” (Williams, p. 205).

Criticism Against “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

• Overemphasis on Historical Context:
  Williams’ cultural materialist approach heavily emphasizes the historical and social contexts surrounding the works, which some critics might argue detracts from the universal themes of tragedy, reducing the works to socio-political allegories rather than engaging with their broader existential and metaphysical dimensions.
• Simplification of Eliot’s Religious Themes:
  Williams critiques T.S. Eliot’s work for focusing on resignation rather than redemption, but some may argue that this reading oversimplifies the religious depth in Eliot’s plays. By focusing on the idea of tragic resignation, Williams might overlook the spiritual complexity of Eliot’s Christian symbolism, particularly the transformative potential of sacrifice.
• Reductionist View of Sacrifice:
  Critics could argue that Williams offers a narrow interpretation of sacrifice, primarily viewing it through the lens of cultural materialism. This might ignore other philosophical, psychological, or theological dimensions of sacrifice, such as its personal, existential, or spiritual significance, particularly in works like Doctor Zhivago, which blends Christian and individual redemption.
• Limited Engagement with Aesthetic Elements:
  Williams’ analysis focuses predominantly on thematic and ideological aspects of the works, potentially underplaying the aesthetic and formal qualities of Eliot and Pasternak’s tragedies. His approach might be seen as neglecting how the literary form, language, and structure contribute to the tragic impact and the portrayal of sacrifice.
• Critique of Modern Tragedy as Pessimistic:
  Williams’ view of modern tragedy as primarily resigned and pessimistic might be seen as too negative or reductive. Some might argue that even in modern tragedy, elements of hope, resistance, or transformation exist, which Williams does not fully explore, particularly in his treatment of Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago.

Representative Quotations from “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The rhythm of tragedy, it is said, is a rhythm of sacrifice. A man is disintegrated by suffering, and is led to his death, but the action is more than personal…” (p. 189)	Williams begins by establishing the central idea of sacrifice in tragedy, suggesting that tragic narratives are not merely personal stories of suffering but involve broader implications for society or a larger order. This framing sets the stage for his analysis of modern tragedy.
“We have lost, then, the rhythm of sacrifice, in its simple original form. Our heroes often move us most closely when they are in fact victims…” (p. 191)	Williams argues that modern tragedy shifts the focus from heroic sacrifice to victimhood, reflecting a loss of the classical understanding of sacrifice as a renewal. This introduces the idea of resignation and victimhood as central to contemporary portrayals of tragic figures.
“Sacrifice is judged, in fact, by its cause and its effects.” (p. 191)	This quotation highlights how the value and meaning of sacrifice depend on the context, purpose, and consequences of the action. Williams emphasizes that sacrifice, especially in modern tragedy, is often more ambiguous and open to interpretation, reflecting complex social and moral judgments.
“The tragedy is not in the death, but in the life.” (p. 198)	Williams critiques the modern shift in tragedy, particularly in works like The Cocktail Party, where the focus of tragedy is not the heroic death but the hollow, resigned life leading to that death. It reflects his view that modern tragedy is more about resignation than heroic struggle.
“Sacrifice now does not redeem the world… but ratifies the world as it is.” (p. 199)	Here, Williams critiques Eliot’s treatment of sacrifice in The Cocktail Party, suggesting that sacrifice no longer brings renewal or transformation. Instead, it affirms the world’s existing conditions, making the act of sacrifice one of resignation rather than a force for change.
“It is not to the heroic will of the martyr that our response is directed, but to his subjection of himself to his part in the pattern…” (p. 194)	This quotation from Williams’ analysis of Murder in the Cathedral reflects how martyrdom in Eliot’s work is not about personal heroism but about submitting to a divine, eternal plan. The emphasis is on the ritualistic role of the martyr rather than the individual’s heroism.
“The Revolution… is seen as a sacrifice of life for life: not simply the killing, to make way for a new order, but the loss of the reality of life while a new life is being made.” (p. 205)	In his analysis of Doctor Zhivago, Williams describes the Russian Revolution as a process of sacrifice, where personal and social losses pave the way for a new order. However, this sacrifice involves not only death but also the erosion of individual identity during the transformation.
“Zhivago’s life is given its pattern… as a sacrifice for life in its own right.” (p. 205)	Williams highlights how Yury Zhivago’s life mirrors the revolutionary upheaval around him, framing his personal suffering and sacrifices as part of a broader historical process. Zhivago’s tragedy is tied to both the personal and societal losses of the Russian Revolution.
“The extraordinary vitality of Pasternak’s novel makes the essential contrast.” (p. 207)	Williams contrasts the vitality of Pasternak’s vision in Doctor Zhivago with the resignation he finds in Eliot’s work. While Pasternak’s tragedy involves suffering, it also allows for renewal and transformation, providing a deeper, more dynamic vision of sacrifice and life.
“It is a very original fusion of the Christian idea of redemption and the Marxist idea of history.” (p. 207)	Williams acknowledges Pasternak’s achievement in blending Christian and Marxist themes, framing the individual’s sacrifice in Doctor Zhivago as part of a larger historical and spiritual process. This reflects his admiration for the novel’s synthesis of personal and societal transformation.

Suggested Readings: “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

1. Eliot, T. S. Murder in the Cathedral. Faber & Faber, 1935.
2. Pasternak, Boris. Doctor Zhivago. Translated by Max Hayward and Manya Harari, Pantheon, 1958.
3. Miller, Arthur. Death of a Salesman. Viking Press, 1949.
4. Eliot, T. S. The Cocktail Party. Faber & Faber, 1950.
5. Williams, Raymond. Modern Tragedy. Stanford University Press, 1966.
6. Román, David. “Introduction: Tragedy.” Theatre Journal, vol. 54, no. 1, 2002, pp. 1–17. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25069017. Accessed 3 Oct. 2024.
7. Williams, Raymond. “Tolstoy, Lawrence, and Tragedy.” The Kenyon Review, vol. 25, no. 4, 1963, pp. 633–50. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4334372. Accessed 3 Oct. 2024.
8. Connor, John. “Raymond Williams, Modern Tragedy and the Affective Life of Politics.” Key Words: A Journal of Cultural Materialism, no. 15, 2017, pp. 72–85. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26920437. Accessed 3 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

“Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams first appeared in 1962 in the book Modern Tragedy. This essay is considered a significant contribution to both literature and literary theory. Williams examines the works of Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre, two prominent figures in the existentialist movement. He analyzes their depictions of tragedy in modern times, emphasizing the themes of despair, revolt, and the individual’s struggle against the absurdity of existence. Williams’ essay provides valuable insights into the nature of tragedy in the 20th century and its relevance to contemporary society.

Summary of “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

• Camus’ Aspiration for a New Tragic Form: Camus believed that a modern form of tragedy must emerge, distinct from the tragedies of antiquity. “A great modern form of the tragic must and will be born…We must use our limited means to hasten its arrival.” This recognition stems from the incompatibility of contemporary experience with traditional tragic structures.
• Despair and Revolt in Camus’ Philosophy: Camus presents the idea of tragic absurdity, defined by the contradictions between life’s intense vitality and the certainty of death. These tensions create despair. However, Camus rejects suicide as a solution, choosing instead to live within these contradictions. “The essential problem is to live in full recognition of the contradictions and within the tensions they produce.”
• Tragic Humanism as a Central Theme: Camus’ philosophy evolves into what Williams calls “tragic humanism,” where the experience of despair is universal, but the revolt against it is individual. Camus sees revolt as the only response to absurdity. “Real despair means death…A literature of despair is a contradiction in terms.”
• Sartre and Camus’ Diverging Views on Humanism: While Camus focuses on revolt against absurdity, Sartre critiques him for denying the historical dimension of human suffering. Sartre argues that Camus seeks personal satisfaction in metaphysical revolt, neglecting historical revolution. “Sartre accused Camus of ‘a bitter wisdom which seeks to deny time’.”
• Absurdity in Camus’ Works: In works like The Outsider and The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus explores absurdity, where the characters face existential tensions without collapse into despair. “The lucidity that was to constitute his torture at the same time crowns his victory.”
• Revolt vs. Revolution: Camus distinguishes between revolt, which is an individual affirmation of human dignity, and revolution, which he views as nihilistic and violent. “Revolution demands totality…the first starts from a ‘no’ based on a ‘yes’, the second starts from absolute negation.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in the Article
Absurdity	The conflict between human attempts to find meaning in life and the universe’s inherent meaninglessness.	Central to Camus’ philosophy, where absurdity results in despair, but also invites revolt. Described in The Myth of Sisyphus.
Tragic Humanism	A form of humanism that acknowledges the tragic elements of life, such as despair and suffering, but maintains a commitment to human values and dignity.	Camus embodies this concept by rejecting nihilism and suicide, choosing to live authentically despite the absurdity.
Despair	A profound sense of meaninglessness or hopelessness, often linked to existential crises.	Camus views despair as a response to recognizing the absurd, yet insists it can be transcended through revolt.
Revolt	The act of rebelling against absurdity and despair by affirming life, despite its contradictions.	Camus champions revolt as the appropriate response to absurdity, distinguishing it from passive despair or nihilism.
Existentialism	A philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom, choice, and responsibility in an indifferent or meaningless world.	Both Camus and Sartre engage with existentialist ideas, though Sartre leans toward revolution and historical change, while Camus advocates for revolt against the absurd.
Metaphysical Rebellion	The rejection of metaphysical meaning or religious authority in favor of personal authenticity and freedom.	Sartre’s portrayal of Orestes in The Flies reflects metaphysical rebellion, rejecting any order beyond man.
Nihilism	The belief that life is meaningless and that all values and beliefs are baseless.	Camus fights against nihilism, suggesting that even in the face of absurdity, humanism and revolt are necessary responses.
Tragic Stalemate	A situation where tragic resignation or acceptance of despair becomes the dominant response, often leading to inaction.	Williams contrasts Camus’ commitment to revolt with other thinkers, like Eliot, who embrace tragic resignation.
Revolution	A fundamental, often violent, change in societal or political structures, contrasted with individual revolt.	Sartre supports revolution as a necessary step toward changing historical conditions, while Camus views it as nihilistic.

Contribution of “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

Literary Work and Author	Critique Through “Tragic Despair and Revolt”	Reference from the Article
The Myth of Sisyphus by Albert Camus	Williams critiques Camus’ portrayal of the absurd, where Sisyphus’ eternal struggle is a symbol of human existence. Despite the despair in recognizing life’s absurdity, Camus finds meaning in the act of rebellion, symbolized by Sisyphus’ refusal to surrender.	“The lucidity that was to constitute his torture at the same time crowns his victory. There is no fate that cannot be surmounted by scorn.”
The Outsider (L’Étranger) by Albert Camus	Williams emphasizes the alienation and disconnection of Meursault from society, highlighting how Camus presents a new form of tragedy. Meursault’s inability to connect with others results in absurd actions, leading to his condemnation by an indifferent society.	“The loss of connection with others, which is also a loss of connection with reality, is in that sense fatal. Meursault kills feeling that he is being attacked.”
The Flies (Les Mouches) by Jean-Paul Sartre	Sartre’s interpretation of existential freedom is critiqued through the lens of revolt. Orestes’ rejection of divine guilt and acceptance of personal responsibility parallels Sartre’s emphasis on existential revolt against metaphysical authority.	“Orestes becomes free by assuming the personal consequences of his defiance. By this personal action, he liberates his city from the cloud of flies and blood.”
The Plague (La Peste) by Albert Camus	Williams interprets The Plague as a depiction of collective suffering and revolt against arbitrary death. Rieux’s solidarity with the people of Oran represents the humanist struggle against despair, despite the knowledge that the fight is endless.	“The true dimension of the tragic humanism of Camus is now evident… the tragedy lies in the common condition, against which the revolt is made.”

Criticism Against “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

• Oversimplification of Philosophical Differences: Some may argue that Williams simplifies the complex philosophical differences between Camus and Sartre, particularly in their approaches to revolt and revolution. Sartre’s emphasis on historical change and Camus’ focus on individual revolt might be more nuanced than Williams presents.
• Limited Engagement with Sartre’s Later Works: Williams primarily discusses Sartre’s earlier works such as The Flies and Men Without Shadows, but he does not extensively address Sartre’s later development in his thinking about revolution and existential freedom, potentially leaving out key evolutions in Sartre’s thought.
• Underrepresentation of Camus’ Ambivalence Toward Revolt: Williams tends to frame Camus’ stance on revolt in a positive light, but Camus himself expressed ambivalence about the efficacy and morality of revolt, particularly in The Rebel. Williams may not fully explore Camus’ nuanced reflections on the limitations of revolt.
• Narrow Focus on Tragic Humanism: Williams heavily emphasizes the concept of tragic humanism, but this might obscure other interpretations of Camus’ and Sartre’s work, such as existential nihilism or political commitment. The focus on tragedy might overlook broader existential or social elements in their philosophies.
• Potential Overemphasis on Literary Analysis Over Philosophy: Some critics might argue that Williams’ literary analysis of works like The Myth of Sisyphus and The Plague downplays the philosophical rigor and broader existential debates in favor of focusing on literary themes of tragedy and despair.

Representative Quotations from “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“A great modern form of the tragic must and will be born.”	This quotation highlights Camus’ desire for a new form of modern tragedy that goes beyond classical traditions. It reflects his belief that the tragedies of the modern world need new expressions, influenced by contemporary existential dilemmas.
“The condition of despair, as Camus describes it, occurs at the point of recognition of what is called ‘the absurd’.”	Williams introduces the core of Camus’ philosophy, where despair stems from the recognition of life’s fundamental absurdity. The concept of absurdity is central to Camus’ existential thinking.
“The essential problem is to live in full recognition of the contradictions and within the tensions they produce.”	This reflects Camus’ rejection of nihilism and suicide, suggesting that the challenge is to live with the tensions between life’s contradictions, such as reason versus an irrational universe, life versus death.
“Real despair means death… A literature of despair is a contradiction in terms.”	Camus argues that true despair results in death, while literature that expresses despair paradoxically affirms life and human connection. Williams uses this to illustrate Camus’ belief in revolt over resignation.
“Today tragedy is collective.”	Camus’ view that modern tragedy involves collective suffering, rather than just individual fates, is emphasized by Williams. This reflects the shared human condition in a world of war, oppression, and alienation.
“The loss of connection with others, which is also a loss of connection with reality, is in that sense fatal.”	In The Outsider, Williams highlights how Meursault’s disconnection from society and reality leads to his tragic fate. This speaks to the existential theme of alienation in Camus’ work.
“I rebel, therefore we exist.”	Williams focuses on Camus’ concept of revolt as the affirmation of collective human existence. This phrase from The Rebel echoes Descartes’ Cogito, reimagined in an existential context where rebellion affirms life.
“Sartre accused Camus of ‘a bitter wisdom which seeks to deny time’.”	Williams addresses Sartre’s critique of Camus, suggesting that Camus’ focus on metaphysical revolt and timeless absurdity overlooks the historical, time-bound nature of human suffering and revolution.
“Revolution demands totality. The first starts from a ‘no’ based on a ‘yes’, the second starts from absolute negation.”	Williams distinguishes between Camus’ idea of revolt (creative and affirmative) and Sartre’s idea of revolution (nihilistic and violent). This is key to understanding their philosophical divergence.
“The tragedy lies in the common condition, against which the revolt is made.”	This summarizes Williams’ interpretation of Camus’ tragic humanism, where tragedy is rooted in the collective human condition of suffering, while revolt becomes an individual response to this shared despair.

Suggested Readings: “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

1. Eagleton, Terry. Sweet Violence: The Idea of the Tragic. Blackwell Publishing, 2003.
2. Williams, Raymond. Modern Tragedy. Chatto & Windus, 1966.
3. Steiner, George. The Death of Tragedy. Yale University Press, 1996.
   https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300069167/the-death-of-tragedy
4. Barker, Howard. Arguments for a Theatre. Manchester University Press, 1989.
5. Segal, Charles. Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sophocles. Harvard University Press, 1981.
6. Kott, Jan. The Eating of the Gods: An Interpretation of Greek Tragedy. Northwestern University Press, 1987.
7. Elsom, John. Post-War British Theatre Criticism. Routledge, 2013.

Introduction: “Tragic Deadlock and Stalemate: Chekhov, Pirandello, Ionesco, Beckett from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

“Tragic Deadlock and Stalemate: Chekhov, Pirandello, Ionesco, Beckett from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams first appeared in 1962 in the book Modern Tragedy. It was published by Chatto & Windus. This essay is considered a seminal work in literary theory, particularly in the study of modern drama. Williams’ analysis of the tragic elements in the plays of Chekhov, Pirandello, Ionesco, and Beckett has had a profound impact on our understanding of modern tragedy and its relationship to the broader cultural and historical context.

Summary of “Tragic Deadlock and Stalemate: Chekhov, Pirandello, Ionesco, Beckett from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

• Chekhov and the Transition from Realism to Breakdown
  • Chekhov inherits 19th-century realism, portraying personal breakdowns as societal failures. However, this realism transitions into a depiction of societal breakdown, where individuals and society become isolated and inert, leading to the sense of a total breakdown. (“Chekhov is the realist of breakdown, on a significantly total scale.”)
• Liberal Tragedy to Stalemate
  • Chekhov’s work marks a shift from liberal tragedy, where individuals struggle against societal conditions, to a sense of stalemate, where personal actions seem futile, as seen in works like Uncle Vanya and The Cherry Orchard. This stalemate reflects a broader societal decay rather than individual struggle. (“In a stalemate, there is no possibility of movement or even the effort at movement; every willed action is self-cancelling.”)
• Pirandello’s World of Illusion and Stalemate
  • Pirandello deepens this breakdown of reality by presenting characters trapped in illusions that interlock but never fully connect with each other. This creates a tragic distance between individuals, as their personal realities remain impenetrable to others. (“We can construct an illusion for ourselves, and may temporarily interlock it with the illusion of another.”)
• Ionesco and the Absurdity of Life
  • Ionesco explores the absurdity of existence, revealing a world where language, reality, and human behavior are meaningless. Violence and absurdity emerge from this breakdown, as characters confront the arbitrary nature of life. (“Human behavior reveals its absurdity, and all history its absolute uselessness.”)
• Beckett and the Total Condition of Meaninglessness
  • Beckett, particularly in Waiting for Godot, presents a static world where human action is reduced to waiting. The characters of Vladimir and Estragon embody resignation, while Pozzo and Lucky represent the futility of domination and action. Despite this, Beckett revives a sense of compassion within this meaningless existence. (“The compassion which was always present in Chekhov had virtually disappeared by the time of Pirandello and his successors.”)

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Tragic Deadlock and Stalemate: Chekhov, Pirandello, Ionesco, Beckett from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Examples/References
Realism	A literary style focused on representing everyday life with an emphasis on ordinary characters and detailed social environments. In Chekhov’s work, realism captures the breakdown of societal and personal structures.	“Chekhov is the realist of breakdown, on a significantly total scale.”
Breakdown	The disintegration of societal structures and individual psychology, a key theme in Chekhov’s work where personal and societal collapse are intertwined.	“For Chekhov, a social breakdown is a personal breakdown.”
Deadlock	A situation in liberal tragedy where an individual struggles against societal forces but cannot succeed, leading to the tragic failure of the individual.	“In a deadlock, there is still effort and struggle, but no possibility of winning.”
Stalemate	A condition where all attempts at action are futile, and any movement or effort is self-canceling. This extends beyond deadlock into a total standstill, where no meaningful action is possible.	“In a stalemate, there is no possibility of movement or even the effort at movement; every willed action is self-cancelling.”
Illusion	A recurring concept in the works of Pirandello and Ionesco, where personal realities are shown to be constructed, often leading to confusion, misunderstanding, and isolation between characters.	“We can construct an illusion for ourselves, and may temporarily interlock it with the illusion of another.”
Absurdism	A philosophical perspective and dramatic style where life is portrayed as inherently meaningless, and human attempts to find meaning are met with futility. This concept is central to the works of Ionesco and Beckett.	“The world in which we live appears illusory and fictitious … human behavior reveals its absurdity, and all history its absolute uselessness.” (Ionesco)
Expressionism	A dramatic and artistic movement focusing on the emotional experience of individuals, often at the expense of a coherent narrative or realistic portrayal of life. The internal conflicts of characters are emphasized over external reality.	“Where it led to the isolation of the individual, it moved, inevitably, towards the methods of expressionism: the dramatic conflicts of an individual mind.”
Anti-theatre/Anti-art	A reaction against traditional forms of art and theatre, rejecting conventional structures and embracing absurdity, fragmentation, and the rejection of meaning. Beckett and Ionesco’s works often exemplify this.	“Art must be anti-art, the novel must be anti-novel, the theatre must be anti-theatre … the possibility of communication, which is already known to be an illusion.”
Tragic Farce	A form of drama where tragic elements are combined with absurdity and farcical situations, often leading to a dark, comedic, and nihilistic view of human existence.	“The whole making of relationships is a process of illusion and tragedy.” (Pirandello, Six Characters in Search of an Author)
Isolation	A recurring theme in modern tragedy, where individuals are cut off from meaningful communication or connection with others, leading to a sense of alienation and existential despair.	“The personal stalemate becomes a general stalemate, an impenetrable general condition.”
Total Condition	The idea that the breakdown of individual and societal realities is complete, leading to a total sense of illusion and stalemate where neither public nor private realities retain coherence.	“The total condition of life, when seen in this way, leaves no theoretical basis for art, except its existence.”
Incommunicability	The inability of individuals to truly understand or communicate with each other due to the subjective nature of language and experience. This is particularly prominent in the works of Pirandello and Beckett.	“We think we understand one another, but we never really do understand.” (Pirandello, Six Characters in Search of an Author)
Compassion in Degradation	A unique aspect of Beckett’s Waiting for Godot, where despite the total meaninglessness of life, there is a sense of human connection and compassion between characters as they share their hopeless condition.	“The compassion which was always present in Chekhov had virtually disappeared by the time of Pirandello and his successors … Beckett continues this tone, but he combines it with what had seemed to be lost: the possibility of human recognition.”
Nihilism	The belief that life is devoid of meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value. This underpins much of the absurdist tradition, especially in the works of Beckett, Pirandello, and Ionesco, where human existence is shown to be futile.	“Human behavior reveals its absurdity, and all history its absolute uselessness.” (Ionesco)

Contribution of “Tragic Deadlock and Stalemate: Chekhov, Pirandello, Ionesco, Beckett from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Tragic Deadlock and Stalemate: Chekhov, Pirandello, Ionesco, Beckett from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

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1. Anton Chekhov’s Uncle Vanya

• Critique Based on Williams’ Analysis: Williams interprets Uncle Vanya as a representation of societal and personal breakdown. Unlike traditional liberal tragedies, where an individual hero struggles against external forces, Uncle Vanya presents a sense of stalemate. Characters are caught in a condition of inertia, unable to act or change their circumstances. This reflects a broader sense of social decay, where societal failure is lived directly in personal despair.
• Key Concept: Stalemate—In Uncle Vanya, there is no dramatic resolution or escape from the personal and societal failures depicted. Williams highlights the shift from personal struggle to a total condition of inaction and disillusionment.
• Reference: “Here we have a picture of decay due to an insupportable struggle for existence. It is decay caused by inertia, by ignorance, by utter irresponsibility.” (Williams on Uncle Vanya)

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2. Luigi Pirandello’s Six Characters in Search of an Author

• Critique Based on Williams’ Analysis: Williams critiques Six Characters in Search of an Author as an exploration of illusion and incommunicability. The play illustrates the collapse of reality and meaning as the characters question their own existence and seek validation from an author who never arrives. This emphasizes the breakdown of personal identity and the impossibility of authentic communication between individuals, where each character lives in an isolated world of illusion.
• Key Concept: Illusion vs. Reality—Pirandello’s characters are trapped in the illusions they construct, yet these illusions are never fully aligned with others’ perceptions of reality, leading to a tragic sense of alienation.
• Reference: “Each one of us has his own particular world … We think we understand one another, but we never really do understand.” (Williams on Six Characters in Search of an Author)

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3. Eugène Ionesco’s The Bald Soprano (La Cantatrice Chauve)

• Critique Based on Williams’ Analysis: Williams critiques Ionesco’s The Bald Soprano as a perfect representation of absurdism and meaninglessness in modern tragedy. The characters engage in nonsensical conversations that reveal the breakdown of communication and the collapse of meaning in everyday life. The absurdity in the play mirrors the total loss of coherence in human interaction, reflecting the failure of language to convey genuine meaning or connection.
• Key Concept: Absurdism—Ionesco highlights the emptiness of social conventions and human communication, creating a tragicomic portrayal of a meaningless existence.
• Reference: “The world in which we live appears illusory and fictitious … human behavior reveals its absurdity, and all history its absolute uselessness.” (Williams on Ionesco)

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4. Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot

• Critique Based on Williams’ Analysis: Williams views Beckett’s Waiting for Godot as the ultimate expression of stalemate and existential futility. The play depicts two characters, Vladimir and Estragon, waiting for someone (Godot) who never arrives, symbolizing the human condition of waiting for meaning or purpose in a world devoid of either. Williams argues that while the play shares the absurdist tradition, it uniquely revives a sense of compassion in degradation, where human solidarity persists despite the overwhelming meaninglessness of existence.
• Key Concept: Stalemate and Compassion—Unlike other works in the absurdist tradition, Waiting for Godot presents moments of human connection and recognition, even within a total condition of meaninglessness.
• Reference: “But while in the travellers there is change between the acts, in the tramps there is no change … The compassion which was always present in Chekhov had virtually disappeared by the time of Pirandello and his successors.” (Williams on Waiting for Godot)

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Criticism Against “Tragic Deadlock and Stalemate: Chekhov, Pirandello, Ionesco, Beckett from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

• Overemphasis on Stalemate as the Dominant Theme
  Williams focuses heavily on the concept of “stalemate,” which could oversimplify the diverse thematic richness of each playwright’s work. Some critics may argue that reducing complex works to this singular condition neglects other crucial aspects such as hope, resistance, or transformation within these plays.
• Neglect of Historical and Political Context
  While Williams engages with the societal breakdown reflected in these works, he does not sufficiently explore the specific historical or political contexts that shaped these authors’ writing. For example, the political turmoil and existential crises of the early 20th century are downplayed in favor of more generalized readings of personal and societal collapse.
• Reduction of Individual Agency
  By framing much of the work in terms of societal and individual breakdown, Williams arguably undermines the agency of characters and individuals within these texts. Some may contend that characters like Vladimir and Estragon in Waiting for Godot or Vanya in Uncle Vanya still exhibit moments of personal choice and resistance, which are overshadowed by the focus on their ultimate inaction.
• Homogenization of Diverse Dramatic Styles
  Williams groups Chekhov, Pirandello, Ionesco, and Beckett under the same thematic framework of tragic deadlock and stalemate, which risks flattening the distinctive stylistic and formal innovations of each playwright. Critics could argue that Pirandello’s exploration of illusion, Beckett’s minimalism, and Ionesco’s absurdity are too unique to be subsumed under a singular tragic model.
• Limited Discussion of Audience Reception and Impact
  The analysis centers on the internal logic of the plays and their themes but lacks substantial engagement with how audiences and critics have historically responded to these works. Williams could have expanded his discussion to consider the broader cultural and theatrical impact of these plays, especially their reception in different sociopolitical contexts.
• Simplification of Realism’s Evolution
  Williams traces a linear progression from 19th-century realism to modern breakdown and illusion but might oversimplify the complex evolution of realism. Realism in Chekhov’s work, for instance, contains more nuance and subtlety than merely reflecting breakdown, and Pirandello’s shift from realism to expressionism could be more multifaceted than Williams suggests.
• Insufficient Attention to Theatrical Innovation
  While Williams focuses on the thematic development of modern tragedy, he does not delve deeply into the radical formal and structural innovations these playwrights brought to theatre. Their contributions to stagecraft, dialogue, and performance styles are crucial elements that Williams overlooks in favor of a purely thematic analysis.

Representative Quotations from “Tragic Deadlock and Stalemate: Chekhov, Pirandello, Ionesco, Beckett from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Chekhov is the realist of breakdown, on a significantly total scale.”	This highlights Williams’ interpretation of Chekhov’s work as depicting the breakdown of society and personal lives. Chekhov moves beyond traditional realism by portraying societal and personal disintegration as intertwined, introducing a modern tragic sensibility of futility and decay.
“In a stalemate, there is no possibility of movement or even the effort at movement; every willed action is self-cancelling.”	Williams defines the concept of “stalemate,” which is key to his analysis of modern tragedy. This condition differs from the classical tragic deadlock where the hero actively struggles. In a stalemate, characters are unable to act meaningfully, and any attempt at action is rendered futile. This becomes a central theme in the works of Chekhov, Beckett, and others.
“The humanist sense of totality, which had given realism its strength, is in any case lost.”	Williams critiques the breakdown of the traditional humanist worldview in modern literature. He argues that modernist playwrights like Pirandello and Ionesco abandon the realist vision of a coherent human experience, replacing it with fragmented, isolated experiences that reject any sense of a unified, meaningful existence.
“We think we understand one another, but we never really do understand.”	This quotation encapsulates Williams’ reading of Pirandello’s exploration of incommunicability. It reflects the modernist crisis of communication, where language and personal experience are seen as insufficient for genuine understanding. Individuals are trapped within their own subjective realities, contributing to a tragic sense of isolation and misunderstanding.
“Art must be anti-art, the novel must be anti-novel, the theatre must be anti-theatre.”	Williams refers to the postmodern rejection of traditional artistic forms, particularly in the works of Ionesco and Beckett. In this anti-art movement, conventional structures and forms are subverted to reflect the futility of communication, meaning, and action, mirroring the breakdown of societal and personal structures. This idea is central to the development of absurdist theatre.
“For Chekhov, a social breakdown is a personal breakdown.”	This statement emphasizes the interconnectedness of individual and societal collapse in Chekhov’s work, as understood by Williams. The failure of social institutions and structures is lived out through personal despair and disintegration, blurring the line between public and private realms, a hallmark of modern tragedy.
“The breakdown of meaning is now so complete that even the aspiration to meaning seems comic.”	This quotation reflects Williams’ analysis of how modern tragedy, particularly in the works of Ionesco and Beckett, has moved toward a complete dissolution of meaning. The search for meaning, once a tragic endeavor, has become absurd and even laughable in the face of an overwhelming sense of purposelessness, a key theme in the Theatre of the Absurd.
“Compassion which was always present in Chekhov had virtually disappeared by the time of Pirandello and his successors.”	Williams contrasts Chekhov’s work with that of later playwrights like Pirandello, Ionesco, and Beckett. While Chekhov still allowed for moments of human connection and compassion amidst breakdown, this compassion is largely absent in later works, where individuals are more isolated, trapped in their illusions, and cut off from meaningful human relationships.
“We can construct an illusion for ourselves, and may temporarily interlock it with the illusion of another.”	Williams explains Pirandello’s concept of illusion, where personal realities are subjective and fragile. While people may construct their own illusions of reality, these can sometimes overlap with others, but they are never truly shared or connected in a meaningful way. This creates a tragic distance between individuals, a recurring theme in Pirandello’s plays.
“The condition is absolute, and the response confirms it.”	Williams summarizes the existential nature of Beckett’s Waiting for Godot, where the characters’ condition of waiting is unchanging and inescapable. This quotation underscores the futility and resignation that define modern tragedy, where no resolution or progress is possible. The characters’ acceptance of their condition reflects the essence of the human predicament in Beckett’s work.

Suggested Readings: “Tragic Deadlock and Stalemate: Chekhov, Pirandello, Ionesco, Beckett from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams

1. Eagleton, Terry. Sweet Violence: The Idea of the Tragic. Blackwell Publishing, 2003.
2. Williams, Raymond. Modern Tragedy. Chatto & Windus, 1966.
3. Steiner, George. The Death of Tragedy. Yale University Press, 1996.
   https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300069167/the-death-of-tragedy
4. Barker, Howard. Arguments for a Theatre. Manchester University Press, 1989.
5. Segal, Charles. Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sophocles. Harvard University Press, 1981.
6. Kott, Jan. The Eating of the Gods: An Interpretation of Greek Tragedy. Northwestern University Press, 1987.
7. Elsom, John. Post-War British Theatre Criticism. Routledge, 2013.