Tag: Theory Article Summaries

Introduction: “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta

“Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta, first appeared in Science, Vol. 336, on May 18, 2012, explores the evolutionary and psychological origins of human bias, particularly the tendency to divide the world into ingroups and outgroups. Culotta delves into how these biases, often unconscious and deeply ingrained, shape human interactions, foster prejudice, and contribute to social conflicts ranging from everyday discrimination to large-scale violence. Drawing on interdisciplinary research from psychology, anthropology, and evolutionary biology, the article discusses how implicit biases are not necessarily rooted in racial differences per se but rather in an ancient predisposition toward coalitionary thinking. Studies cited in the article demonstrate how even primates display outgroup bias, indicating that such tendencies have deep evolutionary roots. Furthermore, the research highlights the role of environmental and situational factors in amplifying or mitigating these biases, suggesting that while prejudice is an automatic response, it can be overridden through conscious effort and social conditioning. In the broader context of literary theory and cultural studies, Culotta’s work is significant because it provides a scientific foundation for analyzing themes of racial and social division in literature. Her discussion of implicit bias and the construction of “us versus them” narratives aligns with postcolonial theory, critical race studies, and social psychology, offering a lens through which literary texts can be examined in relation to historical and contemporary power structures. This article underscores the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in understanding and deconstructing racism, making it a valuable resource for scholars in both the sciences and the humanities.

Summary of “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Quotation/Reference
Implicit Bias	Unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence behavior toward certain groups.	“Your fear spiked in that dark alley before your conscious brain had even registered the young man’s skin color.” (Culotta, 2012, p. 825)
Ingroup Favoritism	The tendency to prefer and prioritize members of one’s own social group over others.	“People still think that those in their ingroup are smarter, better, more moral, and more just than members of outgroups.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 825)
Outgroup Bias/Outgroup Hate	The automatic preference for one’s own group and negative perception of outsiders.	“If groups compete for territory or resources, favoring the ingroup necessarily means beating the outgroup and can escalate into hostility.” (Brewer, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)
Coalitionary Psychology	The evolutionary adaptation to form social groups for cooperation and survival, leading to biases toward outsiders.	“Our central adaptation is to group living.” (Brewer, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)
Arbitrary-Set Prejudice	Prejudice based on socially constructed group identities rather than biological differences.	“In Sri Lanka, it may be Tamils; in Northern Ireland, Catholics or Protestants; in India, the Untouchables.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)
Implicit Associations Test (IAT)	A psychological test measuring unconscious biases by evaluating response times to word-image pairings.	“It takes significantly longer to associate your ingroup with bad things and the outgroup with good things.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Warrior Male Hypothesis	The theory that men evolved to form strong coalitions and display higher levels of intergroup bias due to historical warfare.	“Back in the Pleistocene, outgroup males really were dangerous.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Threat-Detection System	The psychological mechanism that exaggerates perceptions of danger from outgroups to avoid potential threats.	“Like smoke detectors, the system is designed to give many false alarms rather than miss a true threat.” (Neuberg & Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Stereotype Formation	The cognitive process of assigning generalized characteristics to a group based on limited experiences.	“Taiwanese toddlers assumed that a smiling racially ambiguous face was Taiwanese, but a frowning one was white.” (Dunham, Banaji, & colleagues, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Primate Outgroup Bias	Evidence that even non-human primates categorize individuals into “us” and “them,” suggesting evolutionary roots of bias.	“Macaques stared longer at photos of the faces of outgroup members than at ingroup faces.” (Santos et al., cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Situational Triggers of Prejudice	Environmental factors (e.g., darkness, fear, perceived threat) that increase implicit biases and discrimination.	“Canadians taking tests in the dark rated Iraqis as less trustworthy and more hostile.” (Neuberg & Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Intergroup Competition Theory	The idea that competition for resources or power increases hostility between groups.	“More cooperative groups won battles.” (Culotta, 2012, p. 826)

Contribution of “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta to Literary Theory/Theories

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Examples of Critiques Through “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta

Literary Work	Critique Through “Roots of Racism”	Relevant Concept from the Article	Quotation from Culotta (2012)
To Kill a Mockingbird (Harper Lee)	The novel exposes implicit racial bias in a legal and social system that favors the white ingroup over Black outgroups. Tom Robinson’s wrongful conviction reflects deeply ingrained prejudices that operate beyond rationality.	Implicit Bias & Threat-Detection System	“It takes significantly longer to associate your ingroup with bad things and the outgroup with good things.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)
Heart of Darkness (Joseph Conrad)	The portrayal of Africans as the “Other” aligns with the evolutionary tendency to dehumanize outgroups. Marlow’s shifting perspective on Africa and its inhabitants highlights the psychological mechanisms behind colonial racism.	Ingroup vs. Outgroup Bias & Othering	“Your fear spiked in that dark alley before your conscious brain had even registered the young man’s skin color.” (Culotta, 2012, p. 825)
Invisible Man (Ralph Ellison)	The protagonist’s struggle for identity reflects the impact of social categorization and racial stereotypes. The novel critiques how outgroup prejudice shapes self-perception and societal roles.	Arbitrary-Set Prejudice & Stereotype Formation	“The greatest prejudice is often aimed at people without an address, such as gypsies and the homeless.” (Fiske, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)
Beloved (Toni Morrison)	The haunting presence of Beloved symbolizes the lasting trauma of racial oppression. The novel illustrates how historical discrimination continues to affect Black identity and group belonging.	Historical Context of Prejudice & Intergroup Competition	“Ethnic distinctions, however, are presumably quite old.” (Boyd, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)

Criticism Against “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta

Representative Quotations from “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Your fear spiked in that dark alley before your conscious brain had even registered the young man’s skin color.” (p. 825)	This statement highlights the concept of implicit bias, showing how humans unconsciously categorize others based on perceived group membership, which can lead to irrational fears.
“People easily form coalitions based on meaningless traits such as preferring one painter over another—and then favor others in their ‘group.’” (p. 825)	Demonstrates how ingroup bias is not necessarily tied to deep-seated historical conflicts but can emerge in arbitrary and trivial contexts.
“It takes significantly longer to associate your ingroup with bad things and the outgroup with good things.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)	This reinforces findings from Implicit Association Tests (IAT), where individuals unconsciously associate negative traits with outgroups faster than with their own group.
“Humans are the only animal that cooperates so extensively with nonkin.” (p. 826)	Suggests that human social structures are unique in their ability to expand cooperation beyond genetic relatives, making group dynamics complex and flexible.
“One can be expected to be treated more nicely by ingroup members than by outgroups.” (Brewer, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)	Highlights ingroup favoritism, where people trust and assist their own group more than outsiders, a core concept in social identity theory.
“In the distant past, we had very little experience interacting with people who were physically very different from us.” (Boyd, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 826)	Counters racial essentialism by arguing that racial prejudice is a modern phenomenon, not an innate evolutionary adaptation.
“Seeing such apparent bias in primates suggests it is evolutionarily ancient.” (Banaji, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)	Connects human prejudice to primate behavior, implying that outgroup bias has been present in social species for millions of years.
“Like smoke detectors, the system is designed to give many false alarms rather than miss a true threat.” (Neuberg & Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)	Explains the threat-detection system, which primes people to be overly cautious around outgroups, even when there is no real danger.
“Black men are more likely to be victims of hate crimes, receive harsher jail sentences for comparable offenses, pay more money for cars—the list goes on and on.” (Sidanius, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)	Discusses racial disparities in justice and economics, showing how biases translate into real-world discrimination.
“Making people feel safer can moderate this bias.” (Schaller, cited in Culotta, 2012, p. 827)	Suggests that reducing fear and insecurity in society can help decrease implicit racial biases, providing a potential solution to intergroup prejudice.

Suggested Readings: “Roots of Racism” by Elizabeth Culotta

1. Culotta, Elizabeth. “Roots of racism.” (2012): 825-827.
2. CULOTTA, ELIZABETH. “ROOTS OF RACISM.” Science, vol. 336, no. 6083, 2012, pp. 825–27. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41584836. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.
3. RIDDIHOUGH, GUY, et al. “INTRODUCTION: HUMAN CONFLICT: WINNING THE PEACE.” Science, vol. 336, no. 6083, 2012, pp. 819–819. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41584833. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.
4. “NEWS OF THE WEEK.” Science, vol. 341, no. 6150, 2013, pp. 1048–49. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42619287. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

“Racism in Literature” by Jennie Ruby first appeared in Off Our Backs in the August-September 1988 issue (Vol. 18, No. 8, p. 19), published by off our backs, inc. and preserved through JSTOR. The article explores how racism manifests in literary history, particularly within feminist scholarship, by examining the contradictions and prejudices of revered literary figures. It highlights discussions from a workshop where white feminist scholars grappled with the racial biases of past writers, such as Virginia Woolf and Harriet Beecher Stowe, and their failure to fully transcend the racial prejudices of their times. The absence of women of color from the workshop’s panel further illustrated the exhaustion felt by marginalized scholars who are often expected to educate others on these issues. The article also discusses the evolution of feminist consciousness in literature, citing Grace Paley’s shift in language use and the presence of racism within narratives that simultaneously sought to challenge it. Moreover, it examines how literary criticism must acknowledge the flaws of feminist foremothers to ensure a more honest historical reckoning. The article’s significance in literary theory lies in its call for scholars to confront and analyze racism within feminist literature rather than overlook it, thereby advancing a more inclusive and self-aware literary discourse. Ruby’s work serves as an essential critique of how literature both reflects and perpetuates societal biases, urging readers and scholars to adopt a more critical lens when engaging with literary history.

Summary of “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Application in the Article
Historical Bias	The tendency of historical narratives to reflect the perspectives of dominant groups while marginalizing others.	Emily Toth’s research on Kate Chopin shows how early male biographers shaped perceptions of female writers, often excluding women’s perspectives (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Intersectionality	The interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, gender, and class, which create overlapping systems of oppression.	The absence of women of color in the feminist workshop reflects how racial and gendered oppression interact in academic discourse (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Authorial Intent vs. Reader Interpretation	The debate over whether meaning in literature is determined by the author’s intent or the reader’s interpretation.	Dale Spender’s experiment showed that readers project biases onto texts, shaping their understanding based on assumed author identity (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Racialized Feminism	A critique of feminism that acknowledges how racial biases have historically influenced feminist thought and activism.	Linda Koolish emphasized that white feminist scholars must acknowledge their racial privilege when analyzing literary history (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Literary Canon and Exclusion	The process by which certain works are considered “classic” while others are marginalized due to racial, gender, or class biases.	The discussion highlights how feminist foremothers’ racist views are often overlooked in literary scholarship (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Cultural Hegemony	The dominance of a particular cultural narrative that reinforces existing power structures.	Harriet Beecher Stowe’s work, despite its anti-slavery themes, reinforces racial hierarchies through its portrayal of light-skinned characters as more redeemable (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Textual Silencing	The suppression of certain voices or perspectives in literature and literary criticism.	The Awakening was not officially banned, but negative reviews by male critics effectively silenced its impact (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Evolving Language and Consciousness	The idea that language use reflects shifts in societal awareness and ideological changes.	Grace Paley’s shift from generic male pronouns to gender-inclusive language illustrates changing feminist consciousness (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Race and Representation in Literature	The ways in which racial identities and experiences are depicted in literary works.	Glennis Carr’s research highlights the coexistence of racist and anti-racist elements in literature written by white women (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Reader-Response Criticism	A literary theory emphasizing the role of the reader in shaping the meaning of a text.	Spender’s reading experiment showed how the perceived identity of an author can alter a reader’s interpretation of a work (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Contribution of “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution from the Article	Reference from the Article
Critical Race Theory (CRT)	The article exposes the racial biases embedded in feminist literature, showing how even well-intentioned feminist authors, such as Harriet Beecher Stowe, reinforced racial hierarchies.	“Racism and anti-racism coexist, as in Harriet Beecher Stowe, who avoids certain stereotypes but uses a light skin/darker skin schema of salvation that is racist” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Feminist Literary Criticism	Challenges the idealization of feminist foremothers by revealing their racism and sexism, urging scholars to acknowledge their flaws rather than erase them.	Annette Kolodny states, “If our foremothers had not shared the prejudices of their time, we would have had to invent faults for them” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Intersectionality (Black Feminist Thought)	Highlights how mainstream feminism often excludes women of color, both in academic discourse and literary analysis.	“Of 34 scholars invited to speak at this workshop, half were women of color… No women of color agreed to participate” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Postcolonial Literary Theory	Addresses how white feminist authors wrote about race from a privileged perspective, often misrepresenting people of color.	Linda Koolish states, “As white scholars we will always be writing about territory not our own” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Reader-Response Theory	Demonstrates that interpretation of literature is influenced by the identity of both the reader and the perceived author.	“Spender related her experience of reading 100 anonymous books and finding that she could not necessarily tell whether the author had been a man or a woman” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Literary Canon and Exclusion	Questions the selection of literary texts in the canon, showing how historical biases have shaped literary scholarship.	“Kate Chopin’s The Awakening was never really banned, but it was silenced by negative reviews by men” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Historical Materialism in Literature	Examines how literature reflects the economic and social conditions of its time, particularly regarding race and gender.	“Cathryn Martin’s The Incredible Journey was intended to describe the devotion of a Black woman for her child. In 1923 she was reviled for daring to address this issue. Today, she would be reviled as racist, as not going far enough” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Language and Power (Linguistic Turn in Literary Studies)	Investigates how language reflects evolving feminist consciousness, particularly in how words like “queer” and gendered pronouns are used in literature.	“Judith Arcana spoke on the rising consciousness she sees in Grace Paley’s writing… Paley has characters protest sexist language” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Examples of Critiques Through “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through “Racism in Literature”	Reference from the Article
To the Lighthouse – Virginia Woolf	Woolf, despite being a feminist icon, expressed racist views, highlighting the racial biases of admired literary figures.	“Virginia Woolf talked about Leonard’s curved nose,” illustrating how even celebrated feminist writers held prejudices (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Uncle Tom’s Cabin – Harriet Beecher Stowe	While the novel critiques slavery, Stowe maintains racial hierarchies by portraying light-skinned Black characters as more redeemable.	“Harriet Beecher Stowe avoids certain stereotypes but uses a light skin/darker skin schema of salvation that is racist” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Awakening – Kate Chopin	Chopin’s work was not officially banned but was dismissed by male critics, showing gender bias in literary criticism.	“The Awakening was never really banned, but it was silenced by negative reviews by men” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Incredible Journey – Cathryn Martin	Martin’s attempt to depict Black motherhood was progressive in 1923 but later viewed as reinforcing racial stereotypes.	“In 1923 she was reviled for daring to address this issue. Today, she would be reviled as racist, as not going far enough” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Criticism Against “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

• Lack of Representation of Women of Color’s Perspectives
  • While the article critiques the absence of women of color in literary discussions, it does not include direct perspectives or voices from these marginalized groups, leading to a potential gap in its analysis (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
• Overgeneralization of Feminist Writers’ Racism
  • The article presents feminist foremothers’ racial biases but does not explore the complexities of their ideological growth. It risks reducing their legacies to their flaws without fully contextualizing their historical limitations (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
• Limited Engagement with Critical Race Theory
  • While the article highlights racism in literature, it does not engage deeply with Critical Race Theory (CRT) frameworks that would provide a more nuanced critique of systemic racism in literary production and reception.
• Focus on White Feminist Scholarship
  • The article predominantly centers white feminist perspectives, despite its critique of the racial biases within feminism, which may limit its effectiveness in advocating for an intersectional approach (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
• Absence of Contemporary Literary Criticism
  • The analysis does not incorporate insights from Black feminist scholars or postcolonial theorists who have extensively critiqued race and literature, potentially leading to a less comprehensive evaluation of the issue.
• Potential for Presentism
  • The article risks judging historical figures and literary works by contemporary moral standards without fully considering the constraints and context of their time (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
• Limited Solutions for Addressing Racism in Literature
  • While Ruby identifies racism in feminist literature, the article does not offer clear strategies for addressing or resolving these issues in modern feminist literary criticism (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Representative Quotations from “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“All knowledge belongs to the person knowing it, and human beings are inevitably flawed… We don’t see things the way they are, we see them the way we are.”	This statement emphasizes the subjectivity of knowledge and perception, particularly in the interpretation of literature and history. It underscores how biases shape literary criticism and historical understanding.
“As white scholars, we will always be writing about territory not our own.”	This quote from Linda Koolish acknowledges the limitations of white scholars in analyzing racial issues. It highlights the need for scholars to recognize their positionality when engaging with racialized literature.
“The audience appeared to be entirely made up of white women.”	This observation critiques the racial homogeneity in feminist literary discussions, pointing out the lack of participation from women of color and the exclusionary nature of mainstream feminism.
“Racism and anti-racism coexist, as in Harriet Beecher Stowe, who avoids certain stereotypes but uses a light skin/darker skin schema of salvation that is racist.”	This critique of Uncle Tom’s Cabin highlights how even anti-slavery literature can reinforce racial hierarchies, showing that well-intentioned works can still contain problematic elements.
“Virginia Woolf talked about Leonard’s curved nose.”	This quote illustrates how revered feminist authors, like Woolf, held and expressed racial prejudices, challenging the tendency to idolize literary figures without acknowledging their flaws.
“The Awakening was never really banned, but it was silenced by negative reviews by men.”	This statement reflects the gendered nature of literary criticism and how male-dominated literary institutions historically dismissed or marginalized female authors.
“In 1923 she was reviled for daring to address this issue. Today, she would be reviled as racist, as not going far enough.”	This commentary on Cathryn Martin’s The Incredible Journey reveals the shifting standards of literary critique and how perspectives on race change over time.
“How much do your own ideas determine what you read?”	This rhetorical question raises issues related to reader-response theory, suggesting that readers project their own biases onto literature, influencing their interpretation.
“We must be as honest as possible about our history.”	This quote calls for transparency in literary and historical analysis, urging scholars to critically examine past figures rather than idealizing them.
“You cannot stand in some sort of pure place from which to judge things.”	This statement acknowledges the inevitability of bias in literary criticism, emphasizing that no perspective is completely objective or detached from historical context.

Suggested Readings: “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

1. ruby, jennie. “Racism in Literature.” Off Our Backs, vol. 18, no. 8, 1988, pp. 19–19. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25796514. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.
2. Bowser, Benjamin P. “Racism: Origin and Theory.” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 48, no. 6, 2017, pp. 572–90. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44631325. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.
3. Fields, Barbara J. “Whiteness, Racism, and Identity.” International Labor and Working-Class History, no. 60, 2001, pp. 48–56. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27672735. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.
4. Nelson, Jacqueline K. “Denial of Racism and Its Implications for Local Action.” Discourse & Society, vol. 24, no. 1, 2013, pp. 89–109. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24441659. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody first appeared in Sociological Perspectives in 2020, offering a comprehensive analysis of how sociologists conceptualize racism. The article introduces a framework that distinguishes between four primary constructs: (1) individual attitudes, (2) cultural schema, (3) preexisting consequential inequalities (racial dominance), and (4) processes that create or maintain racial dominance. Through a content and citation analysis of 1,037 sociology journal articles from 1995 to 2015, the authors demonstrate how different scholarly communities define and apply the term “racism,” revealing significant fragmentation within sociological discourse. Their research highlights how racism has evolved as a concept, encompassing both structural and cultural dimensions while also being subject to political and disciplinary contestation. The study’s significance in literary theory and sociological literature lies in its methodological rigor and its call for a more differentiated yet inclusive understanding of racism. By mapping the diverse ways racism is theorized, Shiao and Woody provide a vital resource for scholars seeking to navigate the complexities of racial discourse, bridging gaps between competing perspectives while advocating for a nuanced, multi-dimensional approach to racism in both research and public sociology.

Summary of “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

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Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

Term/Concept	Definition	Relevant Citation(s)
Racism1 (Attitudes)	Racism as individual-level prejudice, bias, or beliefs about racial groups.	Bobo & Charles (2009); Hochschild et al. (2012)
Racism2 (Cultural Schema)	Racism as shared cultural meanings that shape group hierarchies, representations, and identities.	Omi & Winant (1986); Brubaker (2015); Bonilla-Silva (2018)
Racism3.1 (Structural Racism – Racial Dominance)	Preexisting racial inequalities embedded in social institutions.	Feagin (2013); Alexander (2012); Reskin (2012)
Racism3.2 (Structural Racism – Maintenance Processes)	Processes that maintain or reinforce racial inequalities, including discrimination, state policies, and social exclusion.	Wimmer (2013); Pager et al. (2009)
Racialization	The process of assigning racial meanings to individuals, groups, or social practices.	Omi & Winant (1986)
Colorblind Racism	A racial ideology that denies racial disparities and inequality by promoting a “race-neutral” perspective.	Bonilla-Silva (2018)
Symbolic Racism	A form of racism based on covert negative attitudes toward minority groups, often framed in non-racial terms.	Kinder & Sears (1981)
Cultural Repertoires	The set of available cultural narratives, frames, and schemas that individuals draw from in racial interactions.	Lamont et al. (2017)
White Racial Frame	The dominant racial worldview that upholds whiteness as normative and superior.	Feagin (2009)
Normative Whiteness	The cultural dominance of whiteness as the default racial category in society.	Bell & Hartmann (2007)
Racial Formation Theory	A framework that explains how race is socially constructed and redefined over time through political and cultural processes.	Omi & Winant (1986, 2015)
Systemic Racism	A holistic framework that sees racism as embedded in every aspect of social systems, rather than just individual actions.	Feagin (2006)
Racial Hierarchy	The structural positioning of racial groups in a system of dominance and subordination.	Jung (2015)
Racial Domination	The various ways that power is exercised along racial lines, including symbolic, economic, and political power.	Desmond & Emirbayer (2009)
Group Position Theory	The idea that racial attitudes are shaped by the perceived position of one’s racial group in the social hierarchy.	Blumer (1958); Bobo & Tuan (2006)
Ethnic Boundary-Making	The processes through which racial/ethnic group boundaries are created, reinforced, or challenged.	Wimmer (2013)
Double Consciousness	The concept that racial minorities experience a duality of self-awareness, seeing themselves through both their own and the dominant group’s perspective.	Du Bois ([1903] 2017)
Racist Racial Projects	Political or cultural initiatives that explicitly reinforce racial hierarchies and inequalities.	Omi & Winant (2015)
Antiblack Racism, Islamophobia, Orientalism, Settler Colonialism	Forms of cultural mobilization that sustain racial inequalities by justifying exclusion and subordination.	Smith (2012); Jung (2015)
Symbolic Coercion	The process by which dominant racial ideologies are imposed on marginalized groups, shaping their perceptions.	Jung (2015)
Cultural Mobilization	The active shaping of racial discourse to legitimize racial inequality.	Bonilla-Silva (2018)
White Favoritism	The subtle ways that whites provide advantages to other whites, maintaining racial disparities without overt racism.	DiTomaso (2013)
Social Closure	The exclusion of racial minorities from resources, opportunities, and institutions.	Wimmer (2013)
Implicit Bias	Unconscious racial attitudes that affect decision-making and behavior.	Pager et al. (2009)
Structural Violence	The indirect, institutionalized harm caused by systemic racial inequalities.	Ray & Seamster (2016)

Contribution of “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution of the Article	Relevant References from the Article
Critical Race Theory (CRT)	– Expands CRT by distinguishing between four constructs of racism: individual attitudes, cultural schema, preexisting racial dominance, and structural processes that maintain dominance. – Engages with CRT’s focus on systemic racism rather than individual prejudice.	– “Sociologists use racism as an explanation for racial differences that qualify for characterization as racial inequalities, but beyond this shared trope, sociologists refer to a range of distinct phenomena.” (Shiao & Woody, 2020, p. 3) – “Without conceptions of racism as structure, sociologists lose the vocabulary for how inequality and social closure iteratively influence and constitute group experiences and life chances.” (p. 4)
Postcolonial Theory	– Contributes to postcolonial discourse by discussing how racism operates through cultural mobilization and symbolic coercion. – Extends discussions on Orientalism and Settler Colonialism as racial projects.	– “These mobilizations span the social functions associated with the century-spanning ideologies of antiblack racism, Orientalism, and settler colonialism.” (p. 8) – “Cultural racism operates as a strategy of ‘sorting out’ outsiders from insiders.” (p. 7)
Structuralism	– Offers a structuralist analysis of racism by linking it to deep schema and dominant ideologies. – Identifies racism as a system of signification that organizes social relations.	– “By culture, sociologists refer to the many kinds of schema with which humans make sense of the world, including themselves, all of which affect the social connotations of group membership.” (p. 3)
New Historicism	– Engages with historical changes in the meaning of racism over time, particularly through citation analysis of sociological discourse. – Highlights how historical and political racial projects shape contemporary understandings of race.	– “Our empirical analysis captures a critical period from Bonilla-Silva’s call for sociologists to renew their attention to racism to the establishment of a journal that provides U.S. sociologists of race with a distinctive publication outlet.” (p. 5)
Discourse Analysis	– Expands on Michel Foucault’s idea of discourse by demonstrating how racism is maintained through language, cultural schema, and social institutions. – Highlights racist discourse in media and public policy.	– “Racism as culture includes discourse, ideology, and language, shaping representations of racial groups and their social positions.” (p. 7)
Intersectionality Theory	– Highlights the absence of intersectionality in sociological studies of racism. – Identifies how different forms of dominance (racial, gender, class) intersect in structural racism.	– “The infrequent citation of female authors in all communities except Community E may be related to the scarcity of intersectionality in the analytic sample.” (p. 16)
Sociology of Literature	– Contributes to literary sociology by analyzing how racism is represented and conceptualized in scholarly writing. – Examines citation patterns and thematic shifts in sociological discussions of race.	– “The result has been a fragmentation in the discipline’s conception of racism across citation communities, each using different meanings of racism.” (p. 18)
Marxist Literary Theory	– Highlights how racism functions within economic and class structures. – Discusses racial capitalism and labor market discrimination.	– “One of the most important privileges of being white in the United States is not having to be racist in order to enjoy racial advantage.” (p. 6) – “Racial dominance includes economic power that privileges Whites in terms of job placement, advancement, wealth, and property accumulation.” (p. 9)
Feminist Theory	– Acknowledges the gendered dimensions of racism. – Discusses women’s role in far-right racist movements and normative whiteness in feminist spaces.	– “The infrequent citation of female authors may be related to the scarcity of intersectionality in the analytic sample.” (p. 16) – “Cultural dominance involves prejudice and the necessity of double consciousness.” (p. 8)

Examples of Critiques Through “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

Literary Work	Critique Using Shiao & Woody’s Framework	Key Theoretical Constructs from the Article
1. To Kill a Mockingbird (Harper Lee)	– The novel portrays racism primarily as individual prejudice (Racism1), rather than addressing structural or cultural racism (Racism3.1 & Racism3.2). – Atticus Finch’s role as a moral white savior reinforces a colorblind approach to racism, avoiding deeper structural critique. – The novel lacks an exploration of cultural schema and historical racial dominance, which shape legal and social inequalities.	– “Without conceptions of racism as structure, sociologists lose the vocabulary for how inequality and social closure iteratively influence and constitute group experiences and life chances.” (p. 4) – “This second tendency, which is also prevalent outside academia, treats racism as an ‘individual disease,’ limiting its utility for fully representing the organization of social life along racial lines.” (p. 2)
2. Heart of Darkness (Joseph Conrad)	– The novel reinforces colonial racism (Racism2) through representations of Africa and its people as the “Other”. – The absence of African voices and reliance on cultural schemas of savagery vs. civilization mirrors dominant racial ideologies. – It serves as an example of racial dominance through symbolic coercion rather than explicit racial violence.	– “These schema range from the binary oppositions that make up a given society’s fundamental tools of thought to cultural repertoires defined as the available schemas, frames, narratives, scripts, and boundaries that actors draw on in social situations.” (p. 3) – “The symbolic power to classify one group of people as ‘normal’ and other groups of people as ‘abnormal’…” (p. 9)
3. The Great Gatsby (F. Scott Fitzgerald)	– While the novel critiques class and social mobility, it ignores the role of racial dominance (Racism3.1) in maintaining inequalities. – Tom Buchanan’s fear of “the rise of the colored races” reflects racial attitudes (Racism1), but this racism is framed as an individual flaw rather than a structural force. – The erasure of Black, Indigenous, and immigrant experiences reinforces the white racial frame.	– “Racial dominance includes economic power that privileges Whites in terms of job placement, advancement, wealth, and property accumulation.” (p. 9) – “The social meanings that people impose on each other, as they make sense of, and respond to, their lived experiences.” (p. 4)
4. Beloved (Toni Morrison)	– Morrison’s novel exemplifies structural and historical racism (Racism3.1 & Racism3.2) through the legacy of slavery. – Unlike many classic works, it explicitly critiques racial dominance and the trauma of systemic oppression. – Cultural mobilization (Racism3.2) is central, as the novel illustrates how racist cultural schema sustain intergenerational trauma.	– “The legacies of historic boundary-making processes and the new forms of racial dominance that maintain inequalities of older forms.” (p. 10) – “Without conceptions of racism as culture, sociologists lose the vocabulary for the social meanings that people impose on each other.” (p. 4)

Criticism Against “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

Representative Quotations from “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody with Explanation

No.	Quotation	Explanation
1	“Racism is one of the most important words in the lexicon of contemporary sociology, and yet constructing a precise theory of racism is difficult because it is a concept that is both inflated and deflated.” (p. 1)	The authors highlight the conceptual ambiguity of racism, emphasizing how the term is both overused and underdefined, making it difficult to apply consistently across sociological discourse.
2	“Sociologists use racism to refer to four constructs: (1) individual attitudes, (2) cultural schema, and two constructs associated with structural racism: (3) preexisting consequential inequalities and (4) processes that create or maintain racial dominance.” (p. 2)	This is the core framework proposed by the authors, breaking racism into four interrelated constructs that expand beyond individual prejudice to include cultural and structural dimensions.
3	“Some researchers have argued that the wide and also inconsistent use of ‘racism’ has meant that the term now ‘weakens rather than enhances arguments concerning race’ (Wilson 1987:12).” (p. 2)	Here, the authors cite a critique by William Julius Wilson, arguing that the broad use of racism as a catch-all term may dilute its analytical power.
4	“Without conceptions of racism as structure, sociologists lose the vocabulary for how inequality and social closure iteratively influence and constitute group experiences and life chances.” (p. 5)	This statement stresses the importance of structural racism in understanding long-term racial inequalities, rejecting the idea that racism is merely personal bias or prejudice.
5	“Researchers cite publications, whether positively or negatively, that they regard as relevant to their own (Moody and Light 2006).” (p. 9)	This quotation explains their methodology, indicating that citation patterns reveal how different academic communities define and discuss racism.
6	“In contrast to the stable share of articles using any type of structure, the percentage of articles using ‘undifferentiated’ dominance nearly doubles over the 20-year period, from 17.7% (1995–1999) to 30.1% (2010–2015).” (p. 12)	The authors use quantitative evidence to demonstrate a shift in sociological focus, showing increased attention to structural racism over time.
7	“Our finding of a fragmented, if not combative, agreement on conceptualizing racism as structure also raises broader questions for the sociology of race/ethnicity.” (p. 18)	The article critiques disciplinary fragmentation, showing how different academic groups use distinct definitions of racism, which may lead to intellectual silos.
8	“Future research might examine the meaning of racism at the interface of social science and lay audiences (e.g., in college, and even K–12, textbooks).” (p. 20)	The authors argue for public sociology, suggesting that academic definitions of racism should be studied in educational and mainstream discourse.
9	“Our differentiated conception of racism implies a differentiated conception of anti-racism (i.e., practices that seek to diminish racism), in distinction from non-racist practices that only seek to avoid increasing racism.” (p. 21)	This distinction between anti-racism and non-racism is crucial: anti-racism actively fights racism, whereas non-racism merely avoids participation.
10	“An inclusive but differentiated conception of racism suggests that its persistence depends importantly on the distribution of anti-racisms that stand against it.” (p. 22)	The authors conclude that fighting racism requires multiple strategies, addressing individual, cultural, and structural aspects rather than relying on one-size-fits-all solutions.

Suggested Readings: “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

1. Shiao, Jiannbin, and Ashley Woody. “The meaning of “racism”.” Sociological Perspectives 64.4 (2021): 495-517.
2. Shiao, Jiannbin, and Ashley Woody. “The Meaning of ‘Racism.’” Sociological Perspectives, vol. 64, no. 4, 2021, pp. 495–517. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/27106050. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.
3. Johnson, Karen J. “Talking about Religion and Race in the Classroom.” Understanding and Teaching Religion in US History, edited by Karen J. Johnson and Jonathan M. Yeager, University of Wisconsin Press, 2024, pp. 35–49. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.21099724.7. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller

“Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller first appeared in The Black Scholar in 1987 (Vol. 18, Issue 1, pp. 35-39). In this article, Fuller critiques the systemic exclusion of Black writers from American literary anthologies, highlighting the mechanisms through which literary institutions, funding agencies, and editorial boards maintain racial bias. He exposes how federal agencies, such as the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities, selectively allocate funding to literary publications while disregarding Black-edited magazines, thereby marginalizing Black literature from mainstream recognition. Fuller also scrutinizes the American Literary Anthology project, which, under the guise of impartiality, upheld racial bias by appointing predominantly white “distinguished” writers as judges, ensuring the continued exclusion of Black literary voices. He argues that this exclusion is rooted in the broader assumption that European aesthetics define literary value, dismissing the rich linguistic and cultural traditions of Black literature. The article serves as a crucial critique of editorial racism, demonstrating how the systematic neglect of Black poetry and fiction in anthologies perpetuates a limited and Eurocentric literary canon. Fuller’s work remains significant in literary theory as it underscores the necessity for Black scholars, writers, and educators to challenge white-dominated literary spaces and advocate for the inclusion of Black-authored anthologies that authentically represent their cultural and artistic contributions. His call for Black agency in shaping literary discourse remains relevant in ongoing discussions about representation and diversity in publishing.

Summary of “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller

• Systemic Exclusion of Black Writers
  • Fuller argues that American literary anthologies systematically exclude Black writers and Black-edited publications, effectively erasing Black literary contributions from mainstream recognition.
  • “The list of those magazines which was released contained not one black-edited or black-oriented publication.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 35)
• Bias in Government Funding and Literary Institutions
  • The National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities, responsible for dispersing federal funds, failed to support Black literary magazines while funding white-edited “little” magazines.
  • “The response from Washington was that most of these magazines emphasized politics and civil rights, as well as literature, and therefore were ineligible for the National Foundation’s list.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 36)
• White-Controlled “Distinguished” Literary Panels
  • The American Literary Anthology project, despite being federally supported, excluded Black writers by allowing only white judges to select works, reinforcing racial bias in literary recognition.
  • “Each year, the editors of the review named a group of ‘distinguished’ writers who would assist them by passing judgment on the material appearing in the anthology. And each year, until the last year of the project’s duration, the group of ‘distinguished’ writers was all-white.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 36)
• The Tokenism of Black Representation
  • Even when Black writers were included in anthologies, it was often in a tokenistic manner, with only one or two Black authors being featured at a time.
  • “One black writer at a time is in keeping with the tradition.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 37)
• European-Centered Aesthetic Standards
  • White literary authorities dismissed Black literature as lacking aesthetic value, claiming that true literature must adhere to European artistic traditions.
  • “All the ignorance and presumptuousness with which whites seek to overwhelm and discredit black literature grow out of the conviction that the only valid aesthetic operative in the world has its roots in Europe.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 36)
• Editorial Racism in Literary Awards and Anthologies
  • Prestigious anthologies such as The O. Henry Awards and The Best American Short Stories systematically ignored Black writers and relied primarily on white-edited journals.
  • “Prize Stories 1971: The O. Henry Awards, the annual anthology edited by William Abrahams and published by Doubleday, lists 92 magazines which were ‘consulted’ in selecting the 17 stories in the collection. Of the 92 only one, Phylon, is black-edited.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 37)
• Rejection of Black Poetry Based on Racist Justifications
  • White editors and critics argued that Black poets lacked linguistic sophistication, often dismissing Black poetry as unworthy of inclusion in major literary anthologies.
  • “I am simply pointing out that blacks have been denied education and have encouraged one another to think that assertion can take the place of language in poetry.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 38)
• Call for Black Literary Independence
  • Fuller concludes that Black writers, educators, and editors must reject white-controlled anthologies and create their own literary spaces to ensure fair representation.
  • “Blacks should insist that these books be replaced by ones conceived and organized by blacks who understand that black people in America are not merely dark versions of Europeans but a proud people with a very special past and a rich future to claim.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 39)

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Relevant Quotation (Fuller, 1987)
Systemic Exclusion	The structural and institutional mechanisms that prevent Black writers from being included in literary anthologies and funding opportunities.	“The list of those magazines which was released contained not one black-edited or black-oriented publication.” (p. 35)
Tokenism	The practice of including a minimal number of Black writers to give the illusion of diversity while maintaining the dominance of white literary standards.	“One black writer at a time is in keeping with the tradition.” (p. 37)
Editorial Racism	The biases within editorial boards that shape which works are included in anthologies, often favoring white authors and dismissing Black literature.	“Each year, the editors of the review named a group of ‘distinguished’ writers… And each year, until the last year of the project’s duration, the group of ‘distinguished’ writers was all-white.” (p. 36)
Aesthetic Hegemony	The dominance of European literary standards as the only legitimate measure of literary value, dismissing Black literature as inferior.	“All the ignorance and presumptuousness with which whites seek to overwhelm and discredit black literature grow out of the conviction that the only valid aesthetic operative in the world has its roots in Europe.” (p. 36)
Cultural Gatekeeping	The control over which cultural and literary works are recognized and valued by mainstream institutions.	“Practically every editor … thinks naturally of the full orchestra, of the great tradition of poetry in English. He listens for the marvels of language in poetry.” (p. 38)
Institutional Racism	The ways in which government agencies, funding bodies, and publishing houses reinforce racial disparities in literature.	“The response from Washington was that most of these magazines emphasized politics and civil rights, as well as literature, and therefore were ineligible for the National Foundation’s list.” (p. 36)
Canon Formation	The process through which certain works and authors are deemed “worthy” of literary inclusion, often excluding Black authors.	“Prize Stories 1971: The O. Henry Awards, the annual anthology edited by William Abrahams and published by Doubleday, lists 92 magazines which were ‘consulted’… Of the 92 only one, Phylon, is black-edited.” (p. 37)
Racial Manipulation	The practice of using a small number of Black voices in institutions to dismiss accusations of racism while maintaining white control.	“If some ‘militant’ black attempts to disrupt the racist routine, then the rule is to simply counteract his troublesomeness, by elevating to prominence a more ‘conservative,’ and more manageable, black.” (p. 36)
Alternative Literary Spaces	The call for Black writers and editors to create their own publishing institutions outside of white-dominated literary spaces.	“Blacks should insist that these books be replaced by ones conceived and organized by blacks who understand that black people in America are not merely dark versions of Europeans but a proud people with a very special past and a rich future to claim.” (p. 39)

Contribution of “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Critical Race Theory (CRT) in Literature

• Fuller’s critique aligns with Critical Race Theory by demonstrating how institutional racism operates within literary anthologies and funding agencies. He shows how exclusion is not incidental but systematic.
• Reference: “The response from Washington was that most of these magazines emphasized politics and civil rights, as well as literature, and therefore were ineligible for the National Foundation’s list.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 36)
• Key Contribution: Highlights how racism is embedded in the structures that determine literary worth.

2. Canon Formation Theory

• Fuller challenges the formation of the literary canon, arguing that the process favors white authors and dismisses Black literature as inferior.
• Reference: “Prize Stories 1971: The O. Henry Awards, the annual anthology edited by William Abrahams and published by Doubleday, lists 92 magazines which were ‘consulted’… Of the 92 only one, Phylon, is black-edited.” (p. 37)
• Key Contribution: Critiques how literary “authority” is used to exclude Black writers, calling for a redefinition of the canon.

3. Postcolonial Literary Theory

• Fuller’s argument aligns with postcolonial critiques of Western literary dominance by exposing how Black literature is judged through Eurocentric standards.
• Reference: “All the ignorance and presumptuousness with which whites seek to overwhelm and discredit black literature grow out of the conviction that the only valid aesthetic operative in the world has its roots in Europe.” (p. 36)
• Key Contribution: Challenges the idea that only European literary traditions are legitimate, advocating for the recognition of Black literary traditions.

4. African American Literary Criticism

• Fuller extends the work of scholars like Henry Louis Gates Jr. by emphasizing the need for Black literary self-determination and independent publishing.
• Reference: “Blacks should insist that these books be replaced by ones conceived and organized by blacks who understand that black people in America are not merely dark versions of Europeans but a proud people with a very special past and a rich future to claim.” (p. 39)
• Key Contribution: Argues that Black literary production should not seek validation from white institutions but should instead establish independent platforms.

5. Cultural Hegemony (Gramscian Theory)

• Fuller’s analysis reflects Antonio Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony, where dominant groups control cultural production to maintain power.
• Reference: “Each year, the editors of the review named a group of ‘distinguished’ writers… And each year, until the last year of the project’s duration, the group of ‘distinguished’ writers was all-white.” (p. 36)
• Key Contribution: Demonstrates how literary institutions reinforce white cultural dominance by controlling whose voices are legitimized.

6. Reader-Response Theory

• By critiquing white editorial control over literary selection, Fuller underscores how literary meaning is shaped by editorial and institutional gatekeeping, rather than by readers alone.
• Reference: “If a minority of purchasers is displeased, well, tough; the economics of publishing do not permit sentiment.” (p. 36)
• Key Contribution: Challenges the idea that literary works are selected based purely on merit, arguing instead that institutional biases shape what readers consume.

7. Black Aesthetic Theory

• Fuller aligns with Black Aesthetic Theory, which argues for the creation of art and literature that reflects Black experiences and rejects white standards of artistic value.
• Reference: “The posture of the Hills is the generally prevailing one among those whites in a position to decide whether black writing qualifies as literature.” (p. 38)
• Key Contribution: Calls for Black communities to define their own literary standards rather than conforming to white aesthetics.

Examples of Critiques Through “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller

Literary Work & Author/Editor	Critique Through Fuller’s Argument	Supporting Quotation (Fuller, 1987)
Prize Stories 1971: The O. Henry Awards – Edited by William Abrahams	The anthology ignored Black literary contributions by consulting 92 magazines, of which only one was Black-edited. Black representation was minimal and tokenistic.	“Prize Stories 1971: The O. Henry Awards, the annual anthology edited by William Abrahams and published by Doubleday, lists 92 magazines which were ‘consulted’ in selecting the 17 stories in the collection. Of the 92 only one, Phylon, is black-edited.” (p. 37)
The Best American Short Stories (1971) – Edited by Martha Foley	The anthology included only two Black-edited journals out of 128 consulted, reinforcing the exclusion of Black voices. A single Black writer (Hal Bennett) was featured, continuing the tradition of token representation.	“Miss Foley, like Mr. Abrahams, had selected a token black writer and story, Hal Bennett and his ‘Dotson Gerber Resurrected,’ which also, coincidentally, appeared in Playboy.” (p. 37)
How We Live (1978) – Edited by Rust Hills & Penny Chapin Hills	The editors explicitly dismissed Black literary excellence, claiming only two “first-rate” Black writers (Ralph Ellison & James Baldwin) existed. Additionally, they included white and Jewish writers in a section meant to represent Black life.	“Only two first-rate Negro writers can be named—Ralph Ellison and James Baldwin—and the ranks behind them are almost empty.” (p. 37)
Anthologies of American Poetry – Various Editors (Selden Rodman cited)	Black poetry was systematically excluded based on racist aesthetic judgments, with editors claiming that Black poets lacked linguistic sophistication and artistic mastery.	“Until recently there hasn’t been any Afro-American verse that was more than just that—verse.” (p. 38)

Criticism Against “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller

• Lack of Engagement with Counterarguments
  • Fuller strongly critiques white editors and institutions but does not fully address potential counterarguments from within these institutions or acknowledge efforts made (however minimal) to include Black voices.
  • Critics might argue that while exclusion was prevalent, some editors were actively trying to include Black writers, albeit in limited ways.
• Overgeneralization of White Editorial Bias
  • Fuller paints most white editors and institutions as deliberately racist and exclusionary without fully considering nuances—such as market demands, editorial constraints, or unconscious biases.
  • His assertion that white editors universally adhere to European aesthetics could be seen as too broad a claim, ignoring potential instances of genuine openness to diverse literature.
• Limited Discussion of Class and Economic Factors
  • The article focuses heavily on race but does not sufficiently explore economic and class dynamics that may have also contributed to the exclusion of Black writers from literary anthologies.
  • Small literary magazines often struggled financially, and selection biases may have also been shaped by commercial viability rather than outright racism.
• Neglect of Internal Divisions within Black Literature
  • Fuller advocates for Black-led literary spaces but does not critically engage with divisions within the Black literary community (e.g., debates between political vs. artistic writing, urban vs. rural Black voices, etc.).
  • Some critics might argue that his solution—Black-edited anthologies—does not inherently guarantee fair representation of all Black literary voices.
• Emphasis on Government Responsibility Over Independent Action
  • Fuller’s focus on government funding and institutional support might be seen as overly dependent on state mechanisms rather than advocating for more grassroots, community-led literary initiatives.
  • While he later encourages Black self-publishing, his initial arguments center around government neglect, which some might see as an overreliance on federal solutions.
• Aesthetic vs. Political Debate
  • His claim that Black literature is dismissed due to European aesthetic dominance does not fully engage with the broader artistic debate—some editors may have excluded works not due to racism, but due to differing literary tastes and styles.
  • This raises the question: should all literature be judged purely based on racial representation, or should editorial judgment also consider artistic merit, regardless of race?

Representative Quotations from “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The list of those magazines which was released contained not one black-edited or black-oriented publication.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 35)	Fuller exposes the systemic exclusion of Black literary publications from anthologies and funding opportunities, highlighting racial bias in institutional decision-making.
“Each year, the editors of the review named a group of ‘distinguished’ writers who would assist them by passing judgment on the material appearing in the anthology. And each year, until the last year of the project’s duration, the group of ‘distinguished’ writers was all-white.” (p. 36)	This statement critiques the lack of Black judges in the selection process of literary anthologies, reinforcing how white-controlled institutions maintain exclusion.
“One black writer at a time is in keeping with the tradition.” (p. 37)	Fuller criticizes tokenism in literary anthologies, arguing that white editors include only a single Black writer to avoid accusations of racism while maintaining white dominance.
“All the ignorance and presumptuousness with which whites seek to overwhelm and discredit black literature grow out of the conviction that the only valid aesthetic operative in the world has its roots in Europe.” (p. 36)	He challenges Eurocentric literary standards that dismiss Black literature as illegitimate or inferior, advocating for recognition of Black artistic traditions.
“The response from Washington was that most of these magazines emphasized politics and civil rights, as well as literature, and therefore were ineligible for the National Foundation’s list.” (p. 36)	This quote highlights how Black literary magazines were excluded under the pretext of being “too political,” revealing how institutions marginalized Black voices by setting arbitrary restrictions.
“Prize Stories 1971: The O. Henry Awards, the annual anthology edited by William Abrahams and published by Doubleday, lists 92 magazines which were ‘consulted’ in selecting the 17 stories in the collection. Of the 92 only one, Phylon, is black-edited.” (p. 37)	Fuller critiques the lack of diversity in literary awards and anthologies, showing how Black writers are systematically left out of major literary recognition.
“Only two first-rate Negro writers can be named—Ralph Ellison and James Baldwin—and the ranks behind them are almost empty.” (p. 37)	He exposes the racist perception that only a select few Black authors are worthy of literary recognition, dismissing the contributions of countless Black writers.
“Until recently there hasn’t been any Afro-American verse that was more than just that—verse.” (p. 38)	This statement criticizes the literary establishment’s claim that Black poetry lacks artistic depth, reinforcing how Black creative expression has been undervalued.
“Blacks should insist that these books be replaced by ones conceived and organized by blacks who understand that black people in America are not merely dark versions of Europeans but a proud people with a very special past and a rich future to claim.” (p. 39)	Fuller advocates for Black self-determination in literature, calling for independent Black publishing and educational resources that honor Black cultural identity.
“If a minority of purchasers is displeased, well, tough; the economics of publishing do not permit sentiment.” (p. 36)	This quote reveals the profit-driven motives of the publishing industry, which prioritizes white readership and ignores demands for more inclusive literary representation.

Suggested Readings: “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller

1. Fuller, Hoyt. “RACISM IN LITERARY ANTHOLOGIES.” The Black Scholar, vol. 18, no. 1, 1987, pp. 35–39. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41068175. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.
2. ruby, jennie. “Racism in Literature.” Off Our Backs, vol. 18, no. 8, 1988, pp. 19–19. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25796514. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.
3. Bowser, Benjamin P. “Racism: Origin and Theory.” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 48, no. 6, 2017, pp. 572–90. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44631325. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.
4. Fields, Barbara J. “Whiteness, Racism, and Identity.” International Labor and Working-Class History, no. 60, 2001, pp. 48–56. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27672735. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Christ’s Nativity” by Henry Vaughan

“Christ’s Nativity” by Henry Vaughan first appeared in Silex Scintillans (1650), a collection of deeply spiritual and metaphysical poetry reflecting Vaughan’s religious devotion and mysticism. The poem celebrates the birth of Christ with joyous and reverent imagery, portraying nature as responding to the miracle of the Nativity. Vaughan uses vibrant metaphors, comparing Christ’s arrival to the dawn (“The Sun doth shake / Light from his locks”), emphasizing divine illumination. The poem’s popularity stems from its heartfelt combination of praise, personal longing, and penitence. The speaker initially calls for joyful worship (“Awake, glad heart! get up and sing!”), but then shifts to an introspective tone, expressing a desire to be pure enough to receive Christ (“I would I had in my best part / Fit rooms for thee!”). The final stanza invokes Christ’s cleansing power, reflecting a key Christian theme of redemption (“Yet, if thou wilt, thou canst make clean”). This blend of jubilation and humility, characteristic of Vaughan’s style, continues to resonate with readers drawn to its lyrical celebration of Christ’s transformative presence.

Text: “Christ’s Nativity” by Henry Vaughan

Annotations: “Christ’s Nativity” by Henry Vaughan

Line	Simple Explanation
Awake, glad heart! get up and sing!	The poet tells his heart to wake up and rejoice.
It is the birth-day of thy King.	It is the day Christ was born, a time for celebration.
Awake! awake!	A repeated call to wake up and be joyful.
The Sun doth shake	The sun is moving or shining brightly.
Light from his locks, and all the way	The sun’s rays are compared to hair, shining and spreading light.
Breathing perfumes, doth spice the day.	The sun’s warmth fills the air with a sweet scent.
Awake, awake! hark how th’ wood rings;	Listen to how the forest echoes with sounds of celebration.
Winds whisper, and the busy springs	The wind and streams create a soft, musical sound.
A concert make;	Nature itself forms a beautiful melody.
Awake! awake!	Another call to wake up and rejoice.
Man is their high-priest, and should rise	Humans, as God’s creation, should wake up and worship Him.
To offer up the sacrifice.	People should offer their devotion to God, like a religious sacrifice.
I would I were some bird, or star,	The poet wishes he could be a bird or a star.
Flutt’ring in woods, or lifted far	Flying freely in the forest or shining high in the sky.
Above this inn	Above the earthly world, which he compares to a temporary shelter.
And road of sin!	The world is full of sin, and he wishes to rise above it.
Then either star or bird should be	If he were a star or bird, he would always worship God.
Shining or singing still to thee.	He would always shine or sing in praise of God.
I would I had in my best part	He wishes he had the best place in his heart for Christ.
Fit rooms for thee! or that my heart	He wants his heart to be as pure as a special room for Christ.
Were so clean as	He wishes his heart were as clean as…
Thy manger was!	…the manger where Christ was born.
But I am all filth, and obscene;	He acknowledges his own sinfulness and impurity.
Yet, if thou wilt, thou canst make clean.	He believes that Christ can cleanse his soul.
Sweet Jesu! will then. Let no more	He pleads with Jesus to purify him.
This leper haunt and soil thy door!	He compares himself to a leper (a diseased sinner) who defiles Christ’s presence.
Cure him, ease him,	He asks Christ to heal and comfort him.
O release him!	He wants to be freed from sin.
And let once more, by mystic birth,	He prays for Christ to be born again in a spiritual way.
The Lord of life be born in earth.	He asks for Christ’s presence to be renewed in the world.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Christ’s Nativity” by Henry Vaughan

Device	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Allusion	“Man is their high-priest, and should rise / To offer up the sacrifice.”	These references religious sacrifices in Christianity, particularly Christ as the ultimate sacrifice.
Anaphora	“Awake! awake!” (repeated in multiple stanzas)	The repetition of “Awake!” at the beginning of lines emphasizes urgency and excitement.
Apostrophe	“Sweet Jesu! will then.”	The speaker directly addresses Jesus, a divine being, as if speaking to him.
Assonance	“Flutt’ring in woods, or lifted far”	The repetition of the “i” sound in flutt’ring, lifted, and in creates musicality.
Caesura	“Cure him, ease him, O release him!”	A pause (caesura) in the middle of the line for dramatic effect.
Consonance	“This leper haunt and soil thy door!”	The repetition of the “t” and “r” sounds in leper, haunt, and door creates a harmonious effect.
Enjambment	“The Sun doth shake / Light from his locks”	The sentence flows beyond one line without punctuation, creating continuity and movement.
Epistrophe	“Awake! awake!” (repeated at line ends)	The repetition of Awake! at the end of lines reinforces the theme of renewal.
Hyperbole	“The Sun doth shake / Light from his locks”	The image of the sun shaking light from its hair exaggerates its brilliance.
Imagery	“Breathing perfumes, doth spice the day.”	Sensory details evoke the scent of the air, enriching the reader’s experience.
Irony	“But I am all filth, and obscene; / Yet, if thou wilt, thou canst make clean.”	The speaker acknowledges his impurity but expresses faith that Christ can purify him, an ironic contrast.
Metaphor	“Above this inn / And road of sin!”	The world is compared to an “inn” and “road of sin,” symbolizing its temporary and sinful nature.
Paradox	“The Lord of life be born in earth.”	The eternal Lord paradoxically takes on a mortal birth.
Personification	“The Sun doth shake / Light from his locks”	The sun is given human attributes, as if shaking light from its hair.
Refrain	“Awake! awake!” (repeated multiple times)	The repeated phrase reinforces the theme of awakening to Christ’s birth.
Rhetorical Question	“Let no more / This leper haunt and soil thy door!”	The question, though not explicitly stated, suggests a plea for purification.
Simile	“Were so clean as / Thy manger was!”	The speaker compares his heart to Christ’s manger, wishing for purity.
Symbolism	“Flutt’ring in woods, or lifted far / Above this inn and road of sin!”	The bird and star symbolize freedom and purity, contrasting earthly sin.
Synecdoche	“My best part”	“Best part” represents the speaker’s soul or heart, a part standing for the whole.

Themes: “Christ’s Nativity” by Henry Vaughan

• Spiritual Awakening and Rebirth: Henry Vaughan’s poem “Christ’s Nativity” emphasizes the theme of spiritual awakening and rebirth, urging both the speaker and the reader to rise and rejoice in the birth of Christ. The poem repeatedly calls for awakening, as seen in the refrain, “Awake! awake!”, which conveys a sense of urgency and excitement. The speaker implores the heart to “get up and sing!” as if the birth of Christ demands not just recognition but an active, joyful response. This awakening is not merely physical but deeply spiritual, urging humanity to acknowledge the significance of Christ’s arrival. The reference to “Man is their high-priest, and should rise / To offer up the sacrifice.” further underscores the idea that humankind has a responsibility to worship and honor the divine. Vaughan’s use of vibrant imagery, such as “The Sun doth shake / Light from his locks”, enhances the theme by depicting the entire world as responding to Christ’s birth with illumination and renewal.
• The Contrast Between Sin and Purity: In “Christ’s Nativity”, Vaughan explores the stark contrast between sin and purity, reflecting on the speaker’s unworthiness in comparison to Christ’s holiness. The speaker longs for a state of purity, lamenting, “But I am all filth, and obscene; / Yet, if thou wilt, thou canst make clean.” This admission of sinfulness is contrasted with the image of Christ’s humble yet spotless birth in a manger: “Fit rooms for thee! or that my heart / Were so clean as / Thy manger was!” Here, Vaughan uses the manger as a symbol of simplicity and divine purity, contrasting it with the speaker’s impure soul. This juxtaposition highlights a core Christian belief—that humanity is inherently sinful but can be purified through Christ. The plea for redemption, “Cure him, ease him, / O release him!”, reinforces the idea that salvation is possible only through divine grace, emphasizing the transformative power of Christ’s presence.
• The Majesty and Wonder of Christ’s Birth: Vaughan’s poem “Christ’s Nativity” celebrates the majesty and wonder of Christ’s birth, portraying it as an event that transforms the entire world. The natural elements—sun, wind, and water—are depicted as rejoicing in Christ’s coming, as in, “The Sun doth shake / Light from his locks, and all the way / Breathing perfumes, doth spice the day.” This personification of nature underscores the cosmic significance of the Nativity, suggesting that even the physical world acknowledges Christ’s divine presence. The line “Winds whisper, and the busy springs / A concert make;” further enhances the theme, presenting nature as participating in a grand, harmonious celebration. Vaughan’s imagery evokes a sense of divine orchestration, reinforcing the idea that Christ’s birth is not just a human event but a celestial and universal one, inspiring all of creation to praise Him.
• Longing for a Closer Connection with the Divine: Throughout “Christ’s Nativity”, Vaughan expresses a deep longing for a closer connection with Christ, using metaphors of flight and elevation to depict spiritual yearning. The speaker wishes to be a bird or a star, stating, “I would I were some bird, or star, / Flutt’ring in woods, or lifted far / Above this inn / And road of sin!” This desire to escape the burdens of earthly existence and be closer to God reflects a common theme in Christian poetry—aspiring to transcend worldly struggles in favor of divine communion. The contrast between the “inn and road of sin” and the freedom of the bird or star suggests that earthly life is weighed down by sin, while spiritual elevation brings one closer to God. By expressing this yearning, Vaughan not only conveys his own devotion but also invites the reader to seek a similar closeness with Christ, reinforcing the poem’s overarching message of redemption and faith.

Literary Theories and “Christ’s Nativity” by Henry Vaughan

Literary Theory	Application to “Christ’s Nativity”	References from the Poem
Formalism	A Formalistic approach analyzes the poem’s structure, language, and poetic devices. Vaughan’s use of alliteration, repetition, personification, and imagery contributes to the musical and evocative quality of the poem. The metrical rhythm and refrain (“Awake! awake!”) emphasize the theme of spiritual awakening. The use of enjambment and caesura enhances the poem’s lyrical flow.	“The Sun doth shake / Light from his locks, and all the way / Breathing perfumes, doth spice the day.” (personification, imagery)
Christian Allegory / Religious Criticism	Vaughan’s poem can be read through a Christian allegorical lens, where the Nativity symbolizes redemption, purification, and divine grace. The poem presents the contrast between sin and purity, reflecting the Christian belief in salvation through Christ. The speaker acknowledges human sinfulness but expresses hope in Christ’s power to cleanse and redeem.	“But I am all filth, and obscene; / Yet, if thou wilt, thou canst make clean.” (redemption, purification)
Romanticism / Nature Criticism	Vaughan’s depiction of nature as a living entity responding to Christ’s birth aligns with Romantic themes. The poem presents nature as an active participant in divine events, celebrating Christ’s arrival through imagery of the sun, wind, and springs. This reflects Vaughan’s mystical and deeply spiritual view of nature as an extension of divine creation.	“Winds whisper, and the busy springs / A concert make;” (nature as a spiritual force)
Psychoanalytic Criticism	From a psychoanalytic perspective, the poem reflects inner conflict and longing for spiritual purity. The speaker expresses a desire to escape sin and attain divine closeness, which can be interpreted as the struggle between the id (earthly desires) and the superego (spiritual aspirations). The repeated pleas for cleansing suggest a deep subconscious yearning for transformation and redemption.	“I would I were some bird, or star, / Flutt’ring in woods, or lifted far / Above this inn / And road of sin!” (longing for transcendence)

Critical Questions about “Christ’s Nativity” by Henry Vaughan

• How does Vaughan use imagery to emphasize the divine significance of Christ’s birth?
• Henry Vaughan employs vivid natural imagery to emphasize the divine significance of Christ’s birth, portraying the entire universe as responding joyfully to the Nativity. The personification of the sun in “The Sun doth shake / Light from his locks, and all the way / Breathing perfumes, doth spice the day.” suggests that even celestial bodies celebrate the arrival of Christ. The reference to “Winds whisper, and the busy springs / A concert make;” further reinforces this idea, illustrating nature as an active participant in divine worship. By using sensory details of light, sound, and fragrance, Vaughan elevates Christ’s birth beyond a historical event, portraying it as a cosmic transformation that affects all of creation. This approach aligns with Christian theology, which views Christ’s arrival as an event of universal significance, bringing light to a darkened world. Vaughan’s imagery not only beautifies the poem but also underscores the spiritual joy and renewal associated with the Nativity.
• What role does the theme of sin and purification play in the poem?
• The theme of sin and purification is central to “Christ’s Nativity,” as the speaker reflects on his own unworthiness in contrast to Christ’s divine purity. Vaughan presents a clear contrast between the holy and the sinful, as seen in “But I am all filth, and obscene; / Yet, if thou wilt, thou canst make clean.” Here, the speaker acknowledges human depravity but expresses faith that Christ has the power to cleanse and redeem. This sentiment is reinforced by the plea: “Cure him, ease him, / O release him!”, which echoes traditional Christian prayers for forgiveness. The image of Christ’s manger as a pure and holy space contrasts with the speaker’s impure heart: “Fit rooms for thee! or that my heart / Were so clean as / Thy manger was!”. This comparison implies that spiritual cleansing is necessary for Christ to dwell within a person’s heart. Vaughan presents salvation as both a divine gift and a personal longing, reinforcing the Christian belief that true purity comes only through Christ’s grace.
• How does Vaughan use repetition and structure to reinforce the poem’s central message?
• Vaughan’s use of repetition and structure in “Christ’s Nativity” reinforces the poem’s themes of spiritual awakening and devotion. The repeated command “Awake! awake!” serves as both a call to action and a spiritual imperative, urging the reader to recognize and celebrate the significance of Christ’s birth. The repetition mirrors the joyful urgency of the Nativity, as if the entire world must respond instantly. Additionally, the balanced structure of the poem, with its regular rhyme scheme and rhythmic lines, contributes to a sense of order and harmony, reflecting the divine order Christ’s birth brings to the world. The refrain-like quality of certain phrases, such as “Awake, awake!” and “Cure him, ease him, / O release him!”, creates a musical, prayer-like effect, emphasizing the poem’s role as an act of worship and supplication. Vaughan’s structural choices thus ensure that the reader is not merely observing but actively engaging in the poem’s spiritual message.
• In what ways does the poem express a longing for spiritual transcendence?
• Vaughan expresses a deep longing for spiritual transcendence in “Christ’s Nativity,” particularly through metaphors of flight and elevation. The speaker expresses a desire to escape the sinful world, stating, “I would I were some bird, or star, / Flutt’ring in woods, or lifted far / Above this inn / And road of sin!”. Here, the bird and star symbolize spiritual ascension, contrasting with the earthly “inn and road of sin”, which represent human mortality and corruption. The speaker wishes to exist in a state of perpetual worship, as seen in “Then either star or bird should be / Shining or singing still to thee.”. This suggests a longing for constant devotion, where the speaker is no longer weighed down by earthly struggles. Vaughan conveys the idea that true fulfillment is found not in the material world but in spiritual unity with Christ. This theme aligns with Christian mysticism, which often emphasizes the soul’s yearning to escape earthly constraints and find divine peace.

Literary Works Similar to “Christ’s Nativity” by Henry Vaughan

1. “On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity” by John Milton – This poem, like Vaughan’s, celebrates Christ’s birth using grand, celestial imagery and explores the cosmic significance of the Nativity.
2. “A Hymn on the Nativity” by Richard Crashaw – Similar to Vaughan’s poem, this work expresses reverence for Christ’s humble birth and contrasts divine purity with human sinfulness.
3. “Christmas” by George Herbert – This poem, like “Christ’s Nativity,” reflects on the personal and spiritual transformation that Christ’s birth brings to humanity.

Representative Quotations of “Christ’s Nativity” by Henry Vaughan

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Awake, glad heart! get up and sing! / It is the birth-day of thy King.”	The speaker calls for spiritual awakening and joy in response to Christ’s birth.	Religious Criticism – The poem aligns with Christian devotional poetry, encouraging worship and celebration of the Nativity.
“The Sun doth shake / Light from his locks, and all the way / Breathing perfumes, doth spice the day.”	The sun is personified as rejoicing in Christ’s birth, spreading light and fragrance.	Romanticism / Nature Criticism – Nature actively participates in divine events, a common theme in religious Romantic poetry.
“Winds whisper, and the busy springs / A concert make.”	Nature is described as celebrating the Nativity, producing music in harmony with Christ’s arrival.	Formalism – The musical quality of the line reinforces the poem’s theme of divine joy through poetic structure.
“Man is their high-priest, and should rise / To offer up the sacrifice.”	Humanity is depicted as responsible for recognizing and worshiping the divine.	Christian Allegory – The speaker reinforces humanity’s spiritual duty to Christ, drawing from Biblical priestly imagery.
“I would I were some bird, or star, / Flutt’ring in woods, or lifted far / Above this inn / And road of sin!”	The speaker expresses a desire to transcend earthly sin and be closer to God.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – This longing reflects an inner conflict between earthly existence (id) and spiritual aspiration (superego).
“Then either star or bird should be / Shining or singing still to thee.”	The speaker wishes for a constant state of worship, uninterrupted by sin.	Religious Mysticism – The poem conveys a desire for perpetual divine praise, emphasizing spiritual devotion.
“But I am all filth, and obscene; / Yet, if thou wilt, thou canst make clean.”	The speaker acknowledges human sinfulness but expresses faith in Christ’s power to cleanse.	Christian Redemption Theology – Reflects the belief in salvation through Christ, reinforcing the contrast between sin and divine grace.
“Fit rooms for thee! or that my heart / Were so clean as / Thy manger was!”	The speaker contrasts the purity of Christ’s manger with his own sinful heart.	Symbolism – The manger symbolizes purity, reinforcing the poem’s theme of spiritual cleansing.
“Cure him, ease him, / O release him!”	A desperate plea for divine healing and release from sin.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – The plea suggests a deep psychological need for redemption and freedom from guilt.
“And let once more, by mystic birth, / The Lord of life be born in earth.”	The speaker prays for Christ to be spiritually reborn in the world.	Mysticism & Spiritual Renewal – Suggests that Christ’s birth is not just a historical event but an ongoing spiritual reality.

Suggested Readings: “Christ’s Nativity” by Henry Vaughan

1. Taylor, Jeremy. “Jeremy Taylor and Henry Vaughan: The Stock of Nature and Art.” Gifts and Graces: Prayer, Poetry, and Polemic from Lancelot Andrewes to John Bunyan (2021): 49.
2. Kermode, Frank. “The Private Imagery of Henry Vaughan.” The Review of English Studies, vol. 1, no. 3, 1950, pp. 206–25. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/510360. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
3. Clough, Wilson O. “Henry Vaughan and the Hermetic Philosophy.” PMLA, vol. 48, no. 4, 1933, pp. 1108–30. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/458199. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
4. Underwood, Horace H. “Time and Space in the Poetry of Vaughan.” Studies in Philology, vol. 69, no. 2, 1972, pp. 231–41. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4173761. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
5. Durr, Robert Allen. “Vaughan’s Theme and Its Pattern: ‘Regeneration.’” Studies in Philology, vol. 54, no. 1, 1957, pp. 14–28. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4173187. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Racism and “Universality” in Literature” by Sue Gambill

“Racism and “Universality” in Literature” by Sue Gambill first appeared in Women’s Studies Quarterly, Vol. 9, No. 3, in the Fall of 1981. Published by the Feminist Press at the City University of New York, this article critically examines how racism operates within literary traditions, particularly through the assumption that whiteness represents a universal human experience while other racial identities are treated as deviations. Gambill argues that the literary canon, often shaped by white male perspectives, imposes a false standard of “universality” that excludes the experiences of Black writers and other marginalized voices. Drawing from Robert E. Hemenway’s biography of Zora Neale Hurston, she highlights how even accomplished Black authors like Gwendolyn Brooks have been pressured to transcend race in their writing to be considered truly “universal.” Gambill critiques this standard, pointing out that white writers are seldom required to address their racial identity, whereas writers of color are expected to either erase their cultural identity or be relegated to a niche audience. The article also connects this issue to feminist literary criticism, emphasizing how women writers face similar dismissals when their work is labeled as trivial or overly personal. Gambill challenges white feminists to recognize and dismantle the racial biases embedded in literary criticism, urging for a more inclusive understanding of universality—one that embraces diverse cultural perspectives rather than reinforcing the dominance of whiteness. This analysis remains significant in contemporary literary theory, as it underscores the ongoing struggle for racial and gender equity in the representation and valuation of literature.

Summary of “Racism and “Universality” in Literature” by Sue Gambill

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racism and “Universality” in Literature” by Sue Gambill

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Application in the Article	Reference (Gambill, 1981, p. 3)
Universality in Literature	The idea that certain themes, experiences, and perspectives are universally applicable to all people.	Gambill critiques how universality is often equated with white male experiences, excluding the perspectives of marginalized groups.	“The ‘universal experience’ is a myth that perpetuates white male-centered standards, experiences, and culture.”
Passive Racism	Subtle or unspoken racial bias that reinforces dominant cultural norms and marginalizes non-white perspectives.	Gambill demonstrates this through a literary example where only the Black character is identified by race, while white characters are assumed to be the default.	“This is a kind of racism that is difficult to expose because it is passive. There are no obvious racial slurs.”
Whiteness as Default	The assumption that white identity is the norm and does not need to be explicitly acknowledged.	Gambill argues that literature often portrays white characters without racial markers, reinforcing whiteness as the standard.	“The white narrator goes through her environment, looking out of white eyes. Other characters are not identified as white because the narrator assumes that everyone sees with white eyes.”
Racial Othering	The process of defining non-white individuals as different, separate, or outside the norm.	She critiques how Black characters in literature are often marked as “other,” emphasizing their racial identity while white characters remain racially unmarked.	“When the Black man appears, he is set apart, different, labeled as ‘other.'”
Double Standard in Literary Criticism	The unequal treatment of writers based on their racial or gender identity, particularly in defining what constitutes great literature.	Gambill highlights how Black authors, such as Gwendolyn Brooks, are expected to avoid racial themes to be seen as “universal,” a demand not placed on white writers.	“Even such a brilliant poet as Gwendolyn Brooks has been advised that if ‘being a Negro’ is her subject, then she is somehow prevented from creating great literature.”
Myth of the Melting Pot	The idea that cultural diversity should be assimilated into a singular, dominant cultural norm.	Gambill critiques the way the concept of universality functions like the melting pot myth, erasing cultural differences instead of celebrating them.	“The myth, like the melting pot myth, nullifies rich cultural diversity.”
Feminist Literary Criticism	A theoretical approach that examines how literature reinforces or challenges gender-based inequalities.	Gambill connects racism in literature to sexism, arguing that just as women’s writing is dismissed as trivial, Black writing is often marginalized as non-universal.	“Women writers know what it’s like to be criticized for being trivial, not ‘universal’ or ‘humanist.'”

Contribution of “Racism and “Universality” in Literature” by Sue Gambill to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Racism and “Universality” in Literature” by Sue Gambill

Literary Work	Critique Based on Gambill’s Argument	Key Concept from Gambill (1981, p. 3)
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee	The novel is often celebrated for its anti-racist message, but it reinforces white saviorism by centering Atticus Finch as the moral authority while reducing Tom Robinson to a passive victim. The narrative perspective assumes whiteness as the universal moral standard.	“Other characters are not identified as white because the narrator assumes that everyone sees with white eyes, and is the same.”
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	The depiction of Africa as a place of darkness and savagery, with Black characters largely silent or dehumanized, exemplifies how literature often frames whiteness as the default and the “Other” as inferior or exotic.	“When the Black man appears, he is set apart, different, labeled as ‘other.'”
Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell	The novel romanticizes the antebellum South and presents enslaved Black characters as content and devoted, reinforcing racist tropes. It upholds the idea that white experiences define historical universality.	“The ‘universal experience’ is a myth that perpetuates white male-centered standards, experiences, and culture.”
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain	While often seen as a critique of racism, the novel still places Jim, a Black man, in a subservient role to Huck, a white boy. Jim’s lack of agency reinforces the notion that Black characters exist primarily in relation to white protagonists.	“Even such a brilliant poet as Gwendolyn Brooks has been advised that if ‘being a Negro’ is her subject, then she is somehow prevented from creating great literature.”

Criticism Against “Racism and “Universality” in Literature” by Sue Gambill

Representative Quotations from “Racism and “Universality” in Literature” by Sue Gambill with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “The ‘universal experience’ is a myth that perpetuates white male-centered standards, experiences, and culture.”	Gambill argues that what is often considered “universal” in literature is actually centered on white male perspectives, which exclude diverse cultural narratives.
2. “Even such a brilliant poet as Gwendolyn Brooks has been advised that if ‘being a Negro’ is her subject, then she is somehow prevented from creating great literature.”	This quote highlights the racial bias in literary criticism, where Black writers are discouraged from writing about their own identity and are expected to “transcend race” to be considered great.
3. “Does the reader ask what racial or ethnic group the other characters belong to, or why only the Black man is identified racially?”	Gambill critiques how literature often assumes whiteness as the default identity, making non-white characters stand out as “other.”
4. “This is a kind of racism that is difficult to expose because it is passive. There are no obvious racial slurs.”	She identifies passive racism in literature, which operates through implicit biases and assumptions rather than overtly racist language.
5. “Women writers know what it’s like to be criticized for being trivial, not ‘universal’ or ‘humanist.'”	Gambill draws a parallel between racism and sexism in literature, showing how both women and Black writers are dismissed as lacking universal appeal.
6. “The myth, like the melting pot myth, nullifies rich cultural diversity.”	She critiques the idea of assimilation in literature, arguing that true universality should embrace cultural differences rather than erase them.
7. “The white narrator goes through her environment, looking out of white eyes.”	Gambill emphasizes how literary perspectives are often shaped by whiteness, making it difficult for other racial experiences to be recognized.
8. “To write and teach literature without a critical perspective in this respect is a form of racism.”	She calls for a more inclusive approach to literary criticism that actively challenges racial biases rather than passively accepting them.
9. “Whiteness carries no racial identity in literature, while Blackness must be named.”	This quote critiques how whiteness is seen as neutral or invisible, while other racial identities are marked and treated as deviations.
10. “How often do we fight sexism with our left hand and perpetuate racism with our right?”	Gambill challenges white feminists to recognize their own racial biases and avoid reproducing racial exclusion in feminist discourse.

Suggested Readings: “Racism and “Universality” in Literature” by Sue Gambill

1. Gambill, Sue. “Racism and” Universality” in Literature.” (1981).
2. CORLETT, J. ANGELO. “What Is Racism?” Race, Racism, and Reparations, Cornell University Press, 2003, pp. 62–93. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctv3s8pkg.8. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
3. Corlett, J. Angelo. “Analyzing Racism.” Public Affairs Quarterly, vol. 12, no. 1, 1998, pp. 23–50. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40436005. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
4. Colarusso, Dana M. “Rhyme and Reason: Shakespeare’s Exceptional Status and Role in Canadian Education.” Shakespeare and Canada: Remembrance of Ourselves, edited by Irena R. Makaryk and Kathryn Prince, University of Ottawa Press, 2017, pp. 215–40. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1n2tv7r.16. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez

“Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez first appeared in The English Journal, Vol. 58, No. 1, in January 1969. Published by the National Council of Teachers of English and accessible through JSTOR, this article explores how literature serves as a means of fostering empathy and deeper understanding of the African American experience. Arnez argues that while direct personal experience is the most authentic way to grasp racial realities, literature provides the next best alternative by allowing readers to vicariously experience the struggles, aspirations, and cultural expressions of Black Americans. Drawing from works by James Baldwin, Langston Hughes, Richard Wright, and Malcolm X, the article illustrates how literature reveals the social injustices, economic hardships, and systemic discrimination faced by African Americans, while also showcasing their resilience and humanity. Arnez emphasizes that literature is not just a tool for aesthetic appreciation but a vital means of social education, capable of dismantling prejudices by presenting authentic voices and lived experiences. By highlighting shared human emotions—pain, ambition, love, and struggle—literature fosters racial empathy and challenges stereotypes, making it an essential bridge for communication between Black and non-Black communities. In literary theory, this perspective underscores the power of literature as a cultural and sociological artifact, one that shapes and reshapes societal perceptions of race and identity. Arnez’s work remains an important contribution to discussions on race, literature, and education, advocating for a more inclusive and socially conscious literary curriculum.

Summary of “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Quotation from the Article & Explanation
Vicarious Experience	The process of experiencing something indirectly through another’s perspective.	“We seek to approximate the Negro’s experiences as closely as we can by use of literature (novels, short stories, biographies, autobiographies, diaries, poetry, and drama), in which the author has expressed himself in such a way that we can identify with him and live the experiences, albeit vicariously.” Literature allows readers to immerse themselves in the lived realities of Black individuals.
Ethos of a Culture	The characteristic spirit, beliefs, and values of a community or social group.	“The approach here is to view each piece of literature in relation to understanding the ethos of the Negro and in so doing minimize his complexities by bringing his similarities and differences to the general consciousness.” Literature helps readers understand the cultural identity of Black Americans beyond stereotypes.
Empathy through Literature	The ability to understand and share the feelings of another through literary engagement.	“Thus, the Negro is no longer invisible but stands visibly etched upon each reader’s pupils. His half-blindness is dispelled, his dark glasses removed, and he is no longer a lyncher of souls.” Literature fosters empathy by making Black experiences visible and tangible to readers.
Social Consciousness	Awareness of societal structures and inequalities.	“We use this mass of descriptive material about how things are and why to fashion and mold a saner approach to how life must become for universal survival.” Literature raises awareness about racial injustices and encourages critical thinking.
Cultural Representation	The depiction of a group’s identity, experiences, and heritage in literature and media.	“Reading literature written by Negroes is in an important sense one of the best bridges of communication between the Negro and the non-Negro.” Literature provides an authentic portrayal of Black lives, fostering cross-cultural understanding.
Systemic Discrimination	Discrimination embedded in institutions, laws, and social norms.	“Perhaps one of the most frustrating problems that still face the American Negro today is the continual joblessness due to unfair employment practices.” Literature exposes how racism is embedded in social structures like employment and education.
Intersectionality	The interconnected nature of social categories such as race, class, and gender.	“The Negro woman finds that she must cope with every facet of life—poor housing, menial employment, threats of hunger, exploitation from anyone and everyone, child rearing, and guidance just to mention a few.” Black women experience layered oppression, which literature brings to light.
Hegemony	Dominance of one social group over others through cultural means.	“It is necessary to remember though that there is no one Negro experience in America. There are twenty-two million separate experiences, for it is absurd to think of one Negro writer as the spokesman for the group.” Literature challenges the dominant narrative that generalizes Black experiences.
Stereotype Deconstruction	The process of breaking down false or oversimplified images of a social group.	“But to make generalizations for the Negro race on the basis of novels and poems and plays by Negroes is dehumanizing and stereotyping.” Literature presents nuanced portrayals of Black individuals, dismantling racial stereotypes.
Narrative as Resistance	The use of storytelling to challenge dominant power structures.	“Writers like James Baldwin and Richard Wright, by describing their personal experiences, are resisting the dominant narrative that seeks to erase or distort Black struggles.” Storytelling becomes an act of defiance against oppression.
Sociological Insight	Understanding human behavior and social structures through analysis.	“Readers of this literature can come to feel as the Negro feels as he wends his way through his wretched existence in America.” Literature offers a sociological perspective on segregation, economic struggles, and systemic racism.
Pedagogical Tool	An educational resource that enhances learning and critical thinking.	“The point then is to destroy group prejudices by getting acquainted with characters who are giving and receiving and interacting.” Literature can be used in education to promote racial awareness and dialogue.
Humanization of the Other	Recognizing the full humanity of marginalized groups.	“Each story is what the author experienced, felt, said.” Literature combats dehumanization by showcasing the individuality and depth of Black lives.
Literary Activism	The use of literature to promote social and political change.	“Therefore, we do not stop at a description of conditions as portrayed, but we use this mass of descriptive material about how things are and why to fashion and mold a saner approach to how life must become for universal survival.” Literature serves as a catalyst for challenging oppression and advocating for social reform.

Contribution of “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through Arnez’s Framework	Quotation from “Racial Understanding through Literature”
The Fire Next Time – James Baldwin	Baldwin’s work exemplifies Arnez’s argument that literature provides a vicarious experience of racial discrimination. Through personal narratives, Baldwin forces readers to see the reality of systemic racism and understand Black identity in America.	“To put it more poignantly, as Baldwin says, ‘Search in his shoes, for a job, for a place to live, ride, in his skin, on segregated buses, see with his eyes, the signs saying ‘White’ and ‘Colored’ and especially the signs saying ‘White Ladies’ and ‘Colored Women’” (Arnez, p. 56).
Manchild in the Promised Land – Claude Brown	Brown’s autobiography serves as an example of how literature exposes systemic barriers faced by Black youth. His experiences in Harlem illustrate the economic and social constraints placed on African Americans, forcing them into cycles of poverty, crime, and limited opportunity.	“One may then ask the question ‘How did Claude Brown survive in spite of the debilitating forces of Harlem?’ … He survived by playing his roles well” (Arnez, p. 58).
Black Boy – Richard Wright	Wright’s autobiography aligns with Arnez’s argument that literature humanizes racial struggles. His account of growing up in the South highlights systemic efforts to suppress Black education and ambition, making it a powerful critique of institutional racism.	“I was building up in me a dream which the entire educational system of the South had been rigged to stifle” (Arnez, p. 60).
The Autobiography of Malcolm X – Malcolm X (as told to Alex Haley)	Arnez uses Malcolm X’s experiences to illustrate the impact of systemic racism in education and employment. His rejection by a white teacher for aspiring to be a lawyer reflects how Black ambition was systematically undermined, reinforcing racial hierarchy.	“Malcolm, one of life’s first needs is for us to be realistic. Don’t misunderstand me now … A lawyer—that’s no realistic goal for a nigger” (Arnez, p. 60).

Criticism Against “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez

Representative Quotations from “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The best way of knowing what it means to be a Negro is to be a Negro.” (Arnez, p. 56)	Arnez underscores the impossibility of fully grasping the Black experience without living it. However, she proposes literature as the next best way to develop an understanding of racial realities.
“Thus, the Negro is no longer invisible but stands visibly etched upon each reader’s pupils.” (Arnez, p. 57)	Literature makes Black experiences visible to those who might otherwise overlook them. Through reading, the previously marginalized are recognized and understood.
“Reading literature written by Negroes is in an important sense one of the best bridges of communication between the Negro and the non-Negro.” (Arnez, p. 58)	Literature serves as a tool for fostering racial dialogue and breaking down barriers between Black and white communities.
“There is no one Negro experience in America. There are twenty-two million separate experiences.” (Arnez, p. 58)	Arnez rejects the notion of a monolithic Black identity, highlighting the diversity within the African American community.
“Literature through its dramatic impact can inculcate in the reader certain social and anthropological insights which the reader may not glean from reading sociology or anthropology texts.” (Arnez, p. 57)	Arnez argues that literature conveys human emotion and social realities more effectively than academic studies, making it a powerful tool for understanding racial issues.
“One can learn something about the quality of tenement living, the crowdedness, the lack of privacy, the lack of economic security, the rats and roaches and the rancid, penetrating, distinctive smell of garbage.” (Arnez, p. 58)	She highlights how literature vividly portrays the harsh realities of Black life, particularly economic hardship and housing discrimination.
“The point then is to destroy group prejudices by getting acquainted with characters who are giving and receiving and interacting.” (Arnez, p. 58)	Literature fosters empathy by encouraging readers to engage with characters as individuals rather than as racial stereotypes.
“But to make generalizations for the Negro race on the basis of novels and poems and plays by Negroes is dehumanizing and stereotyping.” (Arnez, p. 58)	While literature is an important tool for understanding, it should not be used to essentialize Black identity or assume all experiences are the same.
“Perhaps one of the most frustrating problems that still face the American Negro today is the continual joblessness due to unfair employment practices.” (Arnez, p. 59)	Arnez emphasizes how literature exposes systemic racial inequalities, particularly in employment and economic opportunities.
“We do not stop at a description of conditions as portrayed, but we use this mass of descriptive material about how things are and why to fashion and mold a saner approach to how life must become for universal survival.” (Arnez, p. 58)	Literature not only documents oppression but also inspires discussions on how society can create a more just future.

Suggested Readings: “Racial Understanding through Literature” by Nancy L. Arnez

1. Arnez, Nancy L. “Racial understanding through literature.” English Journal 58.1 (1969): 56-61.
2. Headlee, Judy Anne. “An Educational Approach to Negro Individualism.” The English Journal, vol. 59, no. 1, 1970, pp. 34–39. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/811727. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
3. Arnez, Nancy L. “Racial Understanding through Literature.” The English Journal, vol. 58, no. 1, 1969, pp. 56–61. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/812347. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
4. Small, Robert Coleman. “Negro Literature in High School English: Three Reasons for Its Use.” The High School Journal, vol. 54, no. 8, 1971, pp. 475–83. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40365671. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller

“Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller first appeared in The Journal of Negro Education in the Spring of 1949 (Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 134-137). In this article, Miller explores how racial and nationalistic biases can act as obstacles in the study and teaching of literature, particularly within classical studies. He argues that literature, often perceived as a neutral academic subject, is deeply influenced by national and racial biases that shape the perspectives of both educators and students. Miller highlights how historical narratives, particularly in Greek and Roman literature, reflect aristocratic and imperialist ideologies that may alienate students, especially those from marginalized backgrounds. He underscores how certain canonical texts, traditionally taught in schools, uphold Eurocentric perspectives, often reinforcing social hierarchies. Instead of erasing or avoiding such biases, Miller suggests a more inclusive approach: selecting texts that emphasize broader humanistic values, such as the Stoic writings of Seneca, which resonate with contemporary democratic ideals. He critiques the tendency to romanticize certain civilizations while ignoring their moral contradictions, urging educators to adopt a critical and reflective approach in teaching literature. Ultimately, his work calls for a shift in literary pedagogy—one that acknowledges historical biases while fostering an inclusive and critical engagement with classical texts. Through this analysis, Miller contributes significantly to literary theory and educational reform, advocating for a more equitable and conscious approach to the study of literature.

Summary of “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller

1. The Presence of Racial and Nationalistic Bias in Literary Studies
   • Miller argues that racial and nationalistic biases often influence the study and interpretation of literature. He illustrates this through Heinrich Heine’s observation that people struggle with reconciling great literary figures with their national or racial identities (Miller, 1949, p. 134).
   • These biases shape literary criticism, as Miller notes that “the judgment of the reviewer was finally determined by a racial or nationalistic bias” (p. 134).
2. Challenges in Teaching Literature to Adolescents
   • The presence of prejudice in literature is particularly problematic for young students, as their “mind-set” is still developing and can be influenced by nationalist or racial biases (p. 134).
   • Historical contexts shape students’ perceptions, as seen in the resistance to learning German after World War I due to nationalistic tensions (p. 135).
3. Nationalistic Influences in Classical Literature
   • Even in ancient literature, nationalistic biases exist. Miller points out that Socrates, in some Western narratives, is portrayed as an English or French intellectual figure rather than a Greek philosopher (p. 135).
   • This reflects a pattern of glorifying certain cultures over others: “Socrates, returned to life, finds his home at last at Oxford or Cambridge and perhaps becomes a British subject” (p. 135).
4. Selective Favoritism in Classical Studies
   • The study of Greek and Roman literature has been shaped by national and political agendas, as seen in how Julius Caesar was glorified in Germany while Cicero and Demosthenes were disparaged to fit nationalist narratives (p. 136).
   • Latin teachers before World War II often returned from Italy with enthusiasm for Roman ruins but also admiration for Mussolini’s classical revival, failing to separate scholarship from politics (p. 136).
5. The Problem of Tradition in Teaching Classical Literature
   • Classical literature often reinforces aristocratic and elitist perspectives, alienating students from marginalized backgrounds. Miller notes, “The traditional subject matter is essentially the literature of an aristocratic society, and the social institution of slavery is accepted without apology” (p. 136).
   • The dominant literary tradition favors an upper-class viewpoint, making it difficult for students to relate to characters and narratives (p. 136).
6. Conflicting Perspectives on Historical Figures
   • Students from diverse backgrounds may identify with historical figures in ways that challenge traditional interpretations. Miller observes that for some students, “Spartacus may appear as good and as honest… Ariovistus is to them more of a champion of liberty than Caesar; Jugurtha, the African prince, is more of a hero than Marius” (p. 136).
   • This disrupts the conventional Eurocentric perspective, which presents figures like Caesar and Cicero as heroes (p. 136).
7. Solutions: Reforming the Teaching of Classical Literature
   • Instead of censoring texts, Miller advocates for broader representation of humane and democratic voices, such as the Stoic philosopher Seneca, whose writings on slavery and human dignity resonate with modern audiences (p. 137).
   • He states, “His letter to Lucilius depicting how to treat those who are called slaves has no hurdles in it” (p. 137), suggesting that such perspectives can counterbalance the elitism in classical studies.
8. The Role of the Educator in Addressing Bias
   • Teachers must remain impartial and critically engage with texts rather than championing a nationalistic or elitist perspective (p. 137).
   • Miller insists, “The teacher must be a humanitarian as well as a humanist, guided by the old motto from Terence: Homo sum: humani nihil a me alienum puto” (p. 137), emphasizing the need for inclusivity and critical thought in education.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference from the Article (Miller, 1949)
Racial Bias in Literary Study	The influence of racial prejudices in how literature is analyzed, interpreted, and taught.	“A racial or nationalistic prejudice is often a hurdle in the way of those who are studying a great author or a great literature” (p. 134).
Nationalistic Bias in Literature	The tendency to evaluate literature through the lens of national pride or prejudices.	“The judgment of the reviewer was finally determined by a racial or nationalistic bias” (p. 134).
Mind-Set in Education	Psychological predispositions that influence students’ reception of literature.	“A ‘mind-set,’ as psychologists tell us, is very important: valuable when kindly disposed; very much of a disadvantage when hostile” (p. 134).
Historical Context in Literary Studies	The impact of historical events on the perception and teaching of literature.	“Some of us are old enough to remember the difficulties faced by teachers of German, during and immediately following World War I” (p. 135).
Eurocentrism in Classical Studies	The prioritization of Western civilizations and viewpoints in literature, often at the expense of other perspectives.	“Socrates, returned to life, finds his home at last at Oxford or Cambridge and perhaps becomes a British subject” (p. 135).
Selective Canonization	The process of choosing which texts and authors become central in literary education, often influenced by political and social ideologies.	“Julius Caesar was glorified; Cicero and Demosthenes were disparaged in Prussianized Germany because the glorification and the disparagement suited the national tendency of the day” (p. 136).
Aristocratic Tradition in Literature	The dominance of upper-class perspectives in classical literature, often alienating marginalized readers.	“The traditional subject matter is essentially the literature of an aristocratic society, and the social institution of slavery is accepted without apology” (p. 136).
Reader Identification	The tendency of students to align with characters based on personal or cultural background.	“Spartacus may appear as good and as honest to them as M. Licinius Crassus; Ariovistus is to them more of a champion of liberty than Caesar” (p. 136).
Pedagogical Bias	The ways in which teaching traditions reinforce social or political biases in literature.	“There is an atmosphere surrounding the classics which has been called the genteel tradition” (p. 137).
Humanistic Approach to Education	A method of teaching that prioritizes ethical and inclusive engagement with literature.	“The teacher must be a humanitarian as well as a humanist, guided by the old motto from Terence: Homo sum: humani nihil a me alienum puto” (p. 137).

Contribution of “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Literary Theory – Addressing Eurocentrism in Literature
   • Miller critiques the Eurocentric bias in literary studies, highlighting how Western educational traditions privilege European literary figures and cultural narratives.
   • He states, “Socrates, returned to life, finds his home at last at Oxford or Cambridge and perhaps becomes a British subject” (Miller, 1949, p. 135), indicating how classical figures are appropriated to fit Western nationalist ideologies.
   • His argument aligns with postcolonial critiques of how literature is taught in ways that reinforce cultural hegemony.
2. Reader-Response Theory – The Role of Identity in Literary Interpretation
   • Miller emphasizes that students’ personal backgrounds shape how they relate to historical and literary figures.
   • He notes, “Spartacus may appear as good and as honest to them as M. Licinius Crassus; Ariovistus is to them more of a champion of liberty than Caesar; Jugurtha, the African prince, is more of a hero than Marius” (p. 136).
   • This supports the reader-response theory by arguing that meaning in literature is co-constructed by the reader’s identity and social positioning.
3. Cultural Studies – Literature as a Reflection of Social Power Structures
   • Miller examines how literary traditions reinforce existing social hierarchies, particularly in the case of Latin and Greek studies, which have been associated with elitism and aristocratic values.
   • He states, “The traditional subject matter is essentially the literature of an aristocratic society, and the social institution of slavery is accepted without apology” (p. 136).
   • This contributes to cultural studies by exposing how literature can sustain and legitimize power structures.
4. Ideological State Apparatus (Althusser) – Education as a Tool of Ideological Control
   • Miller highlights how educational traditions reinforce specific political and ideological viewpoints, sometimes unintentionally.
   • He critiques how Latin education has been historically aligned with elite social classes, stating, “There is an atmosphere surrounding the classics which has been called the genteel tradition” (p. 137).
   • This aligns with Althusser’s concept of the Ideological State Apparatus, where education perpetuates dominant ideologies.
5. Historiographic Metafiction – Challenging Established Literary Narratives
   • Miller challenges traditional literary histories that glorify figures like Julius Caesar while neglecting or marginalizing perspectives that challenge imperialist narratives.
   • He notes, “We in America followed the Germans too readily in their estimates of Demosthenes, Caesar, and Cicero” (p. 136), suggesting that historical literary criticism is shaped by political circumstances.
   • His perspective contributes to historiographic metafiction by questioning how history is selectively narrated in literature.
6. Liberation Pedagogy (Paulo Freire) – Literature and Social Justice in Education
   • Miller advocates for a more inclusive and critical approach to literature that empowers students from diverse backgrounds.
   • He asserts, “The teacher must be a humanitarian as well as a humanist, guided by the old motto from Terence: Homo sum: humani nihil a me alienum puto” (p. 137).
   • This supports liberation pedagogy, which calls for education to serve as a tool for social equity and consciousness-raising.
7. Canon Formation and Deconstruction – Questioning Traditional Literary Selection
   • Miller challenges the rigid canon of classical literature, arguing for a broader selection of texts that reflect more diverse and humane perspectives.
   • He suggests that educators should give more space to writers like Seneca, who provide ethical and philosophical perspectives that resonate with modern students (p. 137).
   • This aligns with deconstructionist critiques of the literary canon, which argue that it reflects exclusionary cultural values.

Examples of Critiques Through “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller

Literary Work	Critique Through Miller’s Lens	Reference from the Article (Miller, 1949)
Julius Caesar (by William Shakespeare)	Miller critiques how historical figures like Caesar have been glorified through nationalistic biases in education. He notes that in Prussianized Germany, Caesar was elevated while figures like Cicero and Demosthenes were diminished to align with nationalist interests. This reflects how literature can be used to serve political ideologies rather than objective historical understanding.	“Julius Caesar was glorified; Cicero and Demosthenes were disparaged in Prussianized Germany because the glorification and the disparagement suited the national tendency of the day” (p. 136).
The Aeneid (by Virgil)	Miller argues that the classical tradition, particularly Roman literature like The Aeneid, promotes an aristocratic and imperialist worldview that alienates students from diverse backgrounds. The text, which glorifies the Roman state and its expansionist ideology, may be seen as an instrument of nationalist pride rather than an inclusive humanistic study.	“The traditional subject matter is essentially the literature of an aristocratic society, and the social institution of slavery is accepted without apology” (p. 136).
The Histories (by Livy)	Miller critiques Livy’s The Histories for its nationalistic framing of Rome’s superiority, which reinforces racial and cultural biases. He notes that for many students, especially those from marginalized backgrounds, figures like Hannibal or Jugurtha might seem more heroic than their Roman counterparts, disrupting the traditional Roman-centered perspective.	“Spartacus may appear as good and as honest to them as M. Licinius Crassus; Ariovistus is to them more of a champion of liberty than Caesar; Jugurtha, the African prince, is more of a hero than Marius” (p. 136).
Odes (by Horace)	Unlike prose works that reflect nationalist and imperialist tendencies, Miller finds that poetry like Horace’s Odes avoids these pitfalls by focusing on universal themes. This suggests that while historical and political biases pervade prose literature, poetry can transcend such limitations and be more accessible to diverse audiences.	“The poets, such as Catullus and Horace, whenever they treat universal themes not bound by time or place, do not raise the hurdles of nationalism and racism” (p. 136).

Criticism Against “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller

1. Lack of Concrete Pedagogical Solutions
   • While Miller identifies racial and nationalistic biases in literature, he does not provide clear, actionable solutions for educators beyond suggesting a more humanistic approach.
   • Critics may argue that simply advocating for a broader selection of texts (e.g., Seneca instead of Caesar) does not fundamentally challenge the structures that perpetuate bias in literary education.
2. Overgeneralization of Student Reactions
   • Miller assumes that students from marginalized backgrounds will inherently align with non-Roman historical figures such as Spartacus or Jugurtha over Roman leaders.
   • This perspective risks essentializing student experiences rather than allowing for individual and diverse interpretations of literature.
3. Romanticization of Certain Classical Figures
   • While Miller critiques the glorification of figures like Julius Caesar, he does not fully interrogate whether his own preference for writers like Seneca is similarly influenced by ideological biases.
   • His claim that Seneca’s Stoic philosophy is more accessible and relevant to modern students assumes a universal moral appeal that may not be as inclusive as he suggests.
4. Neglect of the Complexity of National Identity in Literature
   • Miller views nationalistic interpretations of literature as a hurdle but does not sufficiently explore how national identity can also be a productive lens for literary analysis.
   • Critics might argue that nationalistic readings do not always lead to exclusion or bias; rather, they can deepen historical and cultural understanding when approached critically.
5. Failure to Acknowledge the Role of Literary Criticism and Theory
   • Miller critiques literary education primarily from a pedagogical perspective but does not engage deeply with existing literary theories that address bias, such as Marxist or postcolonial criticism.
   • His work could have been strengthened by integrating theoretical frameworks that explicitly analyze power dynamics in literature.
6. Potentially Dismissive of the Canon’s Value
   • While Miller advocates for a more inclusive literary curriculum, he does not fully acknowledge the scholarly and historical reasons why certain classical works have been prioritized.
   • Critics may argue that instead of de-emphasizing canonical texts, the focus should be on teaching them with critical perspectives that acknowledge their limitations and biases.
7. Overemphasis on Classical Literature
   • Although Miller critiques classical literature’s elitist and aristocratic nature, he does not advocate strongly for the inclusion of non-Western literary traditions.
   • His argument remains confined to Greek and Roman texts rather than proposing a more radical expansion of the literary canon to include African, Asian, and indigenous narratives.
8. Limited Discussion on Contemporary Literature and Education
   • Miller focuses primarily on historical literary traditions but does not extend his analysis to contemporary literature, which may also reflect nationalistic and racial biases.
   • A broader discussion of how modern literature can challenge or reinforce these biases would make his argument more relevant to contemporary literary studies.

Representative Quotations from “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“A racial or nationalistic prejudice is often a hurdle in the way of those who are studying a great author or a great literature.” (p. 134)	Miller argues that preconceived biases influence how literature is interpreted and appreciated, creating barriers to objective literary analysis.
“The judgment of the reviewer was finally determined by a racial or nationalistic bias.” (p. 134)	He critiques how even professional literary criticism is often shaped by national or racial biases, affecting how works are received and evaluated.
“It is difficult to teach any literature without enthusiasm. But enthusiasm, at that time, served only to fan the flames of prejudice.” (p. 135)	This highlights the challenges faced by educators, particularly during times of political conflict, when literature can become entangled in nationalist rhetoric.
“Socrates, returned to life, finds his home at last at Oxford or Cambridge and perhaps becomes a British subject.” (p. 135)	Miller critiques how Western academia appropriates ancient figures like Socrates, reinforcing Eurocentric narratives in education.
“Julius Caesar was glorified; Cicero and Demosthenes were disparaged in Prussianized Germany because the glorification and the disparagement suited the national tendency of the day.” (p. 136)	He points out how historical and political biases influence literary scholarship, using the example of how Germany reshaped its interpretation of classical figures for nationalistic purposes.
“Spartacus may appear as good and as honest to them as M. Licinius Crassus; Ariovistus is to them more of a champion of liberty than Caesar; Jugurtha, the African prince, is more of a hero than Marius.” (p. 136)	Miller suggests that students from marginalized backgrounds might identify with historical figures differently than traditional literary narratives suggest.
“The traditional subject matter is essentially the literature of an aristocratic society, and the social institution of slavery is accepted without apology.” (p. 136)	He critiques how classical literature often reflects elitist and imperialist ideologies that may alienate modern students.
“The poets, such as Catullus and Horace, whenever they treat universal themes not bound by time or place, do not raise the hurdles of nationalism and racism.” (p. 136)	Miller contrasts poetry with prose, suggesting that poetry can transcend nationalist and racial biases due to its focus on universal human experiences.
“The teacher must be a humanitarian as well as a humanist, guided by the old motto from Terence: Homo sum: humani nihil a me alienum puto.” (p. 137)	He emphasizes the ethical responsibility of educators to approach literature inclusively, acknowledging biases while promoting broader human understanding.
“There is an atmosphere surrounding the classics which has been called the genteel tradition.” (p. 137)	Miller critiques how classical studies have historically been associated with elitism, creating barriers for students from working-class or marginalized backgrounds.

Suggested Readings: “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature” by Philip S. Miller

1. Miller, Philip S. “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature.” The Journal of Negro Education 18.2 (1949): 134-137.
2. Miller, Philip S. “Racial and Nationalistic Hurdles in the Teaching of Literature.” The Journal of Negro Education, vol. 18, no. 2, 1949, pp. 134–37. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2966388. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
3. “The Complete Bibliography of ‘The Journal of Negro Education,’ 1932-2006.” The Journal of Negro Education, vol. 75, no. 2, 2006, pp. 73–318. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40037237. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft

“Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft first appeared in The Cambridge History of Postcolonial Literature, published by Cambridge University Press. This chapter explores the complex relationship between postcolonialism and postmodernism, highlighting their shared yet distinct approaches to literary and cultural theory. Ashcroft argues that while postmodernism deconstructs centralized master narratives, postcolonialism actively resists imperialist discourse, prioritizing the material realities of colonial oppression. A key distinction he makes is that the “post” in postmodernism signifies a stylistic shift, whereas in postcolonialism, it represents a critical reading practice that interrogates power structures and histories of domination. Through references to thinkers such as Homi Bhabha, Gayatri Spivak, and Edward Said, Ashcroft outlines how postcolonial theory appropriates postmodern strategies—like deconstruction, mimicry, and irony—without relinquishing its political commitment to justice and emancipation. The chapter also examines the racialized underpinnings of imperialism, emphasizing how colonial ideologies constructed race as a tool of domination. Drawing from figures like W. E. B. Du Bois, Frantz Fanon, and the Négritude movement, Ashcroft illustrates how racial identity has been shaped by historical oppression and resistance. His work is significant in literary theory as it bridges the gap between postmodern skepticism and postcolonial activism, demonstrating how literature serves as a battleground for cultural representation and political struggle.

Summary of “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft

• Postcolonialism and Postmodernism: A Complex Relationship
  • Ashcroft explores the intricate relationship between postcolonialism and postmodernism, emphasizing their simultaneous contestation and overlap. He argues that while postmodernism focuses on deconstructing master narratives, postcolonialism actively resists imperial discourse (Ashcroft, p. 13).
  • “Whereas the ‘post’ in literary postmodernism may refer to a way of writing, the ‘post’ in postcolonialism refers to a way of reading” (p. 13).
• Distinction in Goals and Methods
  • Postmodernism seeks to dismantle centralized, logocentric European narratives, whereas postcolonialism aims to “dismantle the Centre/Margin binarism of imperial discourse” (p. 14).
  • Postcolonial theory does not propose a universalist ontology but instead critiques the material and discursive realities of colonial oppression (p. 15).
• Political Commitment of Postcolonialism
  • Unlike postmodernism, which often rejects grand narratives and universalist theories, postcolonialism remains committed to justice and liberation (p. 15).
  • Ashcroft highlights Edward Said’s concept of “worldliness,” which emphasizes the necessity of acknowledging colonial and neocolonial oppression (p. 15).
• Postmodernism’s Influence on Postcolonial Theory
  • Despite differences, postcolonialism adopts postmodern techniques such as decentering discourse, language analysis, mimicry, and irony to subvert colonialist narratives (p. 14).
  • However, postcolonialism does not abandon the ethical imperative for justice, unlike some strands of postmodernist thought (p. 16).
• Race as a Colonial Construct
  • Ashcroft critiques the historical construction of race as a justification for European imperialism, stating that “before European racism, black people were not black” (p. 16).
  • Race is neither biologically nor socially fixed; it emerged as a colonial tool to categorize and subordinate peoples (p. 17).
• Critique of Postmodernism’s Handling of Race
  • Postmodernism, especially in literary and cultural studies, often neglects larger political and economic structures, reducing race to a discursive or linguistic concept (p. 18).
  • “The predominance of otherness postmodernism has led us to neglect the larger structures (political, economic, educational, etc.)” (p. 18).
• Racial Thinking and Colonialism
  • Ashcroft traces the origins of racial ideology to European philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and David Hume, who established a hierarchical framework of human difference based on skin color (p. 17).
  • Kant’s view that “so fundamental is the difference between the races of man […] it appears to be as great in mental capacities as in colour” exemplifies the racist foundations of Enlightenment thought (p. 17).
• Postcolonial Responses to Race: Du Bois, Négritude, and Fanon
  • W. E. B. Du Bois: His The Conservation of Races (1897) attempted to reconcile the contradiction between biological and socio-historical definitions of race while affirming Black identity (p. 21).
  • Négritude Movement: Led by Léopold Sédar Senghor and Aimé Césaire, it reclaimed Black identity and culture as a form of resistance to colonialism. However, it was also criticized for its essentialist view of race (p. 23).
  • Frantz Fanon: His Black Skins, White Masks (1952) examined the psychological effects of racial subjugation, particularly the internalization of the colonial gaze (p. 27).
  • Fanon describes the alienation of Black identity, writing, “My body was given back to me sprawled out, distorted, recolored, clad in mourning in that white winter day” (p. 27).
• Race as a Relational Concept
  • Ashcroft argues that while race itself is a socially constructed fiction, the experience of racism is real and must be acknowledged (p. 28).
  • “Without racism, race would not have been invented” (p. 28).
• Postcolonialism’s Ethical Imperative
  • Unlike postmodernism, postcolonialism retains a vision of hope and agency, emphasizing the need for decolonization and racial justice (p. 28).
  • “Fanon’s final word is an affirmation of the necessity of a vision of hope for any project of postcolonial liberation” (p. 28).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference (Page Number)
Postcolonialism	A critical approach that examines the cultural and political impact of colonialism and imperialism, focusing on resistance and subversion of colonial narratives.	p. 13
Postmodernism	A literary and philosophical movement that critiques grand narratives, centralization, and fixed meanings, often employing irony and deconstruction.	p. 14
Centre/Margin Binarism	A concept in postcolonial theory that highlights the division between colonial powers (the Centre) and colonized subjects (the Margin), which postcolonialism seeks to dismantle.	p. 14
Deconstruction	A postmodern technique that questions and breaks down established meanings, often used in postcolonial discourse to challenge imperialist narratives.	p. 14
Mimicry	A colonial subject’s imitation of the colonizer’s culture, which can serve as both subversion and complicity, famously explored by Homi Bhabha.	p. 14
Incredulity towards Metanarratives	A term from Jean-François Lyotard’s postmodernism that describes skepticism toward universal theories; in postcolonialism, this takes the form of resisting imperialist master narratives.	p. 14
Worldliness	Edward Said’s term for recognizing the real, material impact of colonialism rather than treating it as a purely theoretical concept.	p. 15
Ethical Universals	Despite rejecting grand narratives, postcolonialism retains a belief in justice and ethical imperatives, differentiating it from postmodernism.	p. 16
Otherness Postmodernism	A shift in postmodernism toward recognizing difference, as influenced by Laclau and Mouffe’s Hegemony and Socialist Strategy.	p. 18
Imperial Discourse	The ideological system that justified colonial rule, portraying the colonizer as superior and the colonized as inferior.	p. 16
Racialism	Tzvetan Todorov’s term for the belief that physical racial characteristics correlate with intellectual and moral qualities.	p. 17
Strategic Essentialism	Gayatri Spivak’s idea that essentialist categories (such as race or gender) can be temporarily employed as political strategies for resistance.	p. 25
Floating Signifier	A term in semiotics and postcolonial theory indicating that race lacks inherent meaning but gains significance through social and historical contexts.	p. 22
Double Consciousness	W. E. B. Du Bois’ concept describing how marginalized groups internalize two perspectives: their own and the dominant racial view of them.	p. 22
Négritude	A literary and political movement celebrating Black identity and culture as a response to colonial racism, associated with Léopold Sédar Senghor and Aimé Césaire.	p. 23
Fact of Blackness	Frantz Fanon’s idea that racial identity is externally imposed and shaped by the colonial gaze, leading to alienation.	p. 27
Performativity	A concept (borrowed from Judith Butler) that suggests racial identity, like gender, is performed through repeated social interactions.	p. 27
The Racial Gaze	The objectifying and dehumanizing perspective imposed on racialized subjects by colonial and racist ideologies.	p. 27
Hegemony	Antonio Gramsci’s idea that power is maintained through cultural and ideological dominance rather than force, applicable to colonial rule.	p. 18

Contribution of “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft to Literary Theory/Theories

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Examples of Critiques Through “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through Ashcroft’s Framework
Things Fall Apart – Chinua Achebe	Ashcroft critiques Achebe’s novel as a foundational postcolonial text that dismantles imperial narratives. Unlike postmodern works that merely deconstruct meaning, Things Fall Apart offers a counter-narrative to colonial history, aligning with Ashcroft’s assertion that “postcolonialism remains unashamedly emancipatory” (p. 16). Achebe’s novel challenges the Centre/Margin binarism and reclaims indigenous storytelling.
Cambridge – Caryl Phillips	Phillips’ novel is analyzed through the lens of the colonial gaze and the internalization of racist discourse. Ashcroft highlights how Emily, the plantation owner’s daughter, becomes complicit in colonial racism, demonstrating how “the objectifying gaze of colonial power” shapes perceptions of race and humanity (p. 19).
Black Skin, White Masks – Frantz Fanon	Ashcroft engages with Fanon’s psychological analysis of colonial subjectivity, particularly his argument that race is imposed externally through colonial discourse. He references Fanon’s “Look, a Negro!” passage to illustrate how race is “relational rather than essential” (p. 27). Fanon’s work is foundational in postcolonial studies for its articulation of alienation and racial trauma.
The Conservation of Races – W. E. B. Du Bois	Ashcroft critiques Du Bois’ balancing act between recognizing race as a social construct while also using it as a political tool for Black solidarity. He notes that “Du Bois walks a tightrope between definitions of race and the need to propose that the Negro had a contribution to make” (p. 22), highlighting the tension between race as a lived experience and an ideological construct.

Criticism Against “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft

1. Oversimplification of Postmodernism vs. Postcolonialism
   • Ashcroft argues that postcolonialism is “unashamedly emancipatory” (p. 16) in contrast to postmodernism’s skepticism. However, critics argue that postmodernism itself has politically engaged strands, such as Lyotard’s critique of power structures, which Ashcroft does not fully acknowledge.
2. Ambiguity in Defining Postcolonialism
   • While Ashcroft asserts that “postcolonialism refers to post-invasion and not post-independence” (p. 13), this broad definition is problematic. It risks conflating vastly different historical experiences under a single theoretical umbrella, ignoring specific sociopolitical contexts.
3. Insufficient Engagement with Non-Anglophone Postcolonial Theory
   • Ashcroft predominantly engages with theorists writing in English (Said, Spivak, Bhabha) but does not sufficiently address contributions from non-Western intellectual traditions, such as Latin American decolonial thought (e.g., Aníbal Quijano, Walter Mignolo).
4. Tendency to Conflate Race and Colonialism
   • The text treats race as a colonial invention, arguing that “before European racism, black people were not black” (p. 16). While this aligns with Stuart Hall’s work, it risks downplaying pre-colonial conceptions of identity and racial hierarchies that existed outside European imperialism.
5. Limited Discussion of Economic Factors
   • While Ashcroft acknowledges capitalism’s role in colonialism (p. 17), he does not deeply explore economic dimensions such as dependency theory or world-systems analysis, which provide a more materialist critique of postcolonial conditions.
6. Problematic Engagement with Essentialism in Négritude
   • Ashcroft discusses Négritude as a form of “strategic essentialism” (p. 25), yet he does not fully address the internal critiques of Négritude from within African intellectual circles, such as critiques by Frantz Fanon and Wole Soyinka.
7. Underdeveloped Feminist and Gender Analysis
   • While postcolonialism has strong feminist strands (e.g., Spivak, Mohanty), Ashcroft’s discussion largely neglects gendered perspectives on colonialism, racialization, and postcolonial identity.
8. Lack of Engagement with Contemporary Postcolonial Realities
   • The text focuses on theoretical constructs but lacks detailed discussions of 21st-century neocolonialism, migration, and digital globalization, making its framework seem somewhat dated.
9. Potential Reduction of Race to Discourse
   • While Ashcroft critiques postmodernism’s tendency to treat race as a floating signifier (p. 22), some critics argue that his own approach does not sufficiently engage with how race functions in legal, institutional, and structural frameworks beyond literary discourse.
10. Limited Exploration of Indigenous Theorization
11. The book discusses colonialism largely through the lens of former British and French colonies but does not significantly incorporate Indigenous perspectives from settler-colonial contexts, such as North America or Australia.

Representative Quotations from “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The relationship between postcolonialism and postmodernism is a vexed mixture of contestation and imbrication.” (p. 13)	Ashcroft highlights the complex and intertwined nature of these two theories, which both critique dominant narratives but differ in their purpose—postmodernism deconstructs, while postcolonialism resists.
“Postcolonialism’ refers to post-invasion and not post-independence; it identifies neither a chronology nor a specific ontology.” (p. 13)	This statement rejects a rigid chronological understanding of postcolonialism, arguing that it is an ongoing process of resistance rather than a mere historical period after colonial rule.
“Lyotard’s ‘incredulity towards metanarratives’ becomes something more than incredulity in postcolonialism: it is the active resistance to the master discourse of imperialism and the radical transformation of its tools.” (p. 14)	Ashcroft contrasts postmodern skepticism with postcolonial resistance, suggesting that postcolonialism takes a more politically engaged stance in dismantling imperial structures.
“Postcolonial theorists have little trouble in appropriating postmodern approaches to subjectivity, discourse, and representation, without abandoning the political imperative of the field.” (p. 15)	While postmodernism denies stable subjectivities, postcolonialism selectively adopts its techniques while maintaining a commitment to political activism and liberation.
“Postcolonialism is unashamedly emancipatory, its driving energy a concern with justice and liberation.” (p. 16)	Unlike postmodernism’s rejection of universal truths, postcolonialism asserts a clear ethical and political purpose—to challenge oppression and advocate for justice.
“Before European racism, black people were not black.” (p. 16)	This provocative claim underscores that race as a category was historically constructed by colonial powers as a justification for subjugation, rather than being an inherent, pre-existing reality.
“Race, like any signifier, is a function of difference, yet this is hardly adequate to explain the human cost of racism.” (p. 18)	Ashcroft critiques purely linguistic or theoretical approaches to race, emphasizing that racism has real, material consequences beyond discourse.
“Negritude was less a celebration of an essential blackness than it was an act of rebellion.” (p. 24)	This challenges the common perception of Negritude as merely essentialist, arguing instead that it was a strategic form of resistance against colonial oppression.
“The experience of blackness arises unbidden out of the fact that ‘consciousness of the body is solely a negating activity’.” (p. 26)	Quoting Fanon, Ashcroft illustrates how racialized individuals experience their identity as externally imposed through the colonial gaze, reinforcing their exclusion.
“Without racism, race would not have been invented, and the continued power and ubiquity of this non-existent category of race lies in the persistence of racism and its consequences.” (p. 28)	This final assertion ties together Ashcroft’s argument that race is a colonial construct sustained by structures of oppression, rather than an innate biological or cultural truth.

Suggested Readings: “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft

1. Platt, Len, and Sara Upstone, eds. Postmodern literature and race. Cambridge University Press, 2015.
2. GBOGI, TOSIN. “Is There Life Besides “Coloniality?”: Metapoetics and the Second Level of Decoloniality in Niyi Osundare’s Poetry.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 52, no. 3, 2021, pp. 139–66. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/48679341. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
3. Wade, Peter. “Blacks and Indigenous People in the Postmodern and Postcolonial Nation – and Beyond.” Race and Ethnicity in Latin America, Pluto Press, 2010, pp. 85–111. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt183p73f.10. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
4. Aronowitz, Stanley. “Postmodernism and Politics.” Social Text, no. 18, 1987, pp. 99–115. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/488695. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.

Introduction: “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida

“Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida first appeared in an academic journal, discussing the profound impact of racial and cultural mixing on Brazilian literature and identity. The article explores how Brazil’s colonial history, marked by the Portuguese settlers’ interactions with Indigenous and African populations, created a unique social structure where racial integration, while not erasing prejudice, shaped the nation’s cultural and artistic development. Gomes de Almeida traces the representation of mixed-race individuals in Brazilian literature, from the 17th-century poetry of Gregório de Matos, who both admired and resented the presence of mulattos in society, to the 19th-century Romanticism of José de Alencar, who mythologized racial mixing through idealized narratives of Indigenous-European unions. The article highlights how realism and modernism further refined these portrayals, particularly in the works of Machado de Assis, a mulatto writer who became Brazil’s most esteemed literary figure, and Jorge Amado, who celebrated Afro-Brazilian culture in novels like Tenda dos Milagres. Through an analysis of these literary movements, Gomes de Almeida underscores how racial integration in Brazil, unlike in other post-colonial societies, became a defining literary theme, challenging European racial hierarchies and offering a distinct vision of national identity. The article is significant in literary theory as it emphasizes how literature not only reflects historical realities but actively participates in shaping the discourse on race and national identity.

Summary of “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida

• Historical Context of Racial Mixing in Brazil
  • Unlike English North America, Portuguese colonizers in Brazil arrived without families, leading to widespread intermixing with Indigenous and African women (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • This process created a racially mixed society, where the children of these unions often occupied an intermediate social space, forming an early working and artisan class (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • The mixed-race presence was reflected in early Brazilian art, such as the works of Aleijadinho (1738–1814) and Manuel da Costa Ataíde, who depicted a mulatto Virgin Mary in his paintings (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Early Literary Representations of Racial Mixing
  • In the 17th century, Gregório de Matos captured the paradoxical attitudes toward mixed-race people: while mulatto women were admired, mulatto men were satirized for competing with white elites (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • His poetry reflects both admiration for and anxiety about Brazil’s racial hybridity, illustrating an early awareness of race relations in the colony (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Romanticism and Indianist Myth-making
  • During the 19th century, José de Alencar idealized the fusion of Indigenous and European cultures in novels like O Guarani (1857) and Iracema (1865), presenting racial mixing as part of Brazil’s national identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • However, Africans were largely excluded from this nationalist myth due to the ongoing practice of slavery (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • In contrast, Bernardo Guimarães’ novel A Escrava Isaura (1875) depicted a nearly white mulatta as the heroine, demonstrating the reluctance to fully embrace blackness in literature (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Realist Literature and the Rise of Mixed-Race Intellectuals
  • The late 19th-century Realist movement addressed racial prejudice more directly, as seen in Aluísio Azevedo’s O Mulato (1881), which critiques the discrimination faced by educated mulattos (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • Machado de Assis, Brazil’s greatest writer and a dark-skinned mulatto, overcame racial barriers to become the first president of the Brazilian Academy of Letters, proving the ability of mixed-race individuals to integrate into elite society (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Euclides da Cunha and the Racial Debate
  • In Os Sertões (1902), Euclides da Cunha initially adopted racial theories that condemned racial mixing but later acknowledged the resilience of mixed-race people in the backlands of Brazil (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • This shift highlights the growing recognition of mestiçagem (racial mixing) as a defining characteristic of Brazilian identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Modernism and the Cultural Celebration of Racial Mixing
  • The 1920s Modernist Movement embraced Brazil’s racial and cultural hybridity, as exemplified by Mário de Andrade’s Macunaíma (1928), which uses indigenous and African myths to define Brazilian identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • Oswald de Andrade’s “Cannibalism” movement advocated for absorbing European influences while maintaining Brazil’s unique mixed heritage (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Jorge Amado and Afro-Brazilian Representation
  • Jorge Amado revolutionized Brazilian literature by centering Afro-Brazilian culture in novels like Jubiabá (1935) and Tenda dos Milagres (1969), which celebrated racial mixing as a national strength (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • His work marked a shift from seeing racial mixing as a social problem to viewing it as a source of cultural vitality (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
• Conclusion: Literature as a Reflection of Brazil’s Racial Identity
  • The long trajectory of Brazilian literature reflects evolving attitudes toward race, from early ambivalence to Romantic idealization, Realist critique, and Modernist celebration (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
  • Writers like Alencar, Machado de Assis, Mário de Andrade, and Jorge Amado played key roles in shaping the discourse on racial integration, ultimately affirming mestiçagem as central to Brazilian identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Relevance in the Article
Mestiçagem (Racial Mixing)	The blending of different racial and ethnic groups into a single society.	Central to Brazilian identity and literature, shaping cultural and artistic expressions (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Indianism (Indianismo)	A literary movement that idealized Indigenous people as noble ancestors of Brazil.	Seen in José de Alencar’s O Guarani and Iracema, where Indigenous-European integration is celebrated (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Romantic Nationalism	The use of literature to construct a national identity based on myths and idealized histories.	Brazilian Romanticism elevated Indigenous figures while neglecting African contributions (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Social Hierarchy & Mulatto Identity	The positioning of mixed-race individuals within a social structure influenced by colonialism.	Figures like Gregório de Matos and Machado de Assis show the shifting roles of mulattos in Brazilian society (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Scientific Racism	19th-century pseudoscientific theories claiming racial hierarchies and white superiority.	Euclides da Cunha initially embraced but later questioned these ideas in Os Sertões (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Modernism & Cultural Cannibalism	The Modernist movement’s approach to absorbing and transforming European influences into a distinct Brazilian culture.	Oswald de Andrade’s “Cannibalism” movement advocated for the fusion of cultural elements (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Afro-Brazilian Cultural Recognition	The acknowledgment of African heritage in shaping Brazil’s culture and literature.	Jorge Amado’s works like Tenda dos Milagres celebrate the African influence on Brazilian society (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Literary Realism	A movement that portrays everyday realities, often critiquing social issues like race and class.	O Mulato by Aluísio Azevedo was the first novel to directly challenge racial prejudice (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Post-Colonial Identity Formation	The process by which former colonies construct their unique cultural and racial identities.	Brazilian literature evolved from European imitation to embracing its mixed-race identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Myth of National Identity	The idea that a nation builds a self-image based on historical and literary narratives.	Literature played a role in shaping Brazil’s mestizo identity, despite its complex racial history (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).

Contribution of “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida

Literary Work	Critique through “Literature and Racial Integration”	Key References from Almeida’s Work
Iracema (1865) by José de Alencar	The novel idealizes racial mixing through the romance between a Portuguese colonizer and an indigenous woman, symbolizing national integration. However, it largely omits African influence, focusing on the European-Indian fusion.	Almeida highlights that Indianist literature served nationalist purposes, but ignored the African role in Brazilian identity (Almeida, p. 75).
O Mulato (1881) by Aluísio Azevedo	This novel critiques racial prejudice, showing a well-educated mulatto protagonist unable to escape racial discrimination. It exposes the social barriers that persisted despite Brazil’s racial mixing.	Almeida recognizes the novel as the first to feature a mulatto protagonist, emphasizing how racial prejudice hindered social mobility (Almeida, p. 77).
Os Sertões (1902) by Euclides da Cunha	The book reflects positivist racial theories but contradicts them by admiring the resilience of mixed-race sertanejos. It reveals contradictions in 19th-century racial ideology.	Almeida notes that da Cunha’s portrayal of racial mixing evolved from racist theory to an acknowledgment of its strength (Almeida, p. 78-80).
Tenda dos Milagres (1969) by Jorge Amado	This novel celebrates Afro-Brazilian culture and racial integration, challenging European-centric intellectualism and racism. It portrays mixed-race identity as central to Brazilian identity.	Almeida considers this work a turning point, as it fully embraces racial mixing and Afro-Brazilian culture as integral to Brazil’s literary and social identity (Almeida, p. 82-83).

Criticism Against “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida

1. Overemphasis on Racial Harmony
   • Almeida portrays racial integration as a defining and largely positive aspect of Brazilian history but overlooks the deep and persistent racial inequalities that continue to exist.
   • The text sometimes minimizes the structural racism that shaped (and still shapes) Brazilian society, particularly in terms of economic and social mobility.
2. Limited Engagement with Postcolonial Theory
   • While Almeida discusses colonial racial mixing, he does not engage deeply with postcolonial critiques that address power imbalances and the lasting impact of European dominance.
   • The work does not fully explore how literature reflects colonial hegemonic ideologies, nor how Afro-Brazilian and Indigenous voices have been historically marginalized in literary traditions.
3. Romanticization of Racial Mixing
   • Almeida follows Gilberto Freyre’s notion of lusotropicalism, which idealizes Portuguese colonialism as more benevolent and open to racial mixing compared to other colonial powers.
   • Critics argue that this perspective downplays the violence, exploitation, and systemic oppression experienced by Afro-Brazilians and Indigenous peoples.
4. Neglect of Black Literary Voices
   • The text gives more weight to mixed-race and indigenous representation in literature while offering limited focus on Black-authored literary works that directly challenge racism.
   • Writers like Lima Barreto and Cruz e Souza, who explicitly dealt with racial identity and injustice, receive relatively less attention compared to Romantic and Modernist authors.
5. Essentialist Approach to Brazilian Identity
   • The work presents Brazilian identity as inherently mixed-race (mestiçagem), but this framing can obscure the ongoing racial stratification in Brazilian society.
   • The concept of a “unified Brazilian race” can be problematic, as it ignores the continued social exclusion of Afro-Brazilians and Indigenous communities.
6. Lack of Feminist and Gender Analysis
   • While discussing racial integration, the book does not critically analyze the role of gender, particularly how interracial relationships were often the result of colonial sexual violence.
   • The portrayal of Indigenous and Black women in literature is not sufficiently scrutinized in terms of how they were exoticized and objectified by white and male authors.
7. Absence of a Comparative Global Perspective
   • The book largely focuses on Brazil’s racial integration in isolation, without comparing it to similar processes in other former colonies such as the Caribbean or Latin America.
   • A broader comparative analysis could strengthen the argument by showing how Brazil’s experience fits into wider postcolonial and racial discourse.

Representative Quotations from “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Brazil tended to accept racial mixing as a de facto reality.”	This statement highlights how racial mixing was an inherent part of Brazilian colonial history due to Portuguese settlers’ interactions with Indigenous and African populations. It sets the stage for Almeida’s argument about Brazil’s unique racial integration compared to other colonial nations.
“Although this historical circumstance did not eliminate racial prejudice, it made a strict policy of discrimination… totally impractical.”	Almeida acknowledges that racial mixing did not eradicate racism but argues that Brazilian society could not sustain segregationist policies like those in the United States. This reflects the argument that Brazil’s racial structure was distinct, yet still marked by prejudice.
“The noteworthy fact is that mulatto features are not restricted to the Virgin but invade the whole composition.”	This refers to Manuel da Costa Ataíde’s painting of the Assumption, where the Virgin and angels are depicted with mixed-race features. It symbolizes the deep racial integration in Brazil’s artistic and cultural expression.
“Among the non-European peoples who contributed to the historical formation of Brazil—Amerindians and Africans—it was the Indians who first came to the fore in the Romantic imagination.”	Almeida critiques how Romanticism in Brazilian literature idealized Indigenous peoples while marginalizing Africans, reflecting nationalistic myth-making rather than an authentic portrayal of racial integration.
“The African is not linked to the genesis of the Brazilian, not even in the lyrical and idealized form that Alencar applies to the Indian.”	This highlights a gap in Brazilian literary history, where African heritage was often excluded from national identity-building efforts in literature, unlike Indigenous heritage.
“A mulatto appears for the first time as a novel’s central character in the work that opens the realist period of Brazilian literature; in fact, its title is O Mulato (1881).”	Almeida points out that racial themes gained more direct attention in Realist literature, shifting from the symbolic Romantic portrayals of racial mixing to addressing social barriers against mixed-race individuals.
“If Brazil has contributed something important to the enrichment of world culture, it is because of ethnic intermingling—this is the sign of our presence in the legacy of humanism.”	This reflects Almeida’s central thesis that Brazil’s most defining cultural contribution is racial and cultural mixing, which he sees as a positive force in shaping national identity.
“In Macunaíma the issue of racial mixing is extrapolated from the limited domain of social or sociological mimetism to embrace, on a symbolic level, the whole of Brazilian reality.”	Almeida discusses Mário de Andrade’s Macunaíma, emphasizing how Modernist literature fully integrated racial and cultural mixing into its representation of Brazilian identity.
“Pedro Archanjo, the reverse of Argolo, represents moral resistance to racism and as such is the spokesman for some of the ideas that are dearest to the author’s heart.”	Almeida highlights how Jorge Amado’s Tenda dos Milagres directly challenges racist ideologies by presenting a protagonist who embraces and defends Afro-Brazilian culture.
“Today in Brazil, considered as a whole, this experience has been considerably extended and the original elements of the mix… have been joined by others: Italians, Germans, Arabs, Japanese, and many more.”	The final argument in Almeida’s work acknowledges that Brazilian racial integration has continued beyond its colonial roots, incorporating a wide range of immigrant influences.

Suggested Readings: “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida

1. Mauricio Gomes de Almeida, José. “Literature and Racial Integration.” Diogenes 48.191 (2000): 72-83.
2. Davis, Arthur P. “Integration and Race Literature.” Phylon (1940-1956), vol. 17, no. 2, 1956, pp. 141–46. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/272587. Accessed 15 Mar. 2025.
3. Goff, Brian L., et al. “Racial Integration as an Innovation: Empirical Evidence from Sports Leagues.” The American Economic Review, vol. 92, no. 1, 2002, pp. 16–26. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3083319. Accessed 15 Mar. 2025.
4. Jefferson, Ruth Bryant. “Some Obstacles to Racial Integration.” The Journal of Negro Education, vol. 26, no. 2, 1957, pp. 145–54. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2293340. Accessed 15 Mar. 2025.