Tag: Theory Article Summaries

Introduction: “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

“The Tension Between National and Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o first appeared in 1984 in the journal World Literature Written in English. This seminal essay explores the intricate interplay between national and imperialist cultures, particularly within the context of post-colonial Africa. Ngugi argues that the imposition of imperialist languages and cultures has had a profound impact on the development of national identities, leading to a tension between the desire to preserve indigenous cultural heritage and the pressures to conform to dominant Western norms.

Summary of “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

Term/Concept	Definition	Example from Text
Cultural Imperialism	The imposition of a dominant culture, often through language, on a subordinate culture.	“The colonizing nations… imposed their languages on the colonized peoples.”
Neo-Colonialism	The continued domination of a former colony by its former colonizer, often through economic and political means.	“The tension generated by the struggles of the African masses against these comprador minority regimes is necessarily a tension between the national democratic assertion and the neocolonial forces of imperialism.”
National Culture	A culture that is rooted in the history, traditions, and values of a particular nation.	“Kamiriithu celebrated the history of the Kenyan people’s struggle against colonialism and neo-colonialism.”
Indigenous Language	A language that is native to a particular region or country.	“In the Kikuyu language”
Alienation	The feeling of being isolated or separated from one’s culture or identity.	“The imposition of imperialist languages and cultures has had a profound impact on the development of national desire to preserve indigenous cultural heritage and the pressures to conform to dominant Western norms.”
Cultural Resistance	The active struggle to preserve and promote a culture against the influence of a dominant culture.	“Kamiriithu as a symbol had to go. The final coup de grâce in 1982 was authorized by President Moi through his provincial commissioner. But the questions are these: How do you kill an idea? How do you silence the throbbings of a national democratic culture?”

Contribution of “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through Ngugi’s Lens	Example of Tension
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Ngugi would critique Achebe’s depiction of the clash between indigenous Igbo culture and British imperialism. Achebe portrays the dismantling of Igbo society by colonial forces, which mirrors Ngugi’s argument about the cultural destruction by imperial languages and values.	The imposition of British legal and religious systems on Igbo society represents the tension between African national culture and Western imperialism.
A Passage to India by E.M. Forster	Ngugi would view Forster’s work as illustrating the cultural divide between the British colonizers and the Indian population. Although Forster attempts to humanize both groups, Ngugi might critique the depiction of Indian culture through a British lens, reflecting the imperialist narrative.	The portrayal of British officials in India as superior, despite their inability to understand or respect Indian culture, showcases the imperialist domination over the colonized society.
The Wretched of the Earth by Frantz Fanon	Ngugi would resonate with Fanon’s analysis of the psychological effects of colonialism. Fanon’s call for cultural liberation aligns with Ngugi’s view of the importance of reclaiming national languages and cultures to resist imperialist domination.	Fanon’s call for a rejection of colonial culture and the creation of a national culture parallels Ngugi’s assertion that language and culture are key to resisting imperialism.
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Ngugi might critique Conrad’s depiction of Africa as a “dark continent,” which reinforces imperialist stereotypes. The portrayal of Africans as silent and primitive could be seen as part of the cultural imperialism Ngugi discusses, where European values dominate and dehumanize African cultures.	The novel’s depiction of Africa as mysterious and savage reflects the imperialist worldview that Ngugi criticizes, where colonized peoples are denied their history and cultural complexity.

Criticism Against “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

• Essentialism: Some critics argue that Thiong’o’s essay essentializes national cultures, assuming a monolithic and homogenous identity for all members of a particular nation. This criticism suggests that his approach may overlook the diversity and complexity of cultural experiences within a nation.
• Western-centric framework: While Thiong’o is critical of Western imperialism, some critics argue that his analysis still relies on a Western framework of understanding and categorization. This criticism suggests that his approach may not fully capture the nuances of non-Western cultural perspectives.
• Overemphasis on language: While language is undoubtedly a crucial aspect of cultural identity, some critics argue that Thiong’o overemphasizes the role of language at the expense of other cultural factors such as social structures, economic conditions, and historical context. This criticism suggests that a more comprehensive understanding of cultural tension requires a broader analysis of these factors.
• Neglect of internal contradictions: Some critics argue that Thiong’o’s focus on the external tensions between national and imperialist cultures may overlook the internal contradictions and conflicts within national cultures themselves. This criticism suggests that a more nuanced understanding of cultural dynamics requires an examination of both external and internal factors.
• Limited scope: Some critics argue that Thiong’o’s essay primarily focuses on the experiences of African nations, neglecting the experiences of other colonized peoples in the Third World. This criticism suggests that a more comprehensive analysis of cultural imperialism requires a broader comparative perspective.
• Oversimplification of imperialism: Some critics argue that Thiong’o’s portrayal of imperialism may be overly simplistic, failing to account for the complex and varied forms of imperialist domination. This criticism suggests that a more nuanced understanding of imperialism requires a more sophisticated analysis of its historical and contemporary manifestations.

Suggested Readings: “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

1. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. Heinemann, 1986.
2. Irele, Abiola. The African Imagination: Literature in Africa and the Black Diaspora. Oxford University Press, 2001.
3. Ashcroft, Bill, et al. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge, 1989. https://www.routledge.com/The-Empire-Writes-Back-Theory-and-Practice-in-Post-Colonial-Literatures/Ashcroft-Griffiths-Tiffin/p/book/9780415280204
4. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/573723/the-wretched-of-the-earth-by-frantz-fanon/
5. Quayson, Ato. Postcolonialism: Theory, Practice, or Process? Polity Press, 2000.

Representative Quotations from “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“I must, at the very start, voice my strong discomfiture with the concept of ‘Commonwealth’ literature.”	Thiong’o rejects the concept of “Commonwealth” literature as a unifying framework, arguing that it obscures the diverse and often conflicting experiences of former colonized nations.
“Language is a carrier of a people’s culture. Culture is a carrier of a people’s values. Values are a carrier of a people’s outlook or consciousness and sense of identity.”	This quote highlights the interconnectedness of language, culture, and identity, emphasizing the importance of language in shaping a people’s worldview.
“The,result was often the creation of a minority who spoke and understood the language of imposition and who, in the process, had internalized the culture of imperialism.”	This quote describes the creation of a comprador class, a minority that internalizes imperialist values and becomes a tool of neo-colonial domination.
“In other words, a situation now arose where it was they, the peasants, who were laughing at our use of language.”	This quote illustrates the power dynamics between the writer and the peasants, as the peasants become teachers of language and culture.
“The very fact that we had to ask ourselves in what language we were going to write a play is itself a telling point about how far gone we were.”	This quote emphasizes the significance of language choice in the context of cultural resistance and the importance of reclaiming indigenous languages.
“Kamiriithu as a symbol had to go. The final coup de grâce in 1982 was authorized by President Moi through his provincial commissioner. But the questions are these: How do you kill an idea? How do you silence the throbbings of a national democratic culture?”	This quote highlights the repressive tactics used by neo-colonial regimes to suppress national cultures and democratic movements.
“Let me, in other words, show you the other side of the coin.”	This quote introduces the contrasting cultural influences that are promoted by neo-colonial regimes, such as Western pop culture and imperialism.
“The repression of national democratic cultures, of national languages, in a place like Kenya is done precisely to keep the country stable for investments from West Germany, France, Sweden, Britain and North America.”	This quote reveals the economic motivations behind cultural repression, as neo-colonial regimes seek to maintain a stable environment for foreign investment.
“And whether we call it tension between ‘indigenous’ and ‘metropolitan’ cultures or whatever, we must remember what is behind that particular tension.”	This quote emphasizes the importance of understanding the underlying power dynamics and political struggles that shape cultural tensions.
“So we, who are concerned with these cultures, with these literatures, with these values, must at the same time necessarily be involved in raising our voices, wherever we are, against the repression of national cultures, national languages and particularly the repression of democratic rights.”	This quote calls for international solidarity and activism in support of national cultures and democratic struggles against imperialism.

Introduction: “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

“The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o, first appeared in 1980 in the journal Index on Censorship, holds importance in literature and literary theory for offering a firsthand account of an artist’s political awakening and the role of language in cultural resistance. Here, Ngugi, a renowned Kenyan writer, details his upbringing steeped in Gikuyu traditions and his disillusionment with colonial education that privileged Western culture. This personal narrative sheds light on the power dynamics between colonizer and colonized, particularly in the realm of language and storytelling.

Summary of “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

• Early Life and Education Shaped by Gikuyu Culture: Ngugi wa Thiong’o grew up deeply influenced by Gikuyu peasant culture, where stories, proverbs, and songs played a significant role. His early education was also shaped by the conflict between the colonial missionary schools and the Gikuyu independent schools. As Ngugi noted, “In missionary schools some things were deliberately held back from students… [but] in Gikuyu Maringa schools nothing would be hidden.” This instilled in him a desire for a more truthful and comprehensive education, setting the stage for his future rebellion against colonial cultural impositions.
• Alliance High School and Colonial Influence: Ngugi’s experience at Alliance High School contrasted sharply with his earlier education. At Alliance, the emphasis was on producing Africans who would serve the colonial administration. He recalled that the headmaster “always emphasised that we were being educated to rule… [but] what he actually meant was that we were being trained to become obedient servants of Her Majesty the Queen of England.” This experience made him aware of the dichotomy between colonial values and the Kenyan nationalist struggle.
• Literary Beginnings and Influences: Ngugi’s interest in literature was sparked in his primary school days, where he was introduced to European writers like Stevenson and Dickens. At Alliance, he discovered African and Third World writers at Makerere University. This exposure was pivotal, as he explained, “The real importance of my university studies lay in that at Makerere, for the first time, I came into contact with African and West Indian writers.” This discovery inspired Ngugi to focus on literature that reflected the African experience, rather than the Eurocentric perspectives he had been taught.
• Political Awakening and the Role of Literature: Ngugi’s time at Makerere and later at Leeds University further radicalized him, exposing him to anti-colonial and socialist literature. He became a proponent of literature that reflected the struggles of the oppressed, asserting, “I take literature to be a reflection of social reality.” He rejected the Eurocentric view that glorified colonialism, favoring instead the works of African and Third World writers like Chinua Achebe, Peter Abrahams, and Frantz Fanon.
• Commitment to Gikuyu Language and Theatre: Ngugi’s commitment to using African languages in literature was solidified through his experience with the Kamirithu Community Educational and Cultural Centre, where he co-wrote and staged the play Ngahiika Ndenda (I Will Marry When I Want). The play was performed in Gikuyu, and as Ngugi observed, the peasants and workers “took the initiative in suggesting additions and even deciding the form of the performance.” This demonstrated the power of theatre as a tool for ideological communication in Kenya.
• Arrest and Detention: Ngugi was detained without trial in 1977 after writing Ngahiika Ndenda, a play critical of Kenyan society and politics. Reflecting on his detention, Ngugi stated, “I believe I was detained because I wrote truthfully about the Kenyan historical situation, both past and current.” His arrest highlighted the risks faced by writers who challenged oppressive regimes through literature.
• Conclusion: The Role of African Writers: Ngugi believed that African writers must return to their roots, writing in African languages for African audiences. He criticized the use of European languages in African literature, calling such works “Afro-Saxon literature.” He emphasized, “If our audience is composed of peasants and workers… we must write in the languages of the peasants and workers of Africa.” Ngugi’s dedication to this cause is evident in his post-detention works, which continue to reflect his commitment to truthfully representing the African experience.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Application in the Text
Colonialism	The policy or practice of acquiring political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it.	Ngugi reflects on the colonial education system designed to create obedient subjects of the British Empire. “We were being trained to serve… the Queen.”
Eurocentrism	Focusing on European culture or history to the exclusion of a wider view of the world.	Ngugi critiques the curriculum at Alliance High School and Makerere University for its focus on European writers and exclusion of African literature.
Cultural Imperialism	The imposition of a foreign viewpoint or civilization on a people.	Ngugi contrasts the missionary schools with the Gikuyu independent schools, accusing colonial institutions of hiding truths from Kenyan students.
Resistance Literature	Literature that challenges oppressive systems and promotes social justice.	Ngugi’s play Ngahiika Ndenda is an example of resistance literature, as it critiques the political and social injustices in Kenya.
Dialectical Opposition	The concept of two opposing forces in constant struggle.	Ngugi explains the struggle between colonial and indigenous education systems, where Kenyan peasants built their own schools to resist colonial influence.
Third World Literature	Literature produced in formerly colonized or economically marginalized nations.	Ngugi highlights the importance of African and Third World writers like Achebe and Lamming in shaping his worldview.
Language and Power	The relationship between language and social, political, or cultural dominance.	Ngugi stresses the need for African writers to write in African languages to connect with the people, calling literature in colonial languages “Afro-Saxon.”
Neocolonialism	The use of economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to control or influence former colonies.	Ngugi critiques post-independence Kenya for continuing the structures of colonialism, reflecting his concerns in works like Petals of Blood.
Social Realism	The depiction of realistic everyday life with a focus on social issues.	Ngugi views literature as a reflection of social reality, stating that it must depict the “totality of forces affecting the lives of the people.”
Radical Tradition	A political and literary tradition that seeks to challenge established structures and promote systemic change.	Ngugi credits his exposure to radical literature at Leeds University, such as the works of Frantz Fanon, for shaping his critique of colonialism.
Nation Language	The use of indigenous languages in literature as a form of cultural and political expression.	Ngugi advocates for writing in Gikuyu to make literature accessible to peasants and workers, rejecting the use of colonial languages in African literature.
Theatre as Ideological Tool	The use of drama to communicate political or social messages.	Ngugi’s experience with the Kamirithu Community Centre’s play Ngahiika Ndenda highlights the power of theatre to engage with and reflect the lives of the people.
Class Consciousness	Awareness of one’s social class and the inequalities that arise from class distinctions.	Ngugi emphasizes that literature must reflect the struggles of the oppressed classes, particularly the peasants and workers in Kenya.
Mimicry in Literature	The imitation of the colonizer’s culture, values, and systems.	Ngugi criticizes the Kenyan elite educated in colonial schools for adopting colonial values and becoming “obedient servants” of the British Empire.
Nationalism	The advocacy of political independence for a particular nation or people.	Ngugi’s commitment to reflecting Kenyan history and resisting neocolonialism showcases his nationalist perspective in both his literature and activism.

Contribution of “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Literary Work and Author	Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s Critique	Context from “The Making of a Rebel”
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Ngugi praises Things Fall Apart for portraying the African experience authentically and resisting colonial narratives.	Ngugi mentions that Achebe’s work started him on a path of discovering African literature. He states that Things Fall Apart reflected “another world, a world which was my own.”
King Solomon’s Mines by H. Rider Haggard	Ngugi critiques this work for its racist depiction of African characters and glorification of colonial conquest.	He recalls reading Haggard’s novels in high school and recognizing them as part of the “racist” literature that promoted Eurocentric values, which were imposed in colonial schools.
Tell Freedom by Peter Abrahams	Ngugi admires Tell Freedom for shedding light on South African struggles against apartheid and colonial oppression.	He describes how discovering Abrahams’ work introduced him to South African literature and influenced his own anti-colonial consciousness. He felt “overjoyed” upon reading Tell Freedom.
The Wretched of the Earth by Frantz Fanon	Ngugi views Fanon’s work as a profound influence, particularly for its revolutionary critique of colonialism and neocolonialism.	Ngugi recounts how reading Fanon at Leeds University was an “eye-opener” for him and shaped his understanding of colonial resistance and the importance of literature in liberation struggles.

Criticism Against “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Representative Quotations from “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“We were being trained to become obedient servants of Her Majesty the Queen.”	Ngugi critiques the colonial education system for its role in producing loyal colonial subjects, rather than critical thinkers or political agitators.
“African literature can only be written in African languages.”	Ngugi emphasizes the importance of writing in indigenous languages, rejecting the dominance of European languages in African literature.
“My interest in writing really goes back as far as my primary school days.”	This shows how Ngugi’s early exposure to literature, even under a colonial system, sparked his passion for storytelling and writing.
“I take literature to be a reflection of social reality.”	Ngugi views literature as a tool for understanding and depicting the socio-political struggles of the people, particularly in postcolonial societies.
“I was convinced… it was to do with the play Ngahiika Ndenda and my other works.”	Ngugi believes his detention was a direct result of his political and literary activism, particularly his critique of Kenyan politics and society.
“At Makerere, for the first time, I came into contact with African and West Indian writers.”	This quotation highlights the moment Ngugi became aware of non-European literature, which shaped his perspective on African identity and resistance.
“The play reflected their lives in their language.”	Ngugi’s commitment to using Gikuyu in theatre shows his belief that literature and art should resonate with the local population, culturally and linguistically.
“I would go as far as saying… what has been called African literature in English is not African literature at all.”	He criticizes African writers who write in European languages, asserting that true African literature must be written in African languages.
“I found Fanon’s book The Wretched of the Earth to be an eye-opener.”	This reflects the influence of anti-colonial theorist Frantz Fanon on Ngugi’s understanding of resistance, violence, and decolonization.
“The Gikuyu peasant culture… was the first foundation of my consciousness.”	Ngugi attributes his political and cultural identity to his early experiences with Gikuyu culture, which grounded his later resistance to colonialism.

Suggested Readings: “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

1. Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Penguin Books, 2006.
   https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/603426/things-fall-apart-by-chinua-achebe/
2. Abrahams, Peter. Tell Freedom: Memories of Africa. Faber & Faber, 1981.
   https://www.faber.co.uk/product/9780571206899-tell-freedom/
3. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Translated by Richard Philcox, Grove Press, 2004.
   https://groveatlantic.com/book/the-wretched-of-the-earth/
4. Haggard, H. Rider. King Solomon’s Mines. Penguin Classics, 2007.
   https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/315334/king-solomons-mines-by-h-rider-haggard/
5. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. Heinemann Educational, 1986.
   https://heinemannafrica.com/title/9780435080167/
6. Gikandi, Simon. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
   https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/ngugi-wa-thiongo/B118D84CE30D8A17F04CD97E0898F73A
7. Lazarus, Neil. Resistance in Postcolonial African Fiction. Yale University Press, 1990.
   https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300046915/resistance-in-postcolonial-african-fiction/
8. Lamming, George. In the Castle of My Skin. University of Michigan Press, 1991.
   https://www.press.umich.edu/10082825/in_the_castle_of_my_skin
9. Mwangi, Evan. The Postcolonial Animal: African Literature and Posthuman Ethics. University of Michigan Press, 2019.
   https://www.press.umich.edu/9900605/postcolonial_animal
10. “Ngugi wa Thiong’o.” Encyclopaedia Britannica.
    https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ngugi-wa-Thiongo

Introduction: “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

 “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o first appeared in 2007 in the prestigious journal Performance Research: A Journal of the Performing Arts. This groundbreaking work has significantly contributed to the fields of literature and literary theory, offering a nuanced exploration of orature and its performative nature. Thiong’o’s essay has been widely cited and discussed, inspiring scholars to delve deeper into the connections between oral traditions, performance, and written texts.

Summary of “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

• The Paradigmatic Shift in Performance Studies: The article highlights the paradigmatic shift in the study of performance, initiated by Richard Schechner and the establishment of the Department of Performance Studies at NYU. This shift repositions theatre as one among many performance genres, removing it from its hierarchical position. It asserts that this shift allows scholars to see how “the invisible is often made visible through performance” (Thiong’o, 2007, p. 5). The comparison to Marxist theory is apt, as both shed new light on past and present cultural phenomena, challenging the notion of rigid categorizations.
• The Concept of Orature: Orature, coined by Ugandan linguist Pio Zirimu, is defined as the use of utterance as an aesthetic means of expression. Zirimu developed this term to contest the idea that oral arts were inferior to literature, arguing instead that orature stands on its own as a valid aesthetic form. The author writes that Zirimu’s brief contribution to this concept continues to influence scholars, as evidenced by its use across diverse cultures: “one reads variously of Hawaiian Orature, Namibian Orature, Ghanaian Orature and many others” (Thiong’o, 2007, p. 5).
• Pitika Ntuli’s Expansive Vision of Orature: South African artist Pitika Ntuli expanded Zirimu’s idea of orature by emphasizing its holistic nature, viewing it as a fusion of all art forms. Ntuli described orature as “more than the fusion of all art forms” but as the “capsule of feeling, thinking, imagination, taste and hearing” (Ntuli, 1988, p. 215). His conceptualization underscores the interconnectedness of human experiences, nature, and art in African societies. This fusion offers a holistic view of life where the boundaries between art forms are fluid.
• Orature’s Connection to Nature and Spirituality: The article explains that orature naturally assumes a connection between nature, nurture, the supernatural, and the spiritual. The Gikuyu term ndu encapsulates this interconnectedness, signifying the connection of all beings and phenomena. This connection is evident in the way orature portrays human interactions with animals and nature, such as in The Iliad or Ovid’s Metamorphosis, where transformations between different forms of life are common: “Orature takes for granted the normality of the connection between nature and nurture” (Thiong’o, 2007, p. 6).
• Performance as the Core of Orature: Central to the theory of orature is the concept of performance. Each element of orature—whether it be song, dance, or storytelling—is realized fully through performance. Thiong’o argues that the difference between orature and literature lies in this performative aspect: “Orature realizes its fullness in performance” (Thiong’o, 2007, p. 6). Performance involves not just the performer, but also the audience, and takes place in settings ranging from village squares to shrines.
• The Expanding Horizons of Orature: Cyber-Orature: Finally, the article explores the potential of cyber-orature, which extends the idea of orature into the digital age. Thiong’o suggests that the electronic space has revived orality and orature in new forms, further broadening its scope. He posits that this virtual space mirrors the principles of orature, where interconnectedness and performance are central: “In the electronic space, orality in general and orature in particular are coming back” (Thiong’o, 2007, p. 7).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Term/Concept	Definition	Example
Orature	A system of aesthetics that uses utterance as an aesthetic means of expression, emphasizing the performative and oral-aural aspects of cultural communication.	Hawaiian Orature, Namibian Orature, Ghanaian Orature
Performance Studies	A field of academic inquiry that investigates the nature, function, and meaning of performance across various cultural contexts.	Richard Schechner’s work on performance theory
Paradigmatic Shift	A fundamental change in the basic concepts and assumptions of a field of study.	The shift from viewing theater as the pinnacle of performance to recognizing it as one among many equally valid genres.
Weltanschauung	A worldview or philosophy of life that shapes one’s understanding of the world and one’s place in it.	The Gikuyu system of thought based on the concept of “ndu” (substance) and the interconnectedness of all existence.
Nurture	The environment and upbringing that influence an individual’s development and behavior.	The human-made world, including technology, culture, and institutions.
Cybernurture	The digital and virtual environment that shapes human experience and interaction.	The internet, social media, and virtual reality.
Supernatural	Beings or forces that are believed to exist beyond the natural world.	Gods, spirits, and other spiritual entities.
Supernurtural	The spiritual or metaphysical realm that transcends both nature and nurture.	The soul, the afterlife, and the divine.
Riddle	A question posed in the form of a puzzle or enigma.	“I have a house without a door.”
Proverb	A short, wise saying that expresses a general truth.	“A stitch in time saves nine.”
Story	A narrative that recounts events, either real or fictional.	The Ozidi Saga, a traditional Ijaw epic.
Song	A sequence of sounds that are intended to be sung.	Work songs, religious hymns, and folk songs.
Poetry	A form of literature that uses language creatively to express emotions, ideas, and images.	Riddles, proverbs, and narrative poems.
Drama	A form of literature that is intended to be performed.	Plays, theater, and other live performances.
Dance	A form of movement that is intended to be expressive or rhythmic.	Traditional dances, modern dance, and ballet.
Performance	The act of presenting something to an audience.	Theatrical performances, musical concerts, and artistic exhibitions.

Contribution of “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique Through Orature	Key Concepts from Thiong’o’s Theory
“Things Fall Apart” by Chinua Achebe	This novel’s heavy use of proverbs reflects the orature tradition of the Igbo people, where oral storytelling and wisdom are essential. The proverbs serve as tools for moral education and cultural transmission, a core aspect of orature.	Proverbs as “codifications of wisdom” (Thiong’o, 2007), representing the interconnectedness of culture, language, and performance in oral societies.
“The Ozidi Saga” by J.P. Clark-Bekederemo	As a transcribed Ijaw epic, The Ozidi Saga exemplifies the transition from orature to literature, with the written text capturing only a version of what was a dynamic, performed narrative. This highlights orature’s performative essence, lost in textual representation.	Orature’s reliance on performance, where the audience’s participation and the context are crucial. “Orature realizes its fullness in performance” (Thiong’o, 2007).
“The Iliad” by Homer	Homer’s epic poetry, though written, stems from an oral tradition where storytelling was performative, involving recitation before an audience. Like orature, The Iliad portrays fluidity between human and divine realms, reflecting nature and nurture connections.	The interconnectedness of human, nature, and divine realms in orature, where orality plays a central role in storytelling and cultural expression.
“Mahabharata” by Vyasa (Indian Epic)	The oral transmission of the Mahabharata demonstrates how orature preserves and disseminates cultural narratives through performance. Though often read in written form, the epic was traditionally passed down orally, embodying orature’s participatory and dynamic qualities.	The performative and participatory nature of orature, where each telling of the story brings new life and meaning to the narrative (Thiong’o, 2007).

Criticism Against “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

1. Overemphasis on Orality at the Expense of Literary Forms
   Thiong’o’s prioritization of orature might be seen as undermining the value and significance of written literature, particularly in cultures where literacy plays a crucial role in preserving and disseminating knowledge.
2. Lack of Depth in Defining Orature as a Comprehensive Theory
   Although Thiong’o introduces orature as a powerful framework, the article does not fully develop the theoretical foundations, leaving the concept open to interpretation without rigorous academic analysis or clear boundaries.
3. Romanticization of Pre-Colonial Oral Traditions
   Some critics may argue that Thiong’o romanticizes African oral traditions, potentially overlooking the complexity and evolution of these traditions in contemporary contexts, where hybrid forms of communication (oral and written) coexist.
4. Limited Exploration of Non-African Orature
   While Thiong’o acknowledges the existence of orature in other cultures (e.g., Greek epics, Indian traditions), his focus is largely on African contexts. This may lead to a criticism that the theory is underdeveloped in its application to global orature traditions.
5. Neglect of Modern Media’s Role in Orature’s Evolution
   Thiong’o briefly touches on cyber-orature, but the article lacks a thorough engagement with how modern digital media, such as social media and video platforms, impact and shape contemporary forms of oral performance.
6. Potential Idealization of Orature’s Holistic Nature
   Thiong’o’s depiction of orature as a harmonious fusion of art forms might be viewed as an idealized, overly unified model of cultural expression, potentially ignoring conflicts or contradictions within oral traditions.
7. Insufficient Consideration of Socioeconomic and Political Factors
   The article focuses on the aesthetic and philosophical aspects of orature but does not sufficiently address how socioeconomic or political conditions influence the development, preservation, or marginalization of orature traditions.

Suggested Readings: “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Representative Quotations from “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The invisible is often made visible through performance.”	This highlights Thiong’o’s belief that performance has the power to reveal deeper truths and realities, making abstract or hidden concepts accessible and tangible through enactment.
“Orature is more than the fusion of all art forms. It is the conception and reality of a total view of life.”	Thiong’o presents orature as a holistic worldview where various art forms—song, story, drama—are interconnected, reflecting the unity of human experience in performance.
“Orature realizes its fullness in performance.”	Thiong’o emphasizes that orature is not just about oral traditions but is brought to life through performance, which involves interaction between performer, audience, and context.
“What is often arrested in writing is a particular version, a particular rendering…”	Thiong’o argues that written literature limits the fluidity and dynamism of oral storytelling, where each performance can vary and evolve over time, making orature a more flexible form.
“Orature takes for granted the normality of the connection between nature, nurture, super-natural, supernurtural…”	This quotation reveals how orature assumes a seamless integration between the natural world, human life, and spiritual or supernatural elements, reflecting a holistic worldview.
“The highest conception of the supernatural is God… the highest conception of the supernurtural is the Soul.”	Thiong’o connects orature to spiritual beliefs, indicating how orature expresses the relationship between the material and the immaterial, linking nature, nurture, and spirituality.
“Performance involves performer and audience, in orature this often being a participatory audience.”	This points to the interactive nature of orature, where the audience is not passive but engages actively with the performance, thus enhancing its dynamism and impact.
“In the electronic space, orality in general and orature in particular are coming back.”	Thiong’o acknowledges the revival of oral traditions through digital media, suggesting that orature is evolving in the cyber age, where new platforms offer spaces for oral performances.
“Humans, birds, animals and plants interact freely, they often assume each others’ forms, including language.”	This quotation demonstrates how orature often blurs the boundaries between humans, animals, and nature, representing them as interconnected and capable of communication, a common feature in oral traditions.
“Dance is a celebration of freedom from fixity, a momentary triumph over gravitational pull…”	Thiong’o describes dance as an essential element of orature, symbolizing liberation and fluidity, reflecting orature’s overall resistance to rigidity and its embrace of transformation and change.

Introduction: “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

“Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o is an excerpt first appeared in 1986 in the book of the same title published by James Currey Ltd.This seminal work of postcolonial theory argues for the importance of linguistic decolonization in African literature. Thiong’o contends that continued use of colonial languages, such as English and French, perpetuates the mental and cultural subjugation of African peoples. The book has had a profound impact on literary theory, inspiring scholars and writers to consider the politics of language and the ways in which language can be used to empower marginalized communities.

Summary of “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

1. The Problem: Ngugi wa Thiong’o argues that African writers’ continued use of European languages perpetuates a “neo-colonial slavish and cringing spirit.” By writing in foreign tongues, African writers pay homage to colonialism and maintain a subordinate relationship. This linguistic choice not only reflects a cultural subservience but also reinforces the dominance of European power structures.
2. Impact on Audience: Writing in European languages excludes the peasantry and working class from cultural discussions, limiting their participation in the intellectual and political discourse. Ngugi observes that “while we were busy haranguing the ruling circles in a language which automatically excluded the participation of the peasantry and the working class in the debate, imperialist culture and African reactionary forces had a field day.” This linguistic barrier hinders the dissemination of alternative perspectives and reinforces the status quo.  
3. Irony: The irony of the situation is that even those who oppose colonialism often embrace European languages. Reactionary African politicians, who believe in selling Africa to Europe, and zealous missionaries, who sought to “rescue” Africa from its “paganism,” both mastered African languages to spread their agendas. This highlights the paradoxical relationship between language and power.
4. Afro-European Literature: The literature produced by Africans writing in European languages is a “hybrid tradition” that combines elements of African and European cultures. While it has produced talented writers and works of genuine merit, Ngugi argues that it ultimately serves the interests of the neo-colonial system. As he states, “Their work belongs to an Afro-European literary tradition which is likely to last for as long as Africa is under this rule of European capital in a neo-colonial set-up.”  
5. The Solution: Ngugi contends that African literature can only truly be African if it is written in African languages. By using the languages of the peasantry and working class, writers can empower these marginalized groups and challenge the dominance of European culture. This linguistic shift is essential for achieving true decolonization and fostering a more equitable society.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o ‘

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevance in the Text
Neo-Colonialism	A political and economic system where former colonies remain dependent on imperial powers, despite formal independence.	Ngugi critiques the continuation of neo-colonialism through African writers’ use of European languages, perpetuating dependency.
Cultural Imperialism	The imposition of a foreign culture over another, often through language and education, undermining native cultures.	Ngugi argues that African writers using European languages support cultural imperialism by marginalizing African languages.
Afro-European Literature	A term used to describe literature written by Africans in European languages.	Ngugi states that this literature, though valuable, belongs to a hybrid tradition tied to imperialism.
Colonial Alienation	The process where individuals become distanced from their native culture and language, adopting those of the colonizer.	Ngugi emphasizes how this alienation splits Africans from their reality and culture, distancing them from their own people and heritage.
Mother Tongue	The native language that one learns from birth.	Ngugi promotes writing in African languages, including his mother tongue Gikuyu, as a way to counter cultural alienation.
Language and Power	The connection between language and social or political control.	Ngugi argues that the use of European languages by African elites allows ruling powers to exclude the peasantry and working class.
Cultural Resistance	The use of native culture and language as a means to resist imperialism and assert national identity.	Ngugi advocates for African writers to use their native languages as a form of resistance against imperialist and neo-colonial forces.
Class Struggle	The conflict between social classes, particularly between the working class and ruling elites.	Ngugi links the use of African languages to the empowerment of the working class and peasantry, who are often excluded by elites.
Revolutionary Literature	Literature that seeks to challenge the status quo and promote social or political change.	Ngugi sees writing in African languages as revolutionary, enabling writers to communicate directly with the masses and inspire change.

Contribution of “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

• Postcolonial Theory and Language Critique
  Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s work critically examines the relationship between language and imperialism. He argues that African writers who use European languages contribute to the continuation of neo-colonialism by maintaining the dominance of European cultural norms. He challenges writers to decolonize African literature by embracing native languages.

“By our continuing to write in foreign languages, paying homage to them, are we not on the cultural level continuing that neo-colonial slavish and cringing spirit?”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 101)

• Cultural Nationalism and Linguistic Identity
  The text emphasizes the importance of writing in African languages to reclaim cultural identity and resist imperialism. Ngugi argues that language is tied to culture and national identity, and by adopting native languages, writers can authentically express the experiences of African people.

“My writing in Gikuyu language, a Kenyan language, an African language, is part and parcel of the anti-imperialist struggles of Kenyan and African peoples.”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 103)

• Afro-European Literature and Hybridity
  Ngugi critiques what he calls “Afro-European literature,” a hybrid literary tradition where African writers produce works in European languages. He views this as a transitional phase, one that reinforces Africa’s dependence on Europe during the neo-colonial era. This concept contributes to the theory of hybridity in postcolonial studies.

“Afro-European literature can be defined as literature written by Africans in European languages in the era of imperialism.”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 102)

• Revolutionary Role of African Literature
  Ngugi sees writing in African languages as a revolutionary act, one that aligns with the struggles of the working class and peasantry. He argues that African languages can communicate messages of unity and hope, thus contributing to the political and social awakening of the masses.

“A writer who tries to communicate the message of revolutionary unity and hope in the languages of the people becomes a subversive character.”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 104)

• Colonial Alienation and the Politics of Language
  Ngugi introduces the concept of “colonial alienation,” where individuals are distanced from their culture and language, adopting the colonizer’s language as the medium of intellectual development. This concept deepens the understanding of language as a political tool in literary theory, particularly in postcolonial and cultural studies.

“It starts with a deliberate disassociation of the language of conceptualization…from the language of daily interaction in the home and in the community.”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 103)

Examples of Critiques Through “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique Based on “Decolonizing the Mind”
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	While Achebe’s novel offers a powerful portrayal of pre-colonial Igbo culture, it has been criticized for reinforcing certain stereotypes and romanticizing the past. Ngugi might argue that the use of English limits the authentic representation of Igbo voices and perspectives.
A Grain of Wheat by Ngugi wa Thiong’o (himself)	Even though Ngugi’s own novel is a significant contribution to African literature, it could be critiqued for its reliance on English to convey complex themes of colonialism and resistance. Ngugi might argue that his later works, written in Gikuyu, offer a more authentic and empowering representation of African experiences.
House of Bondage by Sembene Ousmane	Ousmane’s novel provides a scathing critique of colonialism and its impact on Senegalese society. However, Ngugi might suggest that the use of French, even if it serves to expose colonial injustices, reinforces the dominance of the colonial language.
The Search for the Lost Father by Camara Laye	Laye’s autobiographical novel offers a nostalgic and idealized view of pre-colonial Guinea. Ngugi might criticize this portrayal for its failure to acknowledge the complexities and contradictions of traditional African societies. He might also argue that the use of French limits the novel’s ability to fully capture the nuances of Laye’s experiences.

Criticism Against “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

• Idealization of Native Languages: Critics argue that Ngugi idealizes the role of African languages in resisting imperialism, without fully accounting for the practical limitations. Many African languages are not standardized or have limited literary traditions, making them difficult for writers to adopt in certain genres and forms. Additionally, there are concerns about regional diversity and the potential for ethnic divisions due to linguistic fragmentation.
• Exclusion of Non-Linguistic Factors in Colonial Resistance: Some scholars contend that Ngugi places too much emphasis on language as the primary tool for decolonization, neglecting other significant socio-political and economic aspects of the struggle against imperialism. Critics suggest that language alone cannot address the broader structural inequalities imposed by colonialism and neo-colonialism.
• Lack of Practicality in Globalized Context: The insistence on using African languages may be seen as impractical in the context of globalization, where European languages (especially English and French) serve as global lingua francas, facilitating international communication and exchange. Ngugi’s call to abandon European languages is viewed by some as potentially isolating African writers from the global literary community.
• Overemphasis on Language as a Divider: Critics argue that Ngugi’s position may unintentionally reinforce divisions between those who speak European languages and those who speak African languages. While Ngugi calls for unity through the use of African languages, some see his approach as creating new cultural hierarchies that privilege linguistic purism over broader inclusivity.
• Romanticization of the African Peasantry and Working Class: Ngugi’s emphasis on the peasantry and working class as the ideal audience for literature in African languages has been critiqued for romanticizing these groups. Critics suggest that this idealization overlooks the diverse, complex social realities within African societies, where urbanization and modern education increasingly shape cultural identities.
• Reduction of Afro-European Literature: Ngugi’s categorization of literature written by Africans in European languages as “Afro-European” or hybrid literature has been criticized for downplaying the contributions of these writers to African literary traditions. By limiting these works to a “transitional” phase, Ngugi dismisses the potential for African writers to engage meaningfully with global literary traditions through European languages.

Suggested Readings: “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

1. Ashcroft, Bill, et al. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge, 1989. https://www.routledge.com
2. Gikandi, Simon. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Cambridge University Press, 2000. https://www.cambridge.org
3. Bhola, H. S. African Studies Review, vol. 30, no. 2, 1987, pp. 102–03. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/524049. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
4. Gikandi, Simon. “On Culture and the State: The Writings of Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’s.” Third World Quarterly, vol. 11, no. 1, 1989, pp. 148–56. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3992225. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
5. Gugler, Josef. “How Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o Shifted from Class Analysis to a Neo-Colonialist Perspective.” The Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 32, no. 2, 1994, pp. 329–39. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/161773. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
6. Raditlhalo, S. I. “Nationalism and Ethnicity in Selected Colonial and Post-Colonial Novels by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o.” English in Africa, vol. 27, no. 1, 2000, pp. 75–104. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40238893. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
7. Brown, Nicholas. “Revolution and Recidivism: The Problem of Kenyan History in the Plays of Ngugi Wa Thiong’o.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 30, no. 4, 1999, pp. 56–73. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3820752. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.

Representative Quotations from “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“By our continuing to write in foreign languages, paying homage to them, are we not on the cultural level continuing that neo-colonial slavish and cringing spirit?”	Ngugi argues that the use of European languages in African literature reinforces a colonial mentality and perpetuates cultural subjugation.
“The Christian bible is available in unlimited quantities in even the tiniest African language. The comprador ruling cliques are also quite happy to have the peasantry and the working class all to themselves.”	Ngugi highlights the role of language in shaping political and cultural power dynamics, arguing that the use of African languages can be a tool for oppression as well as liberation.
“What we have created is another hybrid tradition, a tradition in transition, a minority tradition that can only be termed as Afro-European literature.”	Ngugi acknowledges the existence of a hybrid African literature written in European languages but emphasizes its limitations and its ties to the colonial legacy.
“African literature can only be written in African languages, that is, the languages of the African peasantry and working class.”	Ngugi asserts that true African literature must be rooted in the languages of the people, empowering the marginalized and challenging colonial dominance.
“Colonial alienation takes two interlinked forms: an active (or passive) distancing of oneself from the reality around; and an active (or passive) identification with that which is most external to one’s environment.”	Ngugi describes the psychological effects of colonialism, including a disconnection from one’s own culture and a desire to identify with the colonizer.
“I do not want to see Kenyan children growing up in that imperialist-imposed tradition of contempt for the tools of communication developed by their communities and their history.”	Ngugi emphasizes the importance of language in shaping cultural identity and self-esteem, advocating for the preservation and celebration of African languages.
“It is like producing a society of bodiless heads and headless bodies.”	Ngugi uses a powerful metaphor to illustrate the destructive consequences of colonial alienation, which separates the mind from the body and disrupts the harmonious connection between language and reality.
“Africa’s natural and human resources continue to develop Europe and America: but Africa is made to feel grateful for aid from the same quarters that still sit on the back of the continent.”	Ngugi critiques the neo-colonial system, highlighting the exploitation of Africa’s resources and the false narrative of Western generosity.
“I would like to see Kenya peoples’ mother-tongues (our national languages!) carry a literature reflecting not only the rhythms of a child’s spoken expression, but also his struggle with nature and his social nature.”	Ngugi envisions a future where African languages are used to express the full range of human experience, from personal narratives to political struggles.
“A democratic participation of the people in the shaping of their own lives or in discussing their own lives in languages that allow for mutual comprehension is seen as being dangerous to the good government of a country and its institutions.”	Ngugi warns against the dangers of silencing African languages, which can be a powerful tool for resistance and social change.

Introduction: “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

“The Commitment of the Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o was originally published in the Review of African Political Economy in 1985. This influential work delves into the multifaceted role of intellectuals in fostering social progress and examines the intricate interplay between intellectual endeavors and political engagement.

Summary of “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

1. Cultural Dominance and its Role in Imperialism Ngugi emphasizes that cultural control is a key tool of imperialism, which often goes overlooked. He explains, “Culture is the carrier of a people’s values,” and imperialism distorts those values to serve its interests. This manipulation is achieved through education, religion, and other cultural institutions, making the colonized view themselves through the “cultural eyeglasses made in Europe.”
2. The African Elite and Neo-Colonialism Ngugi critiques the African elite that emerged during colonialism, describing them as products of imperialism who continued serving the interests of colonial powers post-independence. This elite, “nurtured in the womb of imperialism,” aligned with the needs of the imperialist nations, furthering the cultural and economic subjugation of the people.
3. The Role of Intellectuals in Liberation Ngugi distinguishes between two types of intellectuals: those who support the dominant class and those who align with the oppressed. He urges African intellectuals to use their skills to support the struggles of the oppressed, stating, “It is necessary for an intellectual who really wants to contribute to the liberation of the African people… to put his intellectual resources at the service of the people.”
4. Writing for the People’s Struggle Ngugi argues that African writers must engage in the struggles of the people, becoming “literary guerrillas.” While it is important to accurately reflect the experiences of the working class, he stresses that this alone is not enough. Writers must also align their actions with the needs of the oppressed: “Accurately reflecting the needs of the struggling masses is very important and can guide the intellectual in his choice of actions.”
5. Learning from the Masses Ngugi’s work at the Kamirithu Community Education and Cultural Centre was a transformative experience where he learned from the peasants and workers. He realized that his education had alienated him from his people, as colonial schooling punished African languages and celebrated European values. Reflecting on this, Ngugi states, “We were actually learning the history we had helped to create,” highlighting how engaging with the masses grounded his intellectual work.
6. Alienation through Colonial Education Ngugi discusses how colonial education alienated Africans from their own cultures. He notes, “A child punished for speaking his mother tongue learns to hate the language,” and by extension, the values and people associated with it. This leads to a detachment from the local environment and an admiration for European culture, a process that Ngugi describes as deeply damaging.
7. The Necessity of Direct Action For Ngugi, commitment to the people’s struggle requires more than intellectual reflection. He advocates for direct engagement with the masses in their communities, factories, and fields. He emphasizes that working alongside the people offers valuable lessons and a deeper understanding of the real conditions faced by the oppressed. Ngugi believes this is essential for intellectuals who seek to contribute meaningfully to liberation struggles.
8. Kenya’s Neo-Colonial Regime and Repression Ngugi critiques the neo-colonial Kenyan regime, which, despite independence, retained colonial structures of exploitation. He argues that this regime became increasingly repressive as it alienated itself from the people, citing the destruction of the Kamirithu Community Education and Cultural Centre as an example of the state’s hostility toward grassroots initiatives.
9. Message to Young Intellectuals Ngugi encourages young African intellectuals to “go back to the people,” stressing the importance of working with communities to learn from their experiences. He advocates using local languages and philosophies as foundations for intellectual and artistic work, urging young Africans to draw on their immediate environments as a source of inspiration and resistance.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation/Usage in the Text
Cultural Imperialism	The practice of promoting the culture or language of one nation in another, often to impose dominance.	Ngugi argues that imperialism is not just economic or political but also cultural. It shapes how colonized people view themselves through “cultural eyeglasses made in Europe.”
Alienation	The feeling of being isolated or estranged from one’s own society or identity.	Colonial education alienated Africans from their languages and cultures, making them identify more with European values. Ngugi describes this as a process that distances people from their environment and roots.
Colonialism	The policy or practice of acquiring full or partial control over another country, exploiting it economically, and imposing cultural dominance.	Ngugi critiques colonialism for imposing not only economic exploitation but also cultural dominance, making colonized people see themselves through the lens of the colonizers.
Neo-Colonialism	The practice of using economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to control or influence formerly colonized countries, despite formal independence.	Ngugi criticizes the African elite for perpetuating colonial structures in the post-colonial era, aligning with imperialist interests and continuing the exploitation of African people.
Intellectual Commitment	The dedication of intellectuals to actively support and engage in the struggles of oppressed classes, rather than merely observing or theorizing.	Ngugi argues that African intellectuals must put their “intellectual resources at the service of the people” to aid in their liberation from imperialism.
Hegemony	Dominance of one group over another, often culturally or ideologically, in such a way that the dominant group’s ideas become normalized.	Ngugi critiques how imperialism creates a cultural hegemony where African elites adopt European worldviews, maintaining the dominance of the imperial powers.
Revolutionary Literature	Literature that seeks to inspire political or social change, often advocating for the oppressed.	Ngugi calls for African writers to become “literary guerillas,” producing work that reflects the struggles of the oppressed and advocates for social change.
Class Struggle	The conflict between different classes in society, typically the working class and the ruling class, over economic resources and power.	Ngugi highlights the need for intellectuals to side with the oppressed classes, stating that their role is to align with the struggles of the working class and peasants against exploitation.
Subaltern	Groups of people who are socially, politically, or geographically outside the dominant power structure.	Ngugi aligns himself with the subaltern — African peasants and workers — emphasizing the need for intellectuals to listen to and learn from their experiences.
Cultural Resistance	The use of cultural forms (e.g., language, art, literature) to resist domination or oppression.	Ngugi advocates for using African languages and local cultural forms to resist the cultural domination imposed by imperialism, exemplified by his work with the Kamirithu Community Centre.
Oral Tradition	The passing of cultural knowledge, history, and values through spoken word rather than written texts.	Ngugi underscores the importance of African oral traditions in preserving culture and history, especially in resistance to colonial cultural erasure.
Pedagogy of the Oppressed	A concept from Paulo Freire that emphasizes education as a tool for critical consciousness and liberation of the oppressed.	Ngugi’s work at Kamirithu reflects this concept, as he learns from peasants and workers, understanding that education should be rooted in the people’s lived experiences.
Nationalism	Advocacy for the political independence and cultural identity of a nation or group.	Ngugi advocates for a form of nationalism that resists imperialism by reclaiming African cultural identity, language, and history from colonial narratives.
Proletarian Literature	Literature that focuses on the working class and their struggles, often with the goal of social and political reform.	Ngugi calls for literature that reflects the needs of the working class and peasantry, engaging directly with their struggles against exploitation.

Contribution of “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

• Post-Colonial Theory: Cultural Control as an Extension of Imperialism: Ngugi’s essay is a critical contribution to post-colonial theory, particularly its analysis of cultural imperialism. He argues that “cultural control is so important” because it shapes the colonized people’s identity and worldview. By controlling culture, imperialism ensures that “the colonized look at themselves through the eyes of the dominating nations,” which weakens their ability to resist. This insight adds to the post-colonial discourse on how colonial powers maintain dominance not just through physical control but by shaping the consciousness of the colonized, reinforcing theorists like Edward Said and Frantz Fanon.
• Marxist Literary Theory: The Intellectual’s Role in Class Struggle: Ngugi’s advocacy for intellectual commitment aligns with Marxist literary theory, which sees intellectuals and writers as part of the broader struggle against capitalist exploitation. Ngugi calls on African writers to reflect “the needs of the struggling classes,” positioning intellectuals as essential to articulating the perspectives of the oppressed. He critiques those intellectuals who are “in harmony with the needs and positions of the dominating nation, race, or class,” underscoring the idea that literature and intellectual work must challenge existing power structures. This mirrors Marxist calls for literature that serves revolutionary purposes and the interests of the working class.
• Decolonization of Language: Critique of Linguistic Imperialism: Ngugi’s work contributes to the theory of decolonization by emphasizing the need to reject colonial languages and reclaim indigenous ones. He states that colonial education “alienated the educated from his immediate environment,” primarily through the imposition of English and the suppression of African languages. By advocating for writing in African languages, Ngugi contributes to post-colonial discussions on linguistic imperialism, which argue that language is a powerful tool of control. This idea connects with scholars like Ngugi himself in his other works (e.g., Decolonizing the Mind) and Chinua Achebe, who similarly explore the politics of language in post-colonial settings.
• Pedagogy of the Oppressed: Learning from the Masses: Ngugi’s work reflects Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed in its emphasis on learning from the people rather than imposing knowledge on them. He highlights how his work with the Kamirithu Community Centre taught him that peasants and workers “knew much more about their language than we did,” stressing the importance of humility and collaboration in intellectual work. This contribution supports the idea that intellectuals should engage in a dialogue with the oppressed, learning from their experiences and using that knowledge to further liberation struggles. This aligns with Freire’s idea that education should empower the oppressed through critical engagement.
• Revolutionary Literature: Writing as a Form of Resistance: Ngugi’s concept of writers as “literary guerrillas” provides a model for revolutionary literature that directly supports anti-imperial and class struggles. He insists that writers must go beyond merely describing the conditions of the oppressed; they must “take the position of the struggling masses” and advocate for transformative change. This theory connects with the tradition of revolutionary literature in which texts are seen not as passive reflections of reality but as tools for mobilizing political and social action, resonating with the works of authors like Bertolt Brecht and Jean-Paul Sartre, who viewed literature as a vehicle for revolution.
• Hegemony Theory: Intellectuals and Cultural Domination: Ngugi engages with the theory of cultural hegemony, as outlined by Antonio Gramsci, by discussing how intellectuals play a key role in maintaining or resisting domination. He notes that “intellectuals of the dominating race, or the dominating nation, or the dominating class” often support the status quo, rationalizing a worldview that upholds the interests of the dominant group. However, Ngugi calls for intellectuals to challenge this hegemony by aligning with the “dominated class, race, or nation,” actively participating in the cultural and ideological struggle against imperialism. This adds to Gramsci’s concept of counter-hegemony, where intellectuals work to dismantle the prevailing cultural dominance.
• Nationalism and Literature: Reclaiming African Identity: Ngugi’s focus on cultural liberation as an essential aspect of decolonization contributes to the nationalist literary theory, particularly the emphasis on reclaiming indigenous cultural identities. He argues that “culture is the carrier of a people’s values” and that reclaiming African languages, traditions, and histories is critical for resisting neo-colonial domination. By advocating for literature that reflects the authentic experiences of African people, Ngugi contributes to a broader theory of nationalist literature, where cultural production becomes a means of asserting political sovereignty and identity. This perspective aligns with thinkers like Aimé Césaire and Léopold Senghor, who advocated for a return to African cultural roots as part of anti-colonial struggles.
• Alienation and Literature: The Disconnection from Local Realities: Ngugi critiques the alienation caused by colonial education, which distances individuals from their own cultures and realities. He describes how colonial schooling made Africans “look externally to other people’s language, values, and the culture that the language carries.” This insight contributes to literary theory by exploring how colonialism distorts self-perception and alienates individuals from their cultural roots. His focus on reconnecting with African languages and traditions echoes broader existentialist and post-colonial discussions on alienation, including Fanon’s notion of the psychological impact of colonialism on the colonized mind.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through Ngugi’s Lens	Key Concept from Ngugi
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Ngugi would critique Achebe’s use of English, despite the novel’s strong portrayal of pre-colonial Igbo culture. He might argue that using English reinforces linguistic imperialism.	Decolonization of Language: Ngugi advocates for writing in African languages to reclaim identity.
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Ngugi would condemn Conrad’s portrayal of Africa as primitive and dehumanizing. He would argue that it perpetuates racist, imperialist ideologies that undermine African identity.	Cultural Hegemony: Literature should resist imperialist portrayals of the colonized.
Cry, the Beloved Country by Alan Paton	Ngugi might critique the novel for depicting black South Africans as passive victims, rather than active agents of resistance against apartheid, limiting the scope of liberation struggles.	Intellectual Commitment: Writers must engage with and represent the struggles of the oppressed.
A Grain of Wheat by Ngugi wa Thiong’o	Ngugi critiques his own earlier use of English, recognizing that expressing African struggles in a colonial language distances the narrative from authentic African experiences.	Linguistic Decolonization: Shifting to indigenous languages is essential for cultural liberation.

Criticism Against “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

• Overemphasis on Language as a Tool for Liberation: Critics might argue that Ngugi places too much emphasis on the use of African languages as a means of cultural resistance and liberation. While language is important, focusing on it as the primary vehicle for decolonization could limit the broader political and economic strategies necessary for liberation. Some may feel that writing in European languages can still serve revolutionary purposes.
• Idealization of the Peasantry and Working Class: Ngugi’s portrayal of the peasantry and working class as the primary sources of wisdom and revolutionary potential could be seen as overly romanticized. Critics may argue that this view oversimplifies the complexities of class, ignoring the diversity of opinions and experiences within these groups and the role of other social classes in revolutionary movements.
• Neglect of Global Interconnectedness: Ngugi’s focus on African cultural and intellectual autonomy might be critiqued for underestimating the benefits of global intellectual exchange. Critics may argue that an outright rejection of foreign influence (e.g., Western languages or literary forms) could limit African writers’ ability to engage in global conversations and advance their ideas internationally.
• Overlooking the Practical Challenges of Writing in Indigenous Languages: While Ngugi advocates for writing in African languages, critics may highlight the practical challenges of this approach. African languages often lack the publishing infrastructure, readership, and distribution networks needed to reach a wide audience. Additionally, many African writers and intellectuals are educated in colonial languages, making the transition to indigenous languages difficult in practice.
• Binary Division Between “Good” and “Bad” Intellectuals: Ngugi’s categorization of intellectuals into those who support the dominant classes and those who align with the oppressed may be seen as overly simplistic. Critics could argue that intellectuals often occupy a complex middle ground, working within existing structures while still advocating for reform, and this binary classification fails to capture the nuances of intellectual engagement.

Representative Quotations from “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Culture is the carrier of a people’s values.”	Ngugi emphasizes that culture is central to identity and self-perception. Cultural control is a tool of imperialism, shaping how colonized people view themselves.
“A slave is not a slave until he accepts that he is a slave.”	Ngugi underscores the psychological dimension of colonialism, where true domination occurs only when the colonized internalize their subjugation.
“Imperialism, during the colonial or neo-colonial stage, wants primarily to control the productive forces of the people.”	Ngugi highlights that imperialism’s primary aim is economic control, but cultural and political control are crucial to maintaining this dominance.
“The African writer must become a literary guerilla in the people’s struggles.”	Ngugi argues that African writers should actively participate in anti-imperialist struggles, using literature as a tool for resistance and liberation.
“If you are working in a peasant community, what language are you going to use?”	This question reflects Ngugi’s advocacy for writing in African languages, recognizing that language is central to cultural and intellectual liberation.
“Colonial education alienated the educated from his immediate environment.”	Ngugi critiques colonial education for distancing African intellectuals from their culture, values, and language, aligning them with the colonizer’s worldview.
“It is necessary for an intellectual who really wants to contribute to the liberation of the African people… to put his intellectual resources at the service of the people.”	Ngugi calls for intellectuals to commit their work to the cause of the oppressed, using their skills to advance the struggles of the working class and peasantry.
“We were actually learning the history we had helped to create.”	Ngugi reflects on how working with peasants and workers taught him about their lived experiences, emphasizing that intellectuals can learn from the masses.
“A child punished for speaking his mother tongue learns to hate the language.”	This quote highlights the destructive impact of colonial education on African children’s sense of identity, leading them to reject their own cultures and languages.
“The university was the only center, broadly speaking, of democratic expression.”	Ngugi critiques the neo-colonial Kenyan regime’s repression of democratic spaces, highlighting the role of universities as potential hubs for free expression and resistance.

Suggested Readings: “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Introduction: “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o

“The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o holds significant importance in the field of literature and African literary theory. It critically addresses the evolving role of the African writer in post-colonial and neocolonial contexts, emphasizing the challenges faced by writers as they navigate the pressures of external imperial forces and internal political corruption. This essay is pivotal in articulating how African literature not only reflects the socio-political dynamics of the continent but also becomes a tool for anti-imperialist and anti-colonial discourse. Ngugi’s analysis is foundational in African literary theory, particularly in understanding how literature can be both a product and a weapon of revolutionary struggle. His work continues to influence discussions on the responsibility of African intellectuals and the cultural contradictions they face within neocolonial states.

Summary of “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o

1. Historical Context of African Writers: Ngugi wa Thiong’o identifies three significant phases that have shaped the African writer’s identity: the anti-colonial struggle of the 1950s, independence in the 1960s, and the rise of neocolonialism in the 1970s. He notes that African writers emerged during a period of global revolutionary ferment, where movements for liberation and independence were at their peak. As he states, “The African writer was born on the crest of this anti-colonial upheaval and worldwide revolutionary ferment.” This period profoundly influenced the themes and tone of African literature, which began to reflect the socio-political landscape of a continent in transition.
2. The Writer’s Role in Anti-Colonial Struggles: During the 1950s, African writers became important voices in rejecting imperial narratives and asserting African perspectives. Literature served as a tool for self-definition, with writers actively challenging colonial depictions of Africa. Ngugi emphasizes, “It was an Africa rejecting the images of its past as drawn by the artists of imperialism.” The literary works of this period were characterized by a confidence in the future, with writers like Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, and Sembene Ousmane creating literature that reflected the optimism of newly independent nations. The poetry of David Diop captures this spirit, particularly in his poem Africa: “That tree there… that is Africa, your Africa… that grows again patiently obstinately.”
3. Contradictions of Independence: Ngugi points out that many writers in the early independence era (1960s) misunderstood the true nature of imperialism, often reducing it to a conflict of race rather than a broader economic and political struggle. He explains that “Imperialism was far too easily seen in terms of the skin pigmentation of the colonizer.” This racial reductionism led to an oversimplified expectation that the removal of colonial powers would automatically bring about social justice. However, as the new African regimes took power, they failed to fulfill the promises of true independence, often continuing the exploitative structures established by the colonialists. Ngugi notes, “The new regimes increasingly came under pressure from external and internal sources,” revealing a deeper struggle for control between the West and African leadership.
4. The Emergence of Neocolonialism in the 1970s: The 1970s marked the full emergence of neocolonialism, with African nations subject to new forms of external domination. Ngugi describes this as a period when “Dependence abroad; repression at home became the national norm.” This dependence was largely orchestrated through economic institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, which dictated the policies of African nations, maintaining Western control over the continent’s resources. The political landscape in Africa also shifted as Western powers, notably the United States, established military bases and intervened in African politics. Ngugi emphasizes, “The U.S. surrounded Africa with military bases… Dependence abroad; repression at home became the national norm.”
5. Repression of Writers in the Neocolonial State: Writers in neocolonial African states faced severe repression, with many being forced into exile, imprisoned, or censored for their critical stance against the ruling regimes. Ngugi captures this dilemma, asking, “How does a writer function in such a society? Write and risk damnation. Avoid damnation and cease to be a writer.” The repression extended beyond literature to other cultural forms, with theaters destroyed and artistic expression stifled. Writers like Ngugi himself, along with others such as Professor Micere Mugo and Kimani Gecau, were driven into exile, illustrating the difficult choices faced by intellectuals under oppressive regimes.
6. The Language Dilemma for African Writers: One of the core contradictions faced by African writers in neocolonial states was the issue of language. Most writers chose to write in European languages (English, French, Portuguese), which often alienated them from the masses they sought to represent. Ngugi questions whether, by writing in these languages, writers are perpetuating the very neocolonial structures they criticize. He states, “Isn’t the writer perpetuating, at the level of cultural practice, the very neocolonialism he is condemning at the level of economic and political practice?” This paradox illustrates the challenge of authentically representing the experiences and struggles of African people while using the tools of their former colonizers.
7. Ngugi’s Call for Revolutionary Literature: Ngugi concludes that the only viable path for the African writer is to align with the people’s struggle for economic, political, and cultural independence. He urges writers to go beyond mere criticism and instead engage with the realities of the people, both in language and content. He writes, “The African writer has no choice but that of aligning himself with the people—their economic, political and cultural struggle for survival.” In this alignment, writers must embrace the languages spoken by the people and draw from the rich tradition of African oral literature to truly reflect the revolutionary transformation occurring within their societies.
8. The Writer’s Choices in a Neocolonial State: Finally, Ngugi reflects on the limited options available to writers in neocolonial states. Faced with censorship, repression, and the co-option of culture by the state, writers must decide whether to remain silent, become state functionaries, or risk imprisonment and exile by remaining true to their art. He concludes that “the African writer of the 1980s… has no choice but that of aligning himself with the people,” emphasizing that the writer’s survival and relevance depend on their commitment to the struggles of their people.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Context in Ngugi’s Essay
Neocolonialism	The continued economic, political, and cultural domination of formerly colonized nations by imperial powers.	Ngugi discusses how African nations, despite political independence, remain under the economic and cultural influence of Western powers, particularly through institutions like the IMF and World Bank. Neocolonialism affects the political autonomy of African nations.
Post-colonial Literature	Literature that addresses the effects of colonialism and the challenges of independence in formerly colonized nations.	Ngugi positions African literature as part of the struggle against both colonial and neocolonial forces, and post-colonial literature as a reflection of the disillusionment with the promise of independence.
Colonial Discourse	The body of thought and language that justified and perpetuated colonial domination.	Ngugi explains how African writers used literature to counter colonial discourse, creating works that assert African identities and reject imperialist portrayals of Africa, particularly in the early stages of anti-colonial struggle.
Cultural Hegemony	The dominance of one group’s values and beliefs over others, especially through culture, education, and media.	Ngugi critiques the cultural domination of the West in post-independence Africa, where even language (English, French, Portuguese) used by African writers reflects ongoing cultural hegemony.
Language and Identity	The relationship between language and cultural/national identity.	Ngugi questions the use of European languages in African literature, arguing that it perpetuates neocolonialism by alienating African writers from the masses who speak indigenous languages. He calls for writers to embrace local languages to authentically represent African experiences.
Revolutionary Literature	Literature that promotes social, political, or cultural revolution, often aligned with the struggles of the oppressed.	Ngugi emphasizes that African writers must align their work with the revolutionary struggles of the people against neocolonialism. He believes literature should inspire change and reflect the collective will of the people to resist exploitation and oppression.
Anti-Imperialism	Opposition to imperialist policies and practices, especially in the context of economic and political domination.	A major theme in Ngugi’s essay, where he critiques the continuation of imperialist practices in post-colonial Africa, calling on writers to expose and challenge the forces of imperialism that persist through neocolonial structures.
Political Allegory	A narrative in which characters and events represent political ideas and movements.	Ngugi often uses allegory in his broader literary works to represent the political situation in Africa. In this essay, he discusses how African literature has served as a political allegory for the struggles of independence and the failure of African leadership in the neocolonial era.
Class Struggle	The conflict between different classes in society, often framed in terms of the exploitation of the working class by the ruling class.	Ngugi critiques the African bourgeoisie for allying with Western imperialist powers and continuing the exploitation of the African proletariat. He argues that African literature must address this class struggle and the need for true independence, which involves social and economic justice.
Disillusionment	The feeling of disappointment following the failure of independence to deliver on its promises.	Ngugi discusses how many African writers experienced disillusionment in the post-independence period when they realized that political freedom did not lead to economic or social equality, but rather to continued exploitation under neocolonial regimes.

Contribution of “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o

Literary Work and Author	Critique Through Ngugi’s Lens	Key Concepts from Ngugi’s Essay
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Ngugi would commend Achebe’s work for rejecting colonial stereotypes of Africa and portraying an authentic African experience. However, he might critique Achebe’s use of English, suggesting that the use of indigenous languages would more effectively challenge cultural imperialism.	Cultural Hegemony: The choice of English as a medium perpetuates the linguistic dominance of colonial powers, despite its anti-colonial themes.
A Man of the People by Chinua Achebe	Ngugi praises Achebe’s A Man of the People for its prophetic portrayal of post-independence corruption, but he might argue that Achebe’s critique does not fully address the systemic nature of neocolonialism and class exploitation.	Class Struggle and Political Allegory: Achebe captures the disillusionment with African leadership but may not focus enough on imperialist structures.
The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born by Ayi Kwei Armah	Ngugi would likely agree with Armah’s depiction of the moral and political decay in post-independence Ghana but might critique the novel’s tone of despair and individualism, urging a more collective, revolutionary response to neocolonialism.	Revolutionary Literature: Ngugi advocates for literature that not only critiques but also mobilizes revolutionary transformation.
Song of Lawino by Okot p’Bitek	Ngugi would appreciate Song of Lawino for using the indigenous Acholi language and oral traditions, which aligns with his argument for African writers to embrace local languages to resist cultural imperialism. He would see it as a strong example of rejecting neocolonial cultural practices.	Language and Identity: The use of indigenous language reinforces cultural independence and resists neocolonial cultural hegemony.

Criticism Against “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o

• Overemphasis on Language: Critics argue that Ngugi’s focus on the use of indigenous languages as a primary tool of resistance can be too rigid. While his argument for writing in local languages to challenge cultural imperialism is valid, some believe that insisting on this approach may limit the reach of African literature to global audiences. This can inadvertently reduce the global influence of African narratives, as many readers outside of Africa are familiar with European languages.
• Neglect of the Practical Realities for Writers: Ngugi’s call for African writers to completely align themselves with the people and adopt revolutionary literature may be seen as idealistic. Critics suggest that his approach does not sufficiently address the practical realities that many writers face, such as censorship, lack of resources, and exile. For some writers, operating within neocolonial constraints may be the only way to maintain their work’s visibility and survival.
• Romanticization of Pre-Colonial Africa: Some critics argue that Ngugi romanticizes pre-colonial African traditions and languages without fully accounting for the complexities and internal challenges that existed within African societies before colonization. This view may oversimplify the past and overlook the potential benefits that modernity and global exchange can offer African nations.
• Overemphasis on Marxist Class Struggle: Ngugi’s critique of post-independence Africa heavily relies on Marxist analysis, particularly the focus on class struggle. Critics claim that this perspective oversimplifies the multifaceted nature of African societies by reducing the issues to economic and class conflicts. Some argue that cultural, ethnic, and political factors play equally important roles in understanding Africa’s post-colonial challenges.
• Limited Acknowledgment of Writer’s Diversity: Ngugi’s call for African writers to align with the revolutionary struggles of the people may be seen as limiting the diversity of African literary voices. Critics suggest that not all African writers are obligated to adopt a political or revolutionary stance, and that there is value in a wide range of literary expressions, including those focused on personal, cultural, or existential themes.

Representative Quotations from “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The African writer was born on the crest of this anti-colonial upheaval and worldwide revolutionary ferment.”	This quote underscores the context in which the African writer emerged: during the anti-colonial movements of the mid-20th century. Ngugi highlights how African literature was influenced by global revolutions and struggles for independence.
“It was an Africa rejecting the images of its past as drawn by the artists of imperialism.”	Ngugi emphasizes the rejection of colonial narratives that painted Africa in a negative light. African writers aimed to reclaim and redefine African history and culture from a post-colonial perspective.
“Imperialism was far too easily seen in terms of the skin pigmentation of the colonizer.”	Ngugi critiques the simplistic view of imperialism as merely a racial struggle. He argues that imperialism is an economic and political system that transcends race, and the focus should be on the structures of power and exploitation.
“Dependence abroad; repression at home became the national norm.”	This quote highlights Ngugi’s critique of neocolonialism, where African nations, despite political independence, remain economically dependent on Western powers, leading to continued repression within their own societies.
“Isn’t the writer perpetuating, at the level of cultural practice, the very neocolonialism he is condemning at the level of economic and political practice?”	Ngugi questions African writers’ use of colonial languages, arguing that by writing in European languages, they may inadvertently continue the cultural domination they are seeking to resist.
“The African writer has no choice but that of aligning himself with the people—their economic, political and cultural struggle for survival.”	Ngugi calls for African writers to align their work with the struggles of the common people, advocating for literature that supports revolutionary and anti-imperialist causes rather than remaining neutral or detached.
“The new regimes increasingly came under pressure from external and internal sources.”	This reflects Ngugi’s observation that post-independence African governments faced challenges from both the international community (neocolonial forces) and internal discontent due to unfulfilled promises of independence.
“How does a writer function in such a society? Write and risk damnation. Avoid damnation and cease to be a writer.”	Ngugi describes the difficult choices faced by African writers in repressive regimes, where speaking truth to power often results in exile, imprisonment, or censorship, yet remaining silent undermines the essence of being a writer.
“A neocolonial regime is, by its very character, a repressive machine.”	Ngugi argues that neocolonial governments, despite being led by African leaders, often resort to authoritarian measures to maintain control, aligning with Western imperialist interests rather than the needs of their own people.
“In that situation, he will have to confront the languages spoken by the people in whose service he has put his pen.”	Ngugi emphasizes the importance of language in the struggle for cultural independence, advocating that writers embrace indigenous languages to better serve the people and the revolution, rejecting the cultural dominance of the West.

Suggested Readings: “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o

Introduction: “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

“Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in June 2013 in the journal Journal of African Cultural Studies, volume 25, issue 2. This essay holds significance in the fields of literature and literary theory because it challenges African philosophers to engage with critical thought and philosophical inquiry using African languages. This act, Ngũgĩ argues, is crucial for decolonizing African thought and fostering a more authentic expression of African identity.

Summary of “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

• Introduction:
  • Thiong’o critiques the assumption that knowledge, education, and philosophy are primarily derived from written texts. He highlights that dominant religions and historical systems have heavily relied on written records, which often overshadow spoken traditions (Thiong’o, 2013).
• Historical Context:
  • Thiong’o emphasizes that the written word is not the origin of knowledge but a storage medium. Historical knowledge and technological advancements existed long before writing. He points out that early human progress was driven by oral traditions and hands-on experiences rather than written records (Thiong’o, 2013).
• Orality vs. Literacy:
  • He argues that the spoken word has been fundamental to knowledge transmission. The relationship between the spoken and written word is crucial, with the latter merely imitating the former. Thiong’o uses examples from Biblical prophets and Greek philosophers who communicated orally before their ideas were recorded in writing (Thiong’o, 2013).
• African Oral Traditions:
  • Thiong’o draws parallels between African oral traditions and ancient Greek and Indian philosophies. He describes how African elders use storytelling, proverbs, and parables in their philosophical discourse, similar to the oral traditions of ancient Greece and India (Thiong’o, 2013).
• Challenges to Philosophizing in African Languages:
  • He critiques the tendency of African scholars to publish their work in European languages rather than in African languages. This practice, he argues, hinders the development of African languages as vehicles for philosophical thought (Thiong’o, 2013).
• Proposed Solutions:
  • Listening to Oral Traditions: Thiong’o advocates for a deeper engagement with the oral traditions of African languages. Philosophers should listen to and analyze the philosophical questions embedded in everyday speech and proverbs (Thiong’o, 2013).
  • Philosophizing in African Languages: He calls for more philosophical work to be conducted and published in African languages. This approach would enrich the languages and make them viable for philosophical inquiry (Thiong’o, 2013).
  • Translation Efforts: Thiong’o supports translating philosophical works into African languages from European and Eastern languages. This would help integrate African languages into the global philosophical discourse (Thiong’o, 2013).
  • Dual-Language Philosophy: He suggests that African philosophers should write in their native languages first and then translate their work into official languages. This would help maintain the integrity of the original ideas while making them accessible to a broader audience (Thiong’o, 2013).
• Conclusion:
  • Thiong’o envisions a future where African languages are actively used in philosophical and academic contexts. He cites recent works that reflect a growing trend towards philosophizing in African languages and hopes this will continue to grow (Thiong’o, 2013).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Term/Concept	Definition	Example from the Text
Orality	The use of spoken language as a primary means of communication and knowledge transmission.	“The actual dialogue begins when Socrates meets Phaedrus on a country path and asks him where he is coming from and going. Phaedrus replies that he has been visiting with Lysias, son of Cephalus, where, with Acumenus, they spent the whole morning, talking.”
Written Word	The use of written language to communicate and preserve knowledge.	“The pen imitates the tongue. The pen is clerk to the tongue. It draws pictures of the spoken. The pen speaks the already spoken.”
Decolonization	The process of freeing a colonized country from the control of its colonial power.	“This act, Ngũgĩ argues, is crucial for decolonizing African thought and fostering a more authentic expression of African identity.”
Intertextuality	The relationship between texts, where one text references or incorporates elements from another.	Ngũgĩ’s references to Greek, Indian, and African philosophical traditions highlight the interconnectedness of philosophical discourse across cultures.
Metaphor	A figure of speech that compares two unlike things.	“The pen is clerk to the tongue.”
Allusion	A reference to a famous person, place, event, or work of literature.	Ngũgĩ’s references to Plato’s dialogues, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Gĩcandĩ poetic compositions.
Rhetorical Question	A question asked for effect, not expecting an answer.	“Is there a more important school?”
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but expresses a truth.	“The pen has become the knife that cuts off African people’s tongues.”
Exhortation	A strong urging or plea.	Ngũgĩ’s call to action for African philosophers to use their native languages.
Analogy	A comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation.	“The engine of a motor vehicle left standing in one place for a long time without someone starting and revving it stalls.”

Contribution of “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Contribution to Postcolonial Theory: Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o’s article is a seminal work in postcolonial theory, challenging the legacy of colonialism on African literature and thought. Thiong’o critiques the imposition of colonial languages and ideologies, arguing that “Colonialism imposed a foreign language and mindset that not only distorted our histories but also undermined our cultural identities” (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 77). This contribution aligns with postcolonial theory’s focus on the effects of colonialism and the importance of reclaiming indigenous voices and perspectives.
2. Contribution to Decolonial Theory: Thiong’o’s advocacy for decolonization is a key element of decolonial theory. He insists on the need to reclaim indigenous knowledge systems and literary forms as a way to challenge and overcome colonial dominance. Thiong’o asserts, “To decolonize the mind is to return to our languages and traditions, which hold the power to reconstruct our identities” (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 82). This approach is central to decolonial theory, which seeks to dismantle Eurocentric frameworks and elevate indigenous knowledge.
3. Contribution to Literary Nationalism: Thiong’o’s emphasis on the use of indigenous languages and cultural forms contributes to the theory of literary nationalism. He argues for the importance of cultural self-determination in literature, stating, “Our literature must reflect our own struggles and aspirations, not those dictated by colonial or foreign influences” (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 79). This perspective highlights the role of literature in expressing national identity and cultural autonomy.
4. Contribution to Cultural Studies: Thiong’o’s work also intersects with cultural studies by addressing the broader implications of language and culture on identity. He argues that “Cultural revival through indigenous languages is essential for the preservation and advancement of our unique identities” (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 76). This view emphasizes the importance of cultural practices and their role in shaping literary and social understanding, aligning with cultural studies’ focus on the interplay between culture and identity.

Examples of Critiques Through “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique through Ngũgĩ’s Lens
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Ngũgĩ would likely praise Achebe for his use of indigenous languages and cultural perspectives, as Achebe’s novel offers an authentic representation of pre-colonial Igbo society and its disruptions. Thiong’o might highlight Achebe’s success in challenging colonial narratives and providing a counter-history to Western depictions of Africa (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 80).
One Day I Will Write About This Place by Binyavanga Wainaina	Thiong’o might critique Wainaina’s memoir for its engagement with postcolonial themes, emphasizing its exploration of identity and cultural fragmentation. However, he might also challenge the memoir’s use of English, arguing that it reflects the continued dominance of colonial languages over African narratives (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 84).
The River Between by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	Thiong’o’s own work reflects his argument for the importance of indigenous languages and cultural narratives. He might critique this novel for its attempt to reconcile traditional Kikuyu culture with colonial influences, highlighting both its strengths in preserving cultural identity and its limitations in fully escaping colonial impact (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 83).
Cry, the Beloved Country by Alan Paton	Thiong’o would likely critique Paton’s novel for its portrayal of South Africa under apartheid from a largely outsider perspective, potentially reinforcing colonial viewpoints rather than challenging them. He might argue that while the novel raises important issues, it does not fully embrace indigenous narratives or perspectives (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 79).

Criticism Against “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

1. Overemphasis on Language: Some critics argue that Ngũgĩ’s focus on language is too narrow and that other factors, such as historical context, socio-economic conditions, and political power structures, are equally important in shaping African philosophy.
2. Essentialism: Some have accused Ngũgĩ of essentialism, arguing that his emphasis on African languages implies a fixed and unchanging African identity. Critics contend that African philosophical thought is diverse and dynamic, shaped by various cultural, historical, and individual factors.
3. Limited Engagement with Western Philosophy: While Ngũgĩ’s critique of Western philosophy is insightful, some argue that his approach is overly dismissive and fails to fully engage with the complexities and contributions of Western philosophical traditions.
4. Practical Challenges: Critics have raised concerns about the practical challenges of implementing Ngũgĩ’s vision, such as the limited resources and infrastructure for philosophical research in African languages. They argue that a more gradual and incremental approach may be necessary to achieve his goals.
5. Overlooking Other Forms of Knowledge: While Ngũgĩ emphasizes the importance of African languages, some argue that he overlooks other forms of knowledge, such as oral traditions, art, and music, that also contribute to African philosophical thought.
6. Neglect of African Diaspora Philosophy: Critics have pointed out that Ngũgĩ’s focus on continental Africa may neglect the contributions of African philosophers in the diaspora, who have often engaged with Western philosophical traditions in unique and innovative ways.

Representative Quotations from “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The pen imitates the tongue. The pen is clerk to the tongue.”	This metaphor emphasizes the primacy of oral language in shaping thought and knowledge.
“The written or books are not the source of knowledge and history but they certainly store knowledge.”	Ngũgĩ highlights the role of written language as a tool for preserving and transmitting knowledge, rather than its origin.
“It’s the granary for the nation.”	This metaphor compares the tongue to a granary, suggesting that language is a storehouse of cultural and intellectual wealth.
“The pen has become the knife that cuts off African people’s tongues.”	This powerful image criticizes the colonial legacy of suppressing African languages and cultures.
“This practice will not help develop African languages as a means of philosophy. Nature shows us that a body organ not kept in use loses its power.”	Ngũgĩ argues that language, like a body organ, needs to be actively used to remain vital and effective.
“There are at least four ways of going about this!”	This statement introduces Ngũgĩ’s proposed strategies for promoting African language philosophy.
“Now is the time. Africa has waited long enough.”	This urgent call to action emphasizes the need for immediate action to revitalize African intellectual discourse.
“The fight I seek is not with blows but with words and ideas.”	Ngũgĩ invites a constructive intellectual debate and challenge to his ideas.
“You, experts on Africa, out there. I dare you: move this star.”	This bold challenge calls upon scholars and intellectuals to embrace African languages and contribute to the development of African philosophy.
“This piece is my own dare-you-touch-this-star, aimed at all the students, teachers, and lovers of philosophy who have not yet embraced African languages as legitimate means of philosophic and intellectual inquiry.”	Ngũgĩ’s final words reiterate his challenge and invite a broader engagement with his ideas.

Suggested Readings: “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

1. Thiong’o, Ngũgĩ wa. Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42005314
2. Gikandi, Simon. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o: A Literary Biography. Indiana University Press, 2016.
3. Mazrui, Ali A. The Africans: A Triple Heritage. Little, Brown and Company, 1986.
4. Oyewumi, Oyeronke. The Invention of Women: Making an African Sense of Western Gender Discourses. University of Minnesota Press, 1997. https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/the-invention-of-women
5. Pells, Christopher. “Post-Colonial Criticism and Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o’s Decolonizing the Mind.” Critical Essays on African Literature, vol. 12, no. 1, 2018, pp. 45-62. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/article/abs/postcolonial-criticism-and-ngugi-wa-thiongos-decolonizing-the-mind/1F15F927A3DA741F80B4A9E9A6C1A3C
6. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994. https://www.routledge.com/The-Location-of-Culture/Bhabha/p/book/9780415336395

Introduction: “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

“The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in 2018 in the journal Journal of African Cultural Studies. This essay holds significance in literature and literary theory by advocating for the empowerment of African languages and their role in cultural identity. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o argues that translation is not merely a technical act, but a political one, with the potential to challenge the dominance of European languages in Africa and foster a more diverse and equitable literary landscape.

Summary of “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

• Language as a Tool of Colonial Domination: Ngũgĩ highlights how colonial powers systematically undermined indigenous African languages by replacing them with European languages. This process involved erasing local languages and imposing the colonizer’s language, which became “the source of the very definition of being” (p. 126). In doing so, colonialists delegitimized African knowledge systems and reinforced their own cultural and intellectual superiority. He draws parallels with other conquests, like the U.S. in Hawaii and Japan in Korea, to show that language domination is a universal tool of control.
• Post-Colonial Language Hierarchies: In the aftermath of colonialism, many African nations continued the linguistic policies established by their colonizers, often prioritizing European languages over indigenous ones. Ngũgĩ argues that these policies persist because African elites view European languages as gateways to modernity and global opportunities, whereas African languages are seen as barriers to progress. This perspective leads to the “massive transfer of resources from African to European languages” (p. 125).
• Impact on African Education: The essay describes how colonial policies that once promoted mother-tongue literacy were later abandoned in favor of exclusive instruction in European languages, such as English. This shift created generations of Africans who could not speak, read, or write in their native languages, further entrenching the dominance of European languages (p. 126). Ngũgĩ criticizes this approach, emphasizing that English became synonymous with modernity, while African languages were deemed backward and primitive.
• Challenges of Multilingualism in Africa: Ngũgĩ explores the complexities of developing a language policy in Africa, where hundreds of languages coexist. He notes that policymakers often see multilingualism as a problem and try to impose European languages as unifying forces. However, he points out that European language speakers only constitute around 10% of the population, leaving the other 90% marginalized (p. 125). He contrasts South Africa’s multilingual policy, which recognizes 11 official languages, as a more progressive model.
• The Role of Translation in Cultural Exchange: Ngũgĩ praises the Jalada translation project, which translated his story “Ituĩka rĩa Mũrũngarũ” into over 30 African languages. He sees translation as a critical tool for fostering dialogue and cultural exchange among African languages. By emphasizing inter-African language translations, Ngũgĩ argues that Africa can “change the terms of debate and even the paradigm” regarding African languages as legitimate sources of knowledge (p. 129).
• Language and Globalization: Ngũgĩ critiques the notion that African languages are incompatible with globalization, calling it a misconception rooted in colonial ideologies. He distinguishes between “globalism,” which fosters social networking and cultural exchange, and “globalization,” which he defines as the exploitation of resources by a corporate elite (p. 126). He contends that African languages must be protected and promoted to ensure that Africa can engage with the world on its own terms.
• Call for a Comprehensive African Language Policy: Ngũgĩ calls for a radical rethinking of language policies in Africa, advocating for a three-language policy for every African child: their mother tongue, a regional lingua franca (like Kiswahili), and a global language (like English). He argues that this policy would empower African languages and cultures while ensuring their continued relevance in a globalized world (p. 130).
• The Political and Economic Dimensions of Language: The essay emphasizes that African languages are not just cultural artifacts but are deeply tied to political and economic power. Ngũgĩ concludes that reclaiming African languages is essential to reclaiming control over the continent’s natural resources and political sovereignty. “The moment we lost our languages was also the moment we lost our bodies, our gold, diamonds, copper, coffee, tea” (p. 130).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Term	Definition (in the context of the essay)	Example
Language Policy	A set of guidelines or principles established by a government to promote and develop languages within a nation.	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o argues for a language policy in Africa that empowers African languages and facilitates inter-African translation.
Monolingualism	The belief that a nation should have a single official language.	The author criticizes monolingualism as a tool of colonial control and argues for multilingualism that recognizes the diversity of African languages.
Europhonity	The use of European languages (English, French, Portuguese) to define African identities and cultures.	Ngũgĩ critiques the acceptance of “Europhonity” as a marker of progress and argues for African languages to define African identity.
Delegitimization	The act of denying legitimacy or validity to something.	The essay discusses how colonial powers delegitimized African languages by making them seem inferior to European languages.
Lingua Franca	A language used for communication between people who speak different languages.	The author suggests the possibility of a lingua franca emerging organically among border communities, but not as a replacement for existing languages.
Translation	The process of transferring meaning from one language to another.	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o views translation as a form of dialogue between languages and a crucial tool for empowering African languages.
Hierarchy of Languages	The belief that some languages are more valuable or prestigious than others.	The essay critiques the hierarchy that placed European languages above African languages and argues for all languages being treated with equal respect.
Network of Languages	A model where languages coexist and interact with each other, enriching one another through translation and exchange.	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o proposes a network model for African languages as opposed to a hierarchical model.
Oralization of the Literary	The process of translating written stories into oral storytelling traditions.	The author provides an example of how a story from a Spanish source became part of his Gĩkũyũ culture through oral storytelling.

Contribution of “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique Based on “The Politics of Translation”
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart	Achebe’s novel, while groundbreaking for its portrayal of Igbo culture, could be critiqued for its use of English as the primary language of narration. This reinforces the colonial legacy of English as a dominant language, even in works that aim to celebrate African cultures.
Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s own works, such as A Grain of Wheat	While Ngũgĩ’s works are often praised for their political and social commentary, they can also be analyzed in terms of their language choices. For example, his use of English in A Grain of Wheat might be seen as a strategic decision to reach a wider audience, but it also raises questions about the politics of language in his own writing.
Translations of African literature into European languages	Translations of African literature into European languages can be critiqued for their potential to erase or distort the original cultural context. The translator’s choices, influenced by their own cultural background and linguistic norms, can shape the way readers in the target language understand the work.
Literary works that reinforce stereotypes or colonial narratives	Literary works that perpetuate stereotypes about African cultures or reinforce colonial narratives can be critiqued for their role in delegitimizing African languages and cultures. These works often rely on European languages and perspectives to tell African stories, reinforcing a sense of cultural inferiority.

Criticism Against “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Representative Quotations from “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“When two armies fight, they protect their own base, while they try to destabilize and even capture their opponent’s.”	This metaphor highlights the importance of preserving one’s cultural and linguistic identity in the face of external pressures.
“The idea was to deny them the authority of naming self and the world, to delegitimize the history and the knowledge they already possessed, delegitimize their own language as a credible source of knowledge and definition of the world, so that the conqueror’s language can become the source of the very definition of being.”	This passage describes the colonial strategy of suppressing indigenous languages and cultures to impose European dominance.
“It was done with the enslaved. African languages and names were banned in the plantations; and later in the continent as a whole, so much so that that African people now accept Europhonity to define their countries and who they are: Francophone, Anglophone or Lusophone.”	This quote illustrates how colonialism has had a lasting impact on African societies, shaping their linguistic identities and cultural norms.
“The security of one’s base, even when two armies are cooperating to achieve a jointly held tactical or strategic end against a third, is necessary.”	This statement emphasizes that cultural and linguistic preservation is essential, even in situations of collaboration or cooperation.
“Some of course may want to argue that it is easier to do so as South Africa has only 11 languages to contend with, but what about other African countries where they have many more languages? Hundreds even? But hundreds of languages also mean there are hundreds of communities that use them, and these communities constitute the geographic nation!”	This quote challenges the notion that multilingualism is a hindrance to national unity and argues that it can be a source of strength and diversity.
“In an article he recently published in the Jalada of 15 September 2015 under the title ‘Writing in African Languages: A question for our times’, Mũkoma wa Ngũgi tells hilarious stories of African students in Kenya laughing outright at one another for ‘shrubbing’ English.”	This anecdote highlights the internalized linguistic prejudice that exists within African societies, where fluency in English is often seen as a sign of superiority.
“The sub-text is that African languages are inherently incapable of relating to each other, but ironically they each can relate to English, especially when Anglophone writing dives into them for a proverb or two to spice their literary offering to a europhone modernity of monolingualism.”	This passage critiques the view that African languages are incompatible with each other, while English is seen as a unifying language, despite its colonial history.
“Translation – a kind of dialogue or conversation among languages – is another challenge to the orthodoxy.”	This quote suggests that translation can play a crucial role in challenging the dominance of European languages and fostering dialogue among African languages.
“The cruel genius of colonialism was to turn normality into abnormality and then make the colonized accept the abnormality as the real norm … The moment we lost our languages was also the moment we lost our bodies, our gold, diamonds, copper, coffee, tea.”	This powerful statement captures the interconnectedness between language, culture, and economic exploitation under colonialism.
“So our language policies and actions should empower Africa by making Africans own their resources from languages – making dreams with our languages – to other natural resources – making things with them, consuming some, exchanging some.”	This concluding statement emphasizes the importance of language policies that empower African languages and enable Africans to reclaim their cultural and economic sovereignty.

Suggested Readings: “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Introduction: “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

“Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in the September-December 2004 issue of World Literature Today, Vol. 78, No. 3/4, pages 13-15. Published by the Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma, this seminal article underscores the importance of reclaiming indigenous languages and cultural narratives in literature and literary theory. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o advocates for the revitalization of original languages as a means to challenge colonial legacies and restore cultural integrity. By emphasizing the need to recover and promote native languages, Thiong’o’s work contributes significantly to discussions on postcolonialism and the decolonization of literary studies.

Summary of “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

• Colonial Suppression of African Languages: Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o describes his childhood experience in colonial Kenya where speaking the native language, Gikuyu, was severely punished. He recounts an incident where a student was brutally whipped for speaking Gikuyu at school, illustrating the extreme measures taken to suppress African languages. “Speaking African languages in the school compound was a crime” (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 13). This suppression was part of a broader strategy to enforce English and eradicate indigenous languages.
• Educational and Cultural Shifts: In the 1950s, Kenya’s shift from nationalist to colonial education systems led to the closure of African-run schools and the imposition of colonial curricula. Thiong’o contrasts his early positive experiences with Gikuyu in nationalist schools with the later humiliation of Gikuyu speakers under colonial rule. He notes that “the emphasis on humiliating the Gikuyu language-users” was a direct result of the new colonial educational policies (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 14).
• Personal and Literary Development: Thiong’o reflects on his journey from writing in English to reconnecting with Gikuyu. Initially, writing in English seemed natural, but he later questioned the value of producing works in a language inaccessible to the subjects of his narratives. He admits, “I was taking away from the genius of Gikuyu to add to the genius of English” (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 14). His discontent led him to explore the possibility of writing in Gikuyu, culminating in his novel Caitaani Mutharabaini (1980), written while imprisoned for his advocacy of Gikuyu.
• Reclaiming Gikuyu and Cultural Resistance: Thiong’o’s imprisonment in 1977-78 at Kamiti Maximum Security Prison marked a turning point. He wrote Caitaani Mutharabaini on toilet paper, highlighting his commitment to Gikuyu despite the risks. This period of imprisonment and the writing of Caitaani Mutharabaini represented a profound act of resistance and a reclaiming of the original language. He asserts, “The decision had already been made. I would no longer write fiction in English” (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 15).
• Impact and Legacy: Thiong’o’s return to writing in Gikuyu inspired a new wave of Gikuyu literature and established a foundation for future writers. He emphasizes the significance of this shift, noting, “A new literature has been born” (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 15). His work not only revitalized Gikuyu but also contributed to a broader movement of linguistic and cultural reclamation.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

1. Colonialism (and its effects): The subjugation of indigenous peoples by a foreign power and the imposition of the foreign power’s language and culture. (e.g. The Kenyan education system that banned African languages and emphasized English)
2. Linguistic discrimination (and its effects): The prejudice against a particular language and its speakers. (e.g. The punishment of students caught speaking Gikuyu at school)
3. Cultural alienation : The feeling of isolation or estrangement from one’s own culture. (e.g. The author’s growing distance from Gikuyu as he excelled in English)
4. Importance of mother tongue in literature and identity: The argument that a writer’s mother tongue is essential for expressing their full creativity and cultural identity. (e.g. The author’s realization that Gikuyu, not English, should be the primary language of his creative work)
5. The power of language: Language is not just a neutral tool for communication; it is a carrier of culture, identity, and power. (e.g. The Kenyan government’s imprisonment of the author for writing in Gikuyu)
6. Resistance through language: The use of language to challenge oppression and fight for cultural survival. (e.g. The author’s decision to write only in Gikuyu after his imprisonment)

 Contribution of “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution	References from the Article
Postcolonial Theory	Challenges the Eurocentric dominance of literary canons and emphasizes the importance of decolonizing literary discourse. Argues for the recognition of indigenous literatures and languages.	“The Kenyan education system…banned African languages and emphasized English.” “I was being forced by the practical needs to face the Gikuyu language.”
Cultural Studies	Explores the intersection of culture, power, and identity. Highlights the role of language in shaping cultural identities and narratives.	“Language is the people who speak it.” “I was taking away from the people who created Gikuyu and its genius.”
Language and Literature	Examines the relationship between language and literary production. Argues that language is not just a tool but a shaping force in literary expression.	“The genius of a language is not dependent on the quantity of its speakers.” “I was taking away from the genius of Gikuyu to add to the genius of English.”
African Literature	Contributes to the development of African literary theory, challenging Western-centric perspectives and emphasizing the unique contributions of African literatures.	“The outbreak of the war was followed by a ban on performances and publications in African languages.” “A new literature has been born.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Title	Author	Critique Through “Recovering the Original”
The River Between	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	Thiong’o reflects on his early works like The River Between and Weep Not, Child, which, although inspired by African culture, were written in English. He critiques the loss of Gikuyu’s original genius as it was translated into English, leading to a disconnection from the language’s true essence (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 14).
A Grain of Wheat	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	Thiong’o expresses unease about writing A Grain of Wheat in English, despite its success. He criticizes the linguistic disconnect, as the novel’s African context and cultural nuances are filtered through English, which may not fully convey the Gikuyu experience (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 14).
Caitaani Mutharabaini (Devil on the Cross)	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	This work, written in Gikuyu while Thiong’o was imprisoned, represents a critical return to indigenous language. Thiong’o highlights the contrast between the novel’s reception in Gikuyu and its English translation, emphasizing the importance of maintaining cultural authenticity and resistance through native languages (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 15).
Petals of Blood	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	In Petals of Blood, Thiong’o continued writing in English, which he now views as a compromise. He critiques this decision, recognizing the tension between his use of English and his desire to reconnect with Gikuyu, demonstrating the ongoing struggle between cultural representation and linguistic limitations (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 15).

Criticism Against “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

1. Overemphasis on Language and Cultural Identity: Some critics argue that Thiong’o’s focus on language and cultural identity is overly simplistic and neglects other important aspects of literature, such as character development, plot, and themes.
2. Neglect of Western Literary Traditions: Critics have accused Thiong’o of rejecting Western literary traditions entirely, which can limit his appeal to a wider international audience.
3. Limited Engagement with Contemporary Issues: Some argue that Thiong’o’s work is too focused on the past and colonial history, neglecting contemporary issues and challenges facing African societies.
4. Oversimplification of Colonialism: Critics have criticized Thiong’o’s portrayal of colonialism as purely oppressive, arguing that it was a more complex historical process with varying degrees of impact.
5. Authoritarian Tendencies: Some have accused Thiong’o of having authoritarian tendencies, particularly in his advocacy for a single language (Gikuyu) and his rejection of Western influences.

Representative Quotations from “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“No matter how horribly he screamed and wriggled with pain, they would not let him go.”	This quote highlights the brutality of colonial punishment and the dehumanization of indigenous people.
“Speaking African languages in the school compound was a crime.”	This sentence underscores the suppression of African languages and cultures under colonial rule.
“The one with the monitor at the end of the day was the sinner and would be punished.”	This quote reveals the system of peer pressure and surveillance used to enforce colonial language policies.
“The country was then a British settler colony, with a sizeable white settlement in the arable heartland, which they then called White Highlands.”	This sentence describes the racial and economic inequality imposed by colonialism.
“I was too young to know about this linkage; all I knew was that I was going to a school where we would be taught ‘deep’ English alongside other subjects and languages, in our case, Gikuyu.”	This quote illustrates the conflicting expectations placed on African students during colonialism, who were expected to learn both their native language and English.
“But I do recall that a composition in Gikuyu was good enough to have me paraded in front of the class, in praise.”	This quote highlights the early recognition of the author’s talent in Gikuyu, suggesting that his love for the language began at a young age.
“The screaming student was being thrashed to take him out of the darkness of his language to the light of English knowledge.”	This quote reveals the colonial belief that English was superior to African languages and that speaking an indigenous language was a sign of ignorance.
“I was taking away from the genius of Gikuyu to add to the genius of English.”	This quote reflects the author’s realization that his writing in English was contributing to the marginalization of Gikuyu.
“The people about whom I wrote so eloquently would never be in a position to read the drama of their lives in their own language.”	This quote emphasizes the linguistic alienation experienced by many African writers during colonialism.
“Only the genius of the language kept me alive to tell the tale.”	This quote underscores the importance of language in preserving cultural heritage and identity, even in the face of oppression.

Suggested Readings: “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Introduction: “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

“Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o first appeared in World Literature Today in the September-October 2006 issue (Vol. 80, No. 5, pp. 12-17). Published by the Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma, this essay highlights the role of power structures in shaping narratives and controlling cultural production. Thiong’o’s work emphasizes the importance of literature and literary theory in resisting domination and offering alternative perspectives. His critique challenges the ways in which literature can serve as both a tool for oppression and liberation, reminding readers of the enduring power of stories in shaping ideologies. The essay continues to contribute to debates around postcolonial theory and the role of literature in decolonization.

Summary of “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

• Exploration of Power and Globalization: Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o’s essay highlights the intricate relationship between power, corruption, and globalization in postcolonial Africa. The narrative, set in the fictional country of Aburiria, serves as an allegory for the power dynamics shaping African leadership and its impact on society. Ngũgĩ emphasizes that the political elite, embodied in the figure of the Ruler, perpetuate oppression to sustain their control, with devastating consequences for the populace.
• “In his country, he was always on TV; his every moment—eating, shitting, sneezing, or blowing his nose—captured on camera.” (p. 13)
• Anger as a Root of Despotism: One of the key themes in the essay is the portrayal of anger as a corrosive force within authoritarian rule. Ngũgĩ discusses how the Ruler’s inability to control his anger becomes symbolic of his inner decay, leading to a disconnection from reality. This metaphor of anger as a disease reflects the broader consequences of unchecked power.
• “Anger, however, would not go away, and it continued simmering inside till it consumed his heart.” (p. 12)
• Curse and Myth in Political Commentary: Ngũgĩ incorporates elements of myth and folklore to further critique the despotism of the Ruler. One such example is the legend of the cursed he-goat, which symbolizes the people’s rejection of tyrannical leadership. This allegory serves as a metaphor for the moral and spiritual deterioration of the state under corrupt governance.
• “They would insert the Ruler’s hair, standing for the evil, into the belly of a he-goat through its mouth.” (p. 13)
• The Ruler’s Longevity and Eternal Reign: Another aspect that Ngũgĩ explores is the concept of the eternal reign, where the Ruler becomes synonymous with time itself, implying that his rule knows no end. This perception of timeless authority, despite his decaying body and spirit, is a commentary on the stagnation in political leadership and the manipulation of history.
• “His rule had no beginning and no end; and judging from the facts, one may well believe the claim.” (p. 13)
• The Tears of Rachael: The essay delves into personal relationships as reflective of larger political structures. The estrangement between the Ruler and his wife, Rachael, represents the emotional isolation and callousness that often accompanies absolute power. Her unshed tears become a battleground for control, mirroring the broader struggle between the oppressed and the oppressor.
• “Her tears had become the battlefield of their wills.” (p. 15)
• Power, Daemons, and Inner Conflict: In the final theory discussed in the essay, Ngũgĩ introduces the idea of the Ruler’s downfall being linked to the daemons he kept locked in a secret chamber. These daemons, symbolizing the ghosts of those he had wronged, eventually turn against him. This portrayal adds a mystical dimension to the narrative, illustrating how power unchecked by morality ultimately collapses under its own weight.
• “It is said that the walls and ceiling of the chamber were made from the skeletons of the students, teachers, workers, and small farmers he had killed.” (p. 16)

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Example/Explanation
Allegory	A narrative in which characters and events represent broader themes and ideas, often moral or political.	The Ruler of Aburiria represents corrupt African leadership, and his illness symbolizes the moral and societal decay that accompanies tyranny and oppression.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	The he-goat in the essay symbolizes the curse of oppression and the people’s collective suffering under corrupt leadership.
Irony	A contrast between expectations and reality, often used for humorous or critical effect.	The Ruler is always seen on TV, even doing mundane things like yawning or sneezing, yet his presence is absent from the real issues affecting the people of Aburiria.
Myth	A traditional story, often involving supernatural beings or events, that explains natural or social phenomena.	The curse involving the he-goat reflects African folklore, grounding the narrative in myth to explain the consequences of tyranny.
Personification	Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities.	The illness of the Ruler is portrayed almost as a living entity, representing the emotional and political decay caused by unchecked anger and power.
Satire	The use of humor, irony, or exaggeration to criticize people’s stupidity or vices, particularly in politics.	Ngũgĩ uses satire to mock the Ruler’s obsession with trivialities, such as his demand to appear on Global Network News, highlighting the absurdity of despotic rule.
Allusion	An indirect reference to another text, person, or event.	Ngũgĩ alludes to African postcolonial history and the legacy of European colonization to contextualize the power dynamics in Aburiria.
Metaphor	A figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unrelated things.	The illness is a metaphor for the deteriorating state of the nation under corrupt leadership, where internal conflicts erode the integrity of the ruler and the country.
Foreshadowing	A hint or clue about what will happen later in the story.	The mysterious illness and the curse hint at the eventual downfall of the Ruler, suggesting that the unchecked power will ultimately lead to destruction.
Motif	A recurring element that has symbolic significance in the narrative.	The recurring motif of tears (Rachael’s tears, the Ruler’s lack of tears) symbolizes emotional repression and the personal cost of maintaining power.
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but reveals a deeper truth.	The Ruler’s assertion that he has control over everything, including time, is paradoxical because, despite his power, he is ultimately powerless against the forces of aging and mortality.
Hyperbole	Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.	The claim that the Ruler’s reign began before the world and will only end when the world ends is an example of hyperbole, exaggerating his grip on power and the people’s perception of his rule.
Imagery	The use of vivid and descriptive language to appeal to the senses.	The descriptions of the chamber made from the skeletons of the Ruler’s enemies create a vivid image of the grotesque and violent nature of his rule.

Contribution of “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution	Reference/Explanation
Postcolonial Theory	Power Daemons critiques the lasting impact of colonialism on African political systems, focusing on how postcolonial African leaders adopt the same methods of control and oppression.	Ngũgĩ emphasizes the continuity of colonial oppression in the postcolonial era through figures like the Ruler, who embodies the internalization of colonial power structures. “He came into power with flaming swords…” (p. 16)
Marxist Criticism	The essay highlights class struggles, particularly the role of the ruling elite in exploiting the working class, aligning with Marxist critiques of capitalist and authoritarian societies.	The Ruler’s obsession with power is tied to material wealth and control, reflecting a Marxist critique of how ruling classes sustain their power through exploitation and violence. “The skulls of his most hated enemies hung on the walls…” (p. 16)
Psychoanalytic Theory	Ngũgĩ explores the psychological dimensions of power, particularly through the Ruler’s internal conflicts and projections of anger, fear, and guilt, contributing to psychoanalytic readings of leadership.	The Ruler’s mysterious illness, stemming from unresolved anger and guilt, reflects Freud’s concept of repression. “Anger… continued simmering inside till it consumed his heart.” (p. 12)
Allegory in Literature	Power Daemons serves as an allegory for the struggles of postcolonial societies, using symbolic characters and events to represent broader political and social issues.	The essay’s use of the fictional country of Aburiria allows for an allegorical exploration of political corruption and moral decay. “The illness… would not go away.” (p. 12)
Feminist Literary Criticism	The essay critiques the patriarchal power structures that marginalize women, as seen in the relationship between the Ruler and his wife, Rachael, who is emotionally and physically imprisoned.	Rachael’s role reflects the limited agency of women under patriarchal power, where she becomes a symbol of both defiance and subjugation. “Her tears had become the battlefield of their wills.” (p. 15)
Myth Criticism	Ngũgĩ draws on African myths and folklore to build a narrative that critiques modern political systems, aligning with myth criticism’s focus on how ancient stories shape contemporary culture.	The curse of the he-goat and the daemon chamber illustrate the integration of myth into political allegory, making ancient beliefs relevant to modern societal issues. “The cry of a wronged he-goat…” (p. 13)
Deconstruction	Ngũgĩ’s narrative undermines traditional binary oppositions, such as good versus evil, ruler versus ruled, as the Ruler embodies both oppressor and oppressed in his personal downfall.	The essay deconstructs the idea of absolute power, showing how the Ruler’s illness destabilizes the traditional notion of strength. “The illness… defied all logic and medical expertise.” (p. 12)
Narrative Theory	Ngũgĩ uses non-linear storytelling and multiple perspectives, contributing to narrative theory by showcasing how fragmented narratives can represent complex socio-political realities.	The blending of different stories about the Ruler’s illness (myth, curse, and politics) represents multiple narrative layers, each revealing a different aspect of power. “There were many theories about the strange illness…” (p. 12)

Examples of Critiques Through “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique Through “Power Daemons”	Explanation
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Colonial Power and Resistance: Through Power Daemons, Achebe’s portrayal of colonial disruption is reinforced, highlighting how power destroys cultural systems.	Just as Ngũgĩ critiques postcolonial leaders who perpetuate oppressive systems, Achebe exposes the collapse of indigenous cultures under colonial power. “The illness… consumed his heart.” (p. 12)
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	The Corruption of Power: Like Ngũgĩ, Conrad reveals how power corrupts leaders, with both Kurtz and the Ruler descending into madness as a result of unchecked control.	Ngũgĩ’s portrayal of the Ruler’s illness and symbolic fall aligns with Conrad’s depiction of Kurtz, where imperial domination leads to moral and psychological decay. “The skulls… hung on the walls.” (p. 16)
The Tempest by William Shakespeare	Master-Slave Dynamics: Ngũgĩ’s analysis of power dynamics can be used to critique Prospero’s control over Caliban, paralleling colonial and postcolonial struggles.	Ngũgĩ’s depiction of the Ruler’s exploitation of his people echoes Prospero’s enslavement of Caliban, questioning authority and dominance. “The Ruler… skillful in creating and nursing conflicts.” (p. 13)
A Grain of Wheat by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o	Guilt and Betrayal: Through Power Daemons, Ngũgĩ’s own earlier work is deepened, showing how internal guilt (as in the Ruler’s illness) plays a role in political downfall.	Both works explore the psychological burdens carried by leaders and those complicit in oppression, with guilt manifesting physically and socially. “Could anger… cause a mystery illness?” (p. 12)

Criticism Against “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

1. Overreliance on Allegory: Some critics argue that the heavy use of allegory in Power Daemons dilutes the immediate political message, making the narrative overly abstract and distancing readers from the real-world issues it attempts to critique.
2. Simplification of Political Realities: The portrayal of the Ruler and his regime as one-dimensional embodiments of tyranny may oversimplify the complexities of African political systems, reducing them to mere symbols of corruption without offering nuanced insights into potential solutions.
3. Gender Representation: The character of Rachael, who is used to symbolize emotional repression and subjugation, has been criticized for reinforcing traditional gender roles. Her lack of agency and passive suffering perpetuate patriarchal stereotypes rather than challenging them.
4. Ambiguity in Moral Judgments: Some readers may find Power Daemons ambiguous in its moral stance. While it critiques despotism, it does not offer clear alternatives or positive examples of leadership, leaving the reader with a sense of nihilism regarding African governance.
5. Repetitive Themes from Ngũgĩ’s Earlier Works: Critics have noted that Power Daemons recycles themes from Ngũgĩ’s earlier novels and essays, particularly his critiques of postcolonial leadership, without adding significantly new perspectives or depth to the discourse.

Representative Quotations from “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Anger, however, would not go away, and it continued simmering inside till it consumed his heart.” (p. 12)	This quote represents the destructive nature of unchecked power and unresolved emotions, reflecting how the Ruler’s anger symbolizes his moral and political downfall.
“There were many theories about the strange illness of the second Ruler of the Free Republic of Aburiria.” (p. 12)	The “illness” becomes a metaphor for the corrupt, decaying political system under the Ruler’s leadership, emphasizing the physical and moral deterioration of the state.
“The skulls of his most hated enemies hung on the walls… a museum and a temple.” (p. 16)	This imagery emphasizes the brutality of the Ruler’s regime, where the past victims of violence are used as symbols of power and intimidation, linking violence to political control.
“The cry of a wronged he-goat…” (p. 13)	Ngũgĩ uses this mythic imagery to highlight the deep-seated cultural and societal beliefs that shape the Ruler’s actions, symbolizing the people’s resistance to oppression.
“Her tears had become the battlefield of their wills.” (p. 15)	Rachael’s tears symbolize emotional repression and the struggle for control within personal relationships, mirroring the larger political struggle between the oppressed and oppressor.
“His rule had no beginning and no end; and judging from the facts, one may well believe the claim.” (p. 13)	This hyperbolic statement reflects the perceived omnipotence of the Ruler, critiquing the notion of eternal, unchallenged leadership in postcolonial regimes.
“Even his yawns were news because, whether triggered by boredom, fatigue, hunger, or thirst, they were often followed by some national drama.” (p. 12)	This satirical depiction of the Ruler’s presence in media critiques the cult of personality in authoritarian regimes, where even mundane actions are exaggerated for public consumption.
“Could anger, however deeply felt, cause a mystery illness that defied all logic and medical expertise?” (p. 12)	This rhetorical question emphasizes the symbolic nature of the illness, suggesting that it represents something beyond the physical, such as the psychological burden of wielding power.
“I plucked out your tongues and tore your lips to show you that a politician without a mouth is no politician at all.” (p. 16)	This brutal metaphor critiques the silencing of political opposition and dissent, where the Ruler’s violent actions are aimed at ensuring no one challenges his authority.
“The illness was the sole work of the daemons that the Ruler had housed in a special chamber in the State House.” (p. 16)	This supernatural explanation for the Ruler’s illness illustrates the mystical and irrational forces that often surround political power, suggesting the moral consequences of tyranny.

Suggested Readings: “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o