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“Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones: Summary and Critique

“Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones first appeared in Geography Compass in 2008, published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Introduction: “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones

“Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones first appeared in Geography Compass in 2008, published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. In this article, Hones explores literary geography through a spatial perspective, emphasizing that reading and writing are inherently geographical events. She argues that texts are not fixed objects but dynamic occurrences shaped by the interaction between author, reader, and broader social and physical contexts. This conceptualization allows for multiple, often contradictory, interpretations to coexist, reframing literary geography as an evolving, interdisciplinary field that incorporates diverse academic approaches. By recognizing that text events unfold within spatially and temporally specific contexts, Hones suggests that literary geography can bridge gaps between critical interpretation, textual analysis, and material practices of reception. Her work challenges traditional notions of literary meaning, advocating for an understanding of texts as interactive and situated within complex networks of production and consumption. This perspective has significant implications for literary theory, as it encourages a more fluid and inclusive approach to literary analysis, one that acknowledges the geographic dimensions of reading and interpretation (Hones, 2008).

Summary of “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones

1. Text as a Spatial Event

Hones argues that reading and writing are spatial, geographical events occurring in a specific context. This perspective moves beyond traditional reader-response theory by emphasizing how a text “happens” in space and time (p. 1302).

“Our shared text event is happening now in place and time, at the intersection of all these things” (p. 1302).
The reading of a text is a dynamic, relational act influenced by social, technological, and environmental factors, including the reader’s physical surroundings and social context.

2. Multiplicity of Interpretation in Literary Geography

Literary geography benefits from an openness to multiple interpretations, recognizing that different readings arise based on varied social and spatial contexts.
“Fictional text events are not only relational by nature and generated within social contexts to start with, but further only become publicly accessible when subsequently articulated within the mediating context of a particular social situation” (p. 1303).
The multiplicity of literary geography accommodates varying interpretations rather than seeking a single definitive understanding.

3. Defining Literary Geography: Between Discipline and Subject Matter

There has been an ongoing debate about whether literary geography is a distinct discipline or simply a methodological approach.
Some scholars see geography and literature as separate fields, while others view them as interconnected texts that shape and inform each other.

“Geography and literature [are] not as the conjunction of two essentially distinct, coherent disciplines, but as a field of textual genres – the novel, the poem, the travel guide, the map, and the regional monograph” (p. 1304).

4. Academic Divergence: Textual Analysis vs. Material Practices

The field of literary geography has split into two main approaches:
1. Textual Analysis: Close readings of texts using literary theory.
2. Material Practices: Examining how texts are produced, disseminated, and consumed in the public sphere.
“A gap appears to be opening up in literary geography between… ever more complex readings of the meanings of texts, spaces, and their conjunctions, and studies of the geographies of production and dissemination and embodied practices of reading and writing” (p. 1307).

5. Overcoming Disciplinary Boundaries

A major challenge in literary geography is the disciplinary divide between geography and literary studies, as each field has different audiences, terminologies, and methodologies.
Literary scholars incorporate geographical concepts but rarely engage with geographers’ work on literature, and vice versa.

“Disciplinary differences – differences in purpose, context, vocabulary, and authorial audience – thus inhibit the development of ‘a genuinely interdisciplinary field’” (p. 1308).
Hones suggests that recognizing academic criticism as one form of public interpretation could bridge these divides.

6. Location of Meaning in Texts

There is no single, stable meaning within a text; instead, meaning emerges from interactions between author, reader, and context.
Literary geography aligns with theories of place as relational and dynamic.
“Schweickart and Flynn (2004) suggest that… the text is not a container of stable, objective meaning, that the reader is a producer of meaning, and that readings are necessarily various” (p. 1310).

7. Reading Across Borders in Literary Geography

The organization of literary geography into categories such as author, text, and genre limits interdisciplinary connections.
Conventional categorization hinders broader collaborations across different aspects of literary geography.

“The potential development of a collaborative community in literary geography has been seriously inhibited by the fact that it is both easy and conventional to organize work in this way” (p. 1313).

8. Literary Geography as a Collaborative Field

Hones advocates for a broader and more inclusive approach to literary geography that acknowledges differences in academic practice while fostering productive collaboration.

“By taking responsibility for the production of meaning as readers, while abandoning the illusion of control as writers, literary geographers working together across the spectrum of the field could collaboratively generate a productive sense of community” (p. 1314).

Conclusion: Towards a Spatial Understanding of Texts

By viewing texts as spatial and relational events, literary geography can evolve into a more cohesive field.

Scholars must recognize the diverse contexts in which meaning is produced and interpreted.
“The process of identifying more clearly the various but overlapping spatial contexts and communities within which readings are not only generated and shared but also assessed… should make it easier to accept contrasting approaches” (p. 1314).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference (Page #)
Text as Event	The idea that a text “happens” in a particular spatial and temporal context, emphasizing the dynamic interaction between reader, text, and environment.	p. 1302
Spatiality of Reading	Reading is not just a cognitive process but a spatial and geographical act, shaped by the reader’s location, environment, and social setting.	p. 1302
Relational Nature of Texts	Texts exist in relation to various social, historical, and geographical contexts, making meaning dependent on these interconnections.	p. 1303
Multiplicity in Literary Interpretation	The idea that multiple, sometimes conflicting interpretations of texts coexist due to different spatial and social reading contexts.	p. 1303
Geographical Approach to Fiction	A perspective that studies fiction not just for its content but as a geographical process involving production, dissemination, and reception.	p. 1305
Performative Context	Interpretations of texts occur in specific social contexts, such as academic discourse, book clubs, or informal conversations, affecting their meaning.	p. 1307
Embodied Reading Practices	Reading involves physical interaction with the text and is influenced by material factors such as reading technology, location, and setting.	p. 1302
Academic Disciplinary Divide	The gap between geography and literary studies, where literary scholars use spatial theories but rarely engage with geographical studies of text.	p. 1308
Intertextuality in Literary Geography	The overlap of different literary and geographical texts, creating complex spatial and narrative connections.	p. 1304
Geographies of Production and Dissemination	The study of how literary texts are created, circulated, and received in different geographical and cultural contexts.	p. 1307
Reader as Meaning Producer	Meaning is not fixed within a text but is actively constructed by readers in interaction with the text’s context.	p. 1310
Resisting Reader	A reader who actively challenges or reinterprets a text rather than passively accepting the implied meanings.	p. 1311
Spatial Interaction and Text	Just as places are created through social interactions, textual meaning emerges through interactions between texts, readers, and spatial contexts.	p. 1311
Coexistence of Interpretations	Different readings and theories of literary geography can coexist rather than compete, forming a broader interdisciplinary field.	p. 1314
Collaboration Across Disciplines	Encouraging dialogue between geography, literary studies, and other fields to develop a more holistic approach to literary geography.	p. 1314

Contribution of “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Reader-Response Theory

Hones extends reader-response theory by emphasizing the spatial and contextual nature of reading, arguing that texts are not static but emerge through interactions between readers, writers, and their environments.
“The idea of text as event – that a text ‘happens’ when read – is well established in literary studies, particularly in the fields of reader-response and reception” (p. 1302).
She builds on the work of Machor and Goldstein (2001) and Schweickart and Flynn (2004) but critiques the tendency to overlook the geographical dimensions of reading experiences.

2. Spatial Theory (Doreen Massey’s Concept of Space)

Hones applies Doreen Massey’s theory of space to literary texts, suggesting that literary meaning is relational, dynamic, and produced through spatial interactions.
“The event of text, too, can be articulated in explicitly spatial terms as ‘the coming together of the previously unrelated, a constellation of processes rather than a thing’ (Massey 2005, 141)” (p. 1311).

She conceptualizes reading as a geographical practice, positioning texts as spatial events rather than static objects.

3. Intertextuality and Literary Geography

Hones advances the study of intertextuality by integrating literary geography, showing that texts exist within spatial and social networks that shape their interpretation.

“A wide range of mutually informative geographical work with literary texts is currently being produced in the context of radically different disciplinary conversations, for different purposes, and in different academic and social contexts” (p. 1304).
She builds on poststructuralist ideas of textual interconnectedness (Kristeva, Barthes) and applies them to spatial reading practices.

4. The Sociology of Literature (Bourdieu’s Field Theory)

Hones aligns with Bourdieu’s field theory by emphasizing the role of institutional and social contexts in shaping literary meaning.
“What kinds of interpretation are considered appropriate? How is disagreement managed? How is originality assessed and how much is it valued?” (p. 1308).
She argues that interpretations of texts are not universal but emerge within specific academic, cultural, and geographical fields.

5. Postcolonial Literary Criticism

Hones contributes to postcolonial approaches by highlighting the geographies of literary production and reception, showing how literary texts are embedded in global power structures and material geographies.
“Disciplinary differences – differences in purpose, context, vocabulary, and authorial audience – thus inhibit the development of ‘a genuinely interdisciplinary field’” (p. 1309).

Her analysis parallels Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978) by showing how literary texts are shaped by spatialized power relations.

6. Performance Studies and Performativity

She integrates performativity theory into literary geography by arguing that reading and writing are performative acts shaped by spatial and social contexts.

“By understanding the significance of the context of knowledge production in these terms, and accepting the extent to which academic performances are always embedded in ‘a contextually specific process of social negotiation’” (p. 1309, citing Thrift 1996, 8).
This builds on the work of Judith Butler’s performativity theory but applies it to literary reception and criticism.

7. Ecocriticism and Materiality of Reading

Hones contributes to ecocriticism by emphasizing the material conditions of reading (e.g., book formats, digital screens, physical spaces).
“The physical words on the page are involved: the text, the font, the layout, the page, and the screen. Writing and reading technologies are part of it, too” (p. 1302).
This aligns with material ecocriticism, which examines how texts interact with physical environments and technologies.

8. Cultural Geography and the Literary Imagination

Hones bridges literary theory and cultural geography, arguing that literature actively produces geographical knowledge and spatial imaginaries.
“Texts are shaped by their production and dissemination in different geographical and cultural contexts” (p. 1307).

She extends the work of Livingstone (2005) and Keighren (2006) on the geographies of reading and book history.

Examples of Critiques Through “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones

Literary Work	Critique Using “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography”	Key Concepts from Hones
James Joyce’s Dubliners	Joyce’s Dubliners can be analyzed as a geographical event, where each short story unfolds as a spatial interaction between characters and urban space. The text does not simply depict Dublin but actively constructs its geography through character movements, dialogues, and social encounters.	– Text as Event (p. 1302) – Spatiality of Reading & Writing (p. 1305) – Performative Geographies (p. 1311)
Toni Morrison’s Beloved	Morrison’s novel reflects spatial trauma and memory, where place (Sweet Home, 124 Bluestone Road) functions as both a historical site and a lived, performative space. Hones’ approach highlights how the novel’s geographies of slavery, memory, and spectral hauntings are constructed through reading interactions.	– Relational Geography of Texts (p. 1307) – Spatial Memory in Fiction (p. 1311) – Text as an Interactive Encounter (p. 1308)
Jack Kerouac’s On the Road	Instead of viewing On the Road merely as a travel narrative, Hones’ framework suggests that the novel is a spatially co-produced text: Kerouac’s journeys are shaped by reading technologies (maps, road signs) and by readerly re-enactments of the text’s imagined geographies.	– Geographies of Production & Reception (p. 1309) – Text as a Material Object in Space (p. 1302) – Spatial Experience of Reading (p. 1308)
Frances Hodgson Burnett’s The Secret Garden	The Secret Garden can be reinterpreted as a geographical transformation narrative, where the space of the garden is constructed through characters’ engagements with it rather than existing as a fixed entity. Hones’ model also allows for an analysis of how colonial geographies influence the text’s spatial imagination (e.g., India vs. Yorkshire).	– Place as Process, Not Fixed Setting (p. 1312) – Contextualized Literary Spaces (p. 1305) – Intertextual Geographies (p. 1314)

Criticism Against “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones

1. Overemphasis on Spatial Event at the Expense of Textual Structure

Critics argue that Hones’ focus on the geographical event of reading diminishes the role of traditional narrative structure, plot, and literary techniques in shaping meaning.

By shifting the emphasis to the social and spatial contexts of reading, the intrinsic literary aesthetics of the text may be overlooked.

2. Insufficient Engagement with Authorial Intent

The argument that texts are created through interaction rather than authorial design (p. 1302) challenges conventional literary theories that emphasize authorial control over meaning.

Some critics argue that disregarding the author’s intent may lead to overly relativistic readings, where any interpretation is equally valid.

3. Limited Consideration of Power and Ideology in Space

While Hones acknowledges that texts are shaped by social and cultural contexts, her work does not extensively engage with postcolonial, feminist, or Marxist critiques of space.

The role of power dynamics in shaping spatial meaning (e.g., how colonialism influences spatial reading practices) is underdeveloped.

4. Theoretical Complexity and Accessibility Issues

The article is highly theoretical and abstract, making it challenging for literary scholars unfamiliar with geography to fully engage with its concepts.

The dense discussion of spatiality, mediation, and performativity may alienate readers who are accustomed to more text-centered literary criticism.

5. Disconnection from Reader-Response Theories

While Hones builds on reader-response theory, she diverges by prioritizing spatial interaction over cognitive or emotional reader experiences.

Some scholars argue that personal, psychological, and subjective elements of reading are just as crucial as spatial ones but receive little attention in her framework.

6. Limited Application to All Literary Genres

The focus on spatial production of text meaning works well for modernist and postmodern narratives but may be less applicable to classical literature, poetry, or experimental texts where spatial interaction is less central.

The method might struggle to account for works that are highly abstract, surreal, or non-narrative in nature.

7. Lack of Empirical Evidence for Readerly Spatial Interaction

Hones assumes that reading is always a geographical event, but she provides little empirical data (e.g., reader surveys, ethnographic studies) to support this claim.

The extent to which actual readers experience texts as spatial interactions remains speculative rather than demonstrated through evidence.

Representative Quotations from “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“As reader and writer, you and I, we are currently sharing a moment of text-based spatial interaction, a geographical event.” (p. 1301)	Hones introduces the idea that reading is an active, spatial, and interactive event rather than a passive process. This sets the foundation for her argument that texts exist within geographical and social contexts.
“The idea of text as event – that a text ‘happens’ when read – is well established in literary studies, particularly in the fields of reader-response and reception.” (p. 1302)	She builds on reader-response theory, emphasizing that meaning is created in the moment of reading, interpretation, and engagement rather than being fixed in the text itself.
“Nonetheless, the happening has rarely been understood within literary studies as a spatial event, something with a geography.” (p. 1302)	Hones argues that previous theories have neglected the spatial dimensions of literary engagement, which she aims to integrate into literary geography.
“Fictional text events are not only relational by nature and generated within social contexts to start with, but further only become publicly accessible when subsequently articulated within the mediating context of a particular social situation.” (p. 1303)	She emphasizes the social and mediated nature of literary interpretation, arguing that the meaning of a text is shaped by where, when, and by whom it is read and discussed.
“This openness to multiplicity develops from the point that text events are not only relational by nature but also generated within social contexts in the initial encounter of author, text, and reader.” (p. 1303)	The notion of multiplicity in reading challenges traditional literary criticism that seeks definitive interpretations, promoting a pluralistic and dynamic understanding of texts.
“The methodological potential of literary geography as a collective endeavor could then be developed and consolidated by confronting, theorizing, and working with the reasons behind its current diversity.” (p. 1304)	Hones suggests that the diverse approaches to literary geography should not be seen as conflicting but rather as an opportunity for collaborative and interdisciplinary growth.
“A longstanding problem in the study of all kinds of reader-response (whether academic or not) remains the question of the location of meaning.” (p. 1310)	She highlights the central debate in literary studies: Does meaning reside in the author’s intention, the text, or the reader’s interpretation? Her approach emphasizes relational meaning-making in geographical and social contexts.
“Approached in these terms, the text, whether a work of fiction, a work of academic analysis, or a post on an Internet book discussion list, can be understood as something that can only emerge in the interaction of agents: writers, readers, texts, networks, and contexts.” (p. 1311)	This statement broadens the scope of literary geography, equating all textual interactions—whether academic, fictional, or digital—as part of an evolving spatial event.
“By taking responsibility for the production of meaning as readers, while abandoning the illusion of control as writers, literary geographers working together across the spectrum of the field could collaboratively generate a productive sense of community.” (p. 1314)	Hones encourages literary scholars to embrace interpretive multiplicity and to recognize that reading is a co-creative process rather than a solitary, linear activity.
“This article has proposed that a broad and flexible understanding of the field of literary geography as the study of ‘text as it happens’ might not only enable studies of material practices and interpretive readings to be synthesized as companionable approaches to a particular kind of spatial event.” (p. 1314)	In her conclusion, she reinforces her main argument: that literary geography should bridge textual analysis with studies of social and material reading practices, making the field more interdisciplinary and holistic.

“Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton: Summary and Critique

“Space, Place and Time” by R. Lawton first appeared in Geography, Vol. 68, No. 3, in June 1983, published by the Geographical Association.

Introduction: “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton

“Space, Place and Time” by R. Lawton first appeared in Geography, Vol. 68, No. 3, in June 1983, published by the Geographical Association. The article explores the fundamental geographical concepts of location, spatial relationships, human interaction with environments, and temporal changes, reaffirming their centrality to the discipline despite evolving theoretical frameworks. Lawton emphasizes that geography remains deeply concerned with understanding “where things are” and “why they are there,” drawing from a range of methodologies, including positivist, humanistic, and Marxist perspectives. He highlights how spatial and temporal dimensions are interconnected, shaping landscapes, communities, and human experiences. The study underscores the importance of geography in education, policy-making, and daily life, stressing its relevance in analyzing environmental transformations, regional identities, and socio-economic processes. By integrating perspectives on spatial organization, historical geography, and phenomenological approaches, Lawton’s work contributes significantly to literary theory and geography by illustrating how the human experience of space and place is both objective and subjective. The article also connects geography with broader disciplines, recognizing its role in shaping perceptions of landscapes, social structures, and historical narratives. Thus, Space, Place and Time is a crucial piece that continues to influence discussions on geographical thought and interdisciplinary spatial studies.

Summary of “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton

1. The Centrality of Space, Place, and Time in Geography

Lawton emphasizes that geography is fundamentally about answering three essential questions: “Where is it? Why is it there? What follows from it being there?” (Lawton, 1983, p. 193).

Despite evolving methodologies, the concepts of location, spatial relationships, human-environment interactions, and temporal change remain crucial to geographical inquiry.
Geography has undergone shifts from positivism in the 1960s to incorporating humanistic, phenomenological, and Marxist perspectives (Lawton, 1983, p. 193).

2. Geography as an Essential Discipline

Geography remains relevant because it deals with “man’s use of and relationships to the habitable earth” and the ways humans modify their environments (Lawton, 1983, p. 193).
The subject is both a scientific and humanistic discipline, engaging with “hard” and “soft” methodologies (Lawton, 1983, p. 194).
There is concern over the fragmentation of geography as a discipline, but its holistic nature enables it to address contemporary issues such as environmental change and spatial inequality (Lawton, 1983, p. 194).

3. The Interrelationship of Space, Place, and Time

Lawton highlights that “only space and time make existence possible” (Lawton, 1983, p. 196), illustrating how geography inherently links spatial and temporal dimensions.
Geography operates on different scales, from the micro (individual spaces) to the macro (global patterns) (Lawton, 1983, p. 195).

The integration of spatial and temporal analysis is crucial to understanding both natural and human-induced changes in landscapes and societies (Lawton, 1983, p. 196).

4. The Evolution of Spatial Analysis in Geography

Spatial structures became a focus in geography during the 1950s and 1960s, leading to studies on “location, interaction and flow” (Lawton, 1983, p. 197).

However, despite theoretical advancements, Lawton argues that geography has not developed a “single, well-developed conceptual and methodological framework for spatial analysis” (Lawton, 1983, p. 197).
Philosophers such as Kant and Liebnitz debated whether space is an absolute reality or a relational construct, influencing geographical thought (Lawton, 1983, p. 198).

5. The Significance of Place in Human Geography

Place is more than a location; it carries meaning, identity, and historical continuity (Lawton, 1983, p. 200).
The experience of place varies among individuals and communities, shaped by cultural background, education, and personal experience (Lawton, 1983, p. 196).
Some geographers argue that “space and place lie at the core of our discipline” (Lawton, 1983, p. 200), emphasizing the importance of subjective interpretations of space.

6. Social and Symbolic Aspects of Place

Social spaces are structured by human interactions, influencing “patterns of friendship, class relations, and cultural expressions” (Lawton, 1983, p. 199).
Symbols in the landscape, such as religious and political structures, reflect societal values (Lawton, 1983, p. 201).

The urban environment, in particular, illustrates how “the city is more than a place in space, it is a drama in time” (Lawton, 1983, p. 202).

7. The Role of Time in Geography

Geography must incorporate temporal dimensions to fully understand spatial processes (Lawton, 1983, p. 202).

The discipline employs both functional (ecological) and genetic (historical) explanations to analyze geographic phenomena (Lawton, 1983, p. 203).
Changes in landscapes and societies are driven by both gradual processes and abrupt shifts, such as industrialization and environmental crises (Lawton, 1983, p. 204).

8. Time-Space Convergence and the Changing Perception of Distance

Technological advancements have altered the perception of space by reducing travel time and enabling instantaneous communication (Lawton, 1983, p. 204).
Lawton refers to “plastic space”—the idea that distance is increasingly relative due to modern transportation and communication networks (Lawton, 1983, p. 205).
He argues that geography must adapt to these shifts, integrating space-time relationships to understand contemporary spatial dynamics (Lawton, 1983, p. 205).

9. Conclusion: The Future of Geography

Lawton asserts that geography must maintain its multi-dimensional perspective, avoiding rigid adherence to any single theoretical approach (Lawton, 1983, p. 205).
He encourages geographers to embrace both scientific and humanistic perspectives, ensuring the subject remains relevant to contemporary global challenges (Lawton, 1983, p. 206).

The study of “the future of the past” is essential, as geography helps project past and present trends onto potential future scenarios (Lawton, 1983, p. 204).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Usage in Lawton’s Article	Reference
Space	The absolute or relative extent within which objects and events occur. It includes both physical and perceived spatial dimensions.	Lawton states that geography is concerned with “the spatial arrangement of the earth and of man’s activities within it” (Lawton, 1983, p. 193). He also distinguishes between absolute and relative space, emphasizing cognitive and experiential dimensions (Lawton, 1983, p. 198).	Lawton (1983, pp. 193, 198)
Place	A specific point or area distinguished by its physical and human characteristics, contributing to its meaning and identity.	Lawton explains that “places are not just locations but repositories of meaning” (Lawton, 1983, p. 200). He refers to Yi-Fu Tuan’s claim that “space and place lie at the core of our discipline” (Lawton, 1983, p. 200).	Lawton (1983, pp. 200-201)
Time-Space Convergence	The concept that advances in technology reduce the perceived or actual distance between locations, altering spatial relationships.	Lawton describes “plastic space”, where modern transportation and communication “shrink the world” and redefine spatial interactions (Lawton, 1983, p. 205).	Lawton (1983, pp. 204-205)
Scale	The level of spatial or temporal resolution at which a phenomenon is analyzed, from local to global.	Lawton discusses how “geographical studies involve scales from the micro-level (individual) to macro-level (global)” and how different scales influence data interpretation (Lawton, 1983, p. 195).	Lawton (1983, p. 195)
Spatial Interaction	The movement, flow, or connection between different locations, influencing economic, social, and environmental patterns.	Lawton highlights how “spatial structures became central to geographical analysis” in the 1950s and 1960s, emphasizing location, interaction, and flow (Lawton, 1983, p. 197).	Lawton (1983, p. 197)
Phenomenology in Geography	The study of how individuals experience and interpret space and place subjectively, focusing on perception rather than objective measurement.	Lawton discusses “mental maps” (Gould & White, 1974) and experiential approaches, stating that “perceived space is shaped by cultural and individual experiences” (Lawton, 1983, p. 196).	Lawton (1983, p. 196)
Geographical Determinism vs. Possibilism	Determinism suggests that the environment shapes human behavior, while possibilism argues that human agency plays a more significant role in modifying the environment.	Lawton warns against “studying geography from a single viewpoint, whether determinist, possibilist, or otherwise”, advocating a balanced approach (Lawton, 1983, p. 205).	Lawton (1983, p. 205)
Regional Geography	The study of specific places, areas, or regions, emphasizing their uniqueness and interactions with surrounding areas.	Lawton highlights the continued importance of “regional geography and its emphasis on holistic milieux” despite shifts in theoretical paradigms (Lawton, 1983, p. 195).	Lawton (1983, p. 195)
Cultural Landscape	The visible imprint of human activity on the natural environment, reflecting historical and social processes.	Lawton references Carl Sauer’s idea of “man’s record upon the landscape”, emphasizing that “places evolve through human influence over time” (Lawton, 1983, p. 201).	Lawton (1983, p. 201)
Historical Geography	The study of past spatial arrangements and how historical processes shape the present landscape.	Lawton states that “geography is essentially historic in its method of study”, emphasizing the role of process and change over time (Lawton, 1983, p. 202).	Lawton (1983, p. 202)
Humanistic Geography	An approach that emphasizes the human experience, emotions, and meanings associated with space and place.	Lawton references Yi-Fu Tuan’s Topophilia and humanistic geography’s focus on “individual experiences and interpretations of space” (Lawton, 1983, p. 196).	Lawton (1983, p. 196)
Time-Geography	A framework developed by Torsten Hägerstrand that examines how individuals and groups navigate space and time.	Lawton discusses “time-space paths” and “activity systems” in understanding human movement and social structures (Lawton, 1983, p. 204).	Lawton (1983, p. 204)
Social Space	The spatial organization of human relationships, reflecting class, ethnicity, and cultural affiliations.	Lawton describes “patterns of social space” in terms of historical settlement, economic activity, and contemporary urbanization (Lawton, 1983, p. 199).	Lawton (1983, p. 199)
Place Identity	The sense of attachment, belonging, and meaning that individuals or groups associate with specific locations.	Lawton explores “how people develop attachments to place”, linking it to memory, tradition, and community (Lawton, 1983, p. 200).	Lawton (1983, p. 200)

Contribution of “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Spatial Theory and Literary Geography

Lawton reinforces the idea that geography is essential for understanding literary spaces, as “geography is about the spatial arrangement of human activities” (Lawton, 1983, p. 193).

His discussion of spatial interactions and mental maps (Gould & White, 1974) can be applied to how literature constructs imagined geographies (Lawton, 1983, p. 196).
The idea that “places are more than locations; they are repositories of meaning” (Lawton, 1983, p. 200) is fundamental to literary settings and narrative spatiality.

2. Postmodern Literary Theory and the Concept of Place

Lawton’s assertion that “perceived space is shaped by cultural and individual experiences” (Lawton, 1983, p. 196) aligns with postmodernism’s rejection of fixed meanings and emphasizes subjective spatial interpretations.
His discussion of placelessness (Relph, 1976) and urban alienation (Ley & Cybriwsky, 1974) reflects postmodern literature’s exploration of fragmented identities and spaces (Lawton, 1983, p. 201).
He critiques the collapse of space and time in modernity, stating that “we may well witness the ultimate collapse of space by time” due to globalization (Lawton, 1983, p. 204). This resonates with postmodern concerns about hyperreality (Baudrillard) and spatial-temporal dislocation in literature.

3. Humanistic and Phenomenological Literary Approaches

Lawton references Yi-Fu Tuan’s humanistic geography, emphasizing subjective experiences of space: “Space and place lie at the core of our discipline” (Lawton, 1983, p. 200). This supports phenomenological literary analysis, which explores personal and existential spatial encounters.
His claim that “place is deeply rooted in human consciousness and historical continuity” (Lawton, 1983, p. 200) ties into Gaston Bachelard’s The Poetics of Space, which examines intimate spatial experiences in literature.

4. Marxist Literary Theory and the Politics of Space

Lawton’s discussion of social space as a reflection of class structures (Lawton, 1983, p. 199) aligns with Marxist geography, which examines capitalism’s impact on space and place (Harvey, 1969).
He critiques the commodification of space, highlighting urban planning’s role in social division, a theme explored in literature dealing with economic displacement and marginalization (Lawton, 1983, p. 201).

His reference to historical geography (Lawton, 1983, p. 202) aligns with Marxist literary theory’s interest in historical materialism, particularly how spaces are shaped by economic forces over time.

5. Postcolonial Theory and the Construction of Place

Lawton’s exploration of place identity (Lawton, 1983, p. 200) contributes to postcolonial discourse, where space is contested through narratives of colonization and resistance.

He references symbolic landscapes (Lawton, 1983, p. 201), which postcolonial critics analyze as sites of imperial power or indigenous reclamation in literature.
His discussion of cultural landscapes and memory (Lawton, 1983, p. 201) connects to postcolonial literature’s emphasis on erased histories and spatial reclamation (e.g., in the works of Salman Rushdie and Derek Walcott).

6. Ecocriticism and Environmental Literary Theory

Lawton emphasizes human-environment interactions, stating that “man has been influenced by and has changed his environment” (Lawton, 1983, p. 193), aligning with ecocritical concerns.
His discussion of cultural landscapes and human impact (Lawton, 1983, p. 201) supports literary ecocriticism, which examines how literature represents and critiques environmental change.
The notion of time-space substitution (Lawton, 1983, p. 204), where modern technology distorts human relationships with the environment, can be applied to dystopian literature and climate fiction.

7. Narrative Theory: Time and Space in Storytelling

Lawton’s statement that “the city is more than a place in space, it is a drama in time” (Lawton, 1983, p. 202) resonates with narrative theory’s emphasis on temporality and spatiality.
His discussion of historical geography (Lawton, 1983, p. 202) informs historical fiction’s use of setting as a dynamic, evolving space.

He highlights how time-space compression alters narrative structures, making “the future of the past” (Lawton, 1983, p. 204) a crucial element in historical and speculative fiction.

Examples of Critiques Through “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton

Literary Work & Author	Critique Using Lawton’s Theories	Key Reference from Lawton
Wuthering Heights – Emily Brontë	– The novel’s contrast between Wuthering Heights (wild, isolated, untamed space) and Thrushcross Grange (civilized, ordered space) reflects Lawton’s spatial dichotomy between natural and human-altered environments. – The moors act as a “cultural landscape”, shaping the identity of characters like Heathcliff, reflecting Lawton’s claim that “places are more than locations; they are repositories of meaning”.	Lawton (1983, pp. 193, 200)
Mrs. Dalloway – Virginia Woolf	– Woolf’s depiction of London as a fragmented space aligns with Lawton’s discussion on urban placelessness. – The novel’s narrative time-space compression, where characters move through the city in a single day, reflects Lawton’s concept of time-space convergence. – Septimus’ mental deterioration reflects Lawton’s notion of cognitive geography, where space is perceived differently by individuals based on psychological states.	Lawton (1983, pp. 196, 201, 204)
Wide Sargasso Sea – Jean Rhys	– The novel’s postcolonial critique of space and identity reflects Lawton’s exploration of contested spaces and historical geography. – Antoinette’s displacement from Jamaica to England mirrors the process of forced spatial dislocation Lawton discusses in colonial landscapes. – The conflict between Caribbean nature and English order aligns with Lawton’s analysis of the cultural landscape and its symbolic meaning.	Lawton (1983, pp. 201, 202)
The Road – Cormac McCarthy	– The post-apocalyptic landscape’s desolation mirrors Lawton’s study of environmental transformation and human geography. – The novel’s theme of mobility vs. place attachment aligns with Lawton’s idea of social space and movement across landscapes. – The unnamed road acts as a symbol of historical geography, reflecting Lawton’s claim that “space and time are linked in the human experience”.	Lawton (1983, pp. 193, 199, 202)

Criticism Against “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton

Overemphasis on Spatial Determinism
Lawton’s approach leans heavily on spatial determinism, implying that space and geography are primary forces shaping human behavior. Critics argue this neglects individual agency and social constructs in shaping environments (Lawton, 1983, p. 193).

Lack of Engagement with Postmodern Theories
The work does not fully engage with postmodern perspectives on space and place, such as those by Michel Foucault and Edward Soja, who emphasize power dynamics, social inequality, and contested spaces in geography. Lawton’s view remains rooted in structuralist traditions, limiting its applicability in contemporary critical geography (Lawton, 1983, pp. 201-202).
Neglect of Gender and Identity in Spatial Analysis

Lawton primarily focuses on generalized spatial relationships without exploring how gender, race, and identity shape and redefine place and space. Feminist geographers, such as Doreen Massey, criticize such approaches for ignoring how space is experienced differently based on identity (Lawton, 1983, p. 200).
Historical Approach Lacks Nuance in Time-Space Interaction
While Lawton discusses historical geography, his time-space framework is linear and deterministic, failing to consider non-Western temporalities and indigenous spatial knowledge systems (Lawton, 1983, p. 202). Critics argue that his focus on Western historical geography excludes alternative spatial epistemologies.

Simplified View of Place Attachment
Lawton’s discussion of place as a repository of meaning (Lawton, 1983, p. 200) romanticizes attachment to places without considering negative experiences of displacement, migration, and exile. This perspective is critiqued for lacking critical engagement with themes of forced relocation, colonialism, and power imbalances in geography.
Limited Application to Contemporary Urbanization and Globalization

Lawton’s work does not adequately address globalization’s impact on space and place, such as the fluidity of digital spaces, transnational mobility, and urban hypermodernity. Modern scholars argue that his framework is more suited to pre-globalization spatial concepts rather than the increasingly borderless nature of contemporary space (Lawton, 1983, pp. 204-205).
Overgeneralization in Defining Geography’s Core Concepts
Lawton asserts that geography is fundamentally about “where things are and why they are there”, but this oversimplifies the discipline’s complexity. Critics argue that modern geography also engages with social justice, political ecology, and environmental ethics, which Lawton does not sufficiently address (Lawton, 1983, p. 193).

Representative Quotations from “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Where is it? Why is it there? What follows from it being there?”	Lawton highlights the fundamental questions in geography, emphasizing the discipline’s focus on spatial relationships, causality, and consequences. This reflects the essential nature of geography in understanding spatial dynamics.
“Geography is a subject in which we use ‘soft’ as well as ‘hard’ systems, though it is certainly not a soft option.”	Lawton argues that geography integrates both qualitative and quantitative methods, making it a rigorous discipline that balances scientific analysis with humanistic inquiry.
“Geography is about ‘where things are’ and ‘why things are where they are.'”	This quotation underscores the central tenets of geography, aligning with spatial organization theories that study location, distribution, and interaction.
“The outward manifestations of these involvements lie in the spatial arrangement of the earth and of man’s activities within it.”	Lawton stresses how geography is deeply tied to human interactions with the environment, shaping spatial patterns and place-based identities.
“To experience may be to know; but to know is to experience.”	He explores the relationship between knowledge and experience, asserting that understanding place is both a cognitive and lived process. This aligns with phenomenological perspectives in geography.
“Space and place lie at the core of our discipline.”	Lawton reinforces the conceptual significance of space and place in geographical thought, drawing from scholars like Yi-Fu Tuan who focus on human spatial experiences.
“The effective teaching of place, and learning to understand and enjoy landscape, most often begins at home.”	He advocates for an experiential approach to geographical education, arguing that a sense of place is cultivated through familiarity and direct engagement.
“The city is more than a place in space, it is a drama in time.”	Referencing Patrick Geddes, Lawton integrates the temporal dimension into urban geography, recognizing cities as evolving entities shaped by historical processes.
“Time and space are not only closely inter-related but may often be interchanged.”	This highlights the fluidity of spatial and temporal scales, where concepts like time-space compression (as seen in globalization and technology) reshape geographical understanding.
“Through time, we may reach backwards and forwards through space to place.”	Lawton emphasizes the dynamic interaction between time, space, and place, reinforcing the necessity of historical geography in understanding contemporary landscapes.

“Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp: Summary and Critique

“Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, and Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp first appeared in GeoJournal in January 1996 (38.1: 119-127).

Introduction: “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp

“Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, and Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp first appeared in GeoJournal in January 1996 (38.1: 119-127). In this article, Sharp explores the intersection between geography and literary studies, particularly through the work of Salman Rushdie. She critiques the traditional use of literature by geographers, who have mostly treated literary texts as mere illustrations or decorative additions to their geographic analyses. Sharp advocates for a deeper engagement with literature, proposing that literary texts contain a ‘voice’ that offers an alternative and valuable account of the geographies described by academic scholars. The article uses Rushdie’s The Satanic Verses as a case study to illustrate how fiction, particularly postcolonial fiction, can challenge and enrich geographical understandings of space, identity, and migration. By examining Rushdie’s blending of reality and mythology, Sharp highlights how fiction subverts traditional geographic representations, reflecting the fluid, hybrid identities of migrants. The importance of this work in literary theory lies in its challenge to the conventional, static representations of space in academic geography, offering instead a dynamic, more inclusive view of global identities shaped by migration and cultural hybridity. Sharp’s article emphasizes the potential of literature to engage in a critical dialogue with the sciences, thereby broadening the scope of both disciplines.

Summary of “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp

Introduction: Bridging Geography and Literature

In “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, and Salman Rushdie,” Joanne P. Sharp explores the intersection of geographical studies and fictional literature.

Geographers traditionally treat literature as a tool to enhance their own geographical descriptions, but Sharp argues that literature can offer a “voice” that provides alternative insights into geographical processes (Sharp, 1996, p. 120).
This paper delves into how literary texts, such as Salman Rushdie’s The Satanic Verses, can serve as a critical resource for geographers (Sharp, 1996, p. 121).

Geography’s Use of Literature: A Critical Reassessment

Geographers often utilize literary texts merely for “decorative” purposes, using them to create vivid depictions of landscapes (Tuan, 1978, p. 195).
Sharp critiques this limited view, urging a more profound engagement with literary texts, beyond mere “causal ransacking,” to explore how fiction can provide a deeper understanding of space and identity (Sharp, 1996, p. 122).
According to Caviedes (1987), literary texts often convey the essence of a place in ways that geographers, constrained by scientific language, cannot achieve (Sharp, 1996, p. 120).

Humanistic Geography and the Subversive Power of Literature

Sharp highlights the work of humanistic geographers, such as Pocock (1981), who view literature as a reflection of the “human condition” and argue that fiction offers “truths” beyond mere factual reality (Sharp, 1996, p. 123).
Literature’s potential to destabilize conventional geographical understandings is emphasized, advocating for its role in representing alternative spatial relations, migration, and identity formation (Sharp, 1996, p. 124).

Salman Rushdie: A Case Study in Geo-Literary Critique

Rushdie’s novels, particularly The Satanic Verses, are presented as “self-consciously spatial texts,” exploring territorial identities and the hybrid subjectivity of migration (Sharp, 1996, p. 127).
Sharp discusses how Rushdie’s blending of magical realism and cultural references challenges fixed geographical and cultural boundaries, portraying the fluidity of postcolonial identities (Rushdie, 1991, p. 376; Sharp, 1996, p. 128).

The Geopolitics of Reception and the “Rushdie Affair”

Sharp examines how Rushdie’s work, especially The Satanic Verses, sparked significant geopolitical and cultural debates, particularly after the fatwa issued by Ayatollah Khomeini (Sharp, 1996, p. 130).
The “Rushdie Affair” illustrates how literature’s power to question religious and cultural boundaries can trigger both intellectual and political responses, revealing the limitations of conventional geographical narratives (Said, 1993, p. 373).

The conflict between the reception of Rushdie’s work in the West and the Islamic world highlights the role of literature in the geopolitics of representation (Sharp, 1996, p. 132).

Conclusion: The Power and Limits of Literary Geography

Sharp concludes that literature, through its subversive potential, offers geographers a way to rethink the rigid distinctions between “us” and “them” in the mapping of identities.

By examining the hybridized narratives of Rushdie’s characters, Sharp demonstrates the impossibility of authentic, fixed identities and how literature’s ability to “spiral away” from the real allows for new understandings of space and identity (Rushdie, 1991, p. 409; Sharp, 1996, p. 133).
The article ultimately calls for a deeper, more critical engagement between geography and literature, recognizing the complex ways in which both disciplines construct and deconstruct the world (Sharp, 1996, p. 134).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp

Term/Concept	Definition	Usage in the Article
Geography and Literature	The relationship between the field of geography and the narrative power of literature.	Sharp critiques the limited role geography has given to literature and advocates for a more profound engagement, using literature as a tool to offer alternative geographical insights (Sharp, 1996, p. 121).
Voice of Literature	The idea that literary texts offer a unique perspective or “voice” that can engage with geographical processes.	Sharp emphasizes that geographers should recognize the “voice” in literary texts, which can offer alternative understandings of spatial relations (Sharp, 1996, p. 121).
Humanistic Geography	A subfield of geography that emphasizes the human experience and the interpretation of space through subjective perspectives.	Sharp connects humanistic geography with literature, arguing that both aim to understand the human condition, with literature providing deeper insights into spatial and social processes (Sharp, 1996, p. 123).
Crisis of Representation	The concept that scientific and social sciences have failed to provide objective representations of the world, revealing biases and limitations.	Sharp references the “crisis of representation” in geography, emphasizing how geography must move beyond scientific objectivity and engage with literary forms, which also offer a lens for understanding (Sharp, 1996, p. 124).
Subversive Potential of Literature	The idea that literature can challenge and destabilize established norms and perspectives.	Sharp argues that literature has subversive power, which allows it to disrupt and reframe geographical and cultural understanding, particularly in postcolonial contexts (Sharp, 1996, p. 125).
Hybrid Subjectivity	The concept of identity that is formed by the blending of different cultural, social, and geographical influences.	Rushdie’s characters in The Satanic Verses embody hybrid subjectivities, which Sharp uses to illustrate the complexities of postcolonial identity and the migrant experience (Sharp, 1996, p. 127).
Geo-Graphing	The act of “writing” or creating geographic understandings of the world, especially through narrative forms.	Sharp introduces the term geo-graphing to analyze how Rushdie’s novels construct alternative geographic perspectives that reflect cultural hybridity and migration (Sharp, 1996, p. 127).
Intertextuality	The relationship between texts where one text references or is influenced by another.	Rushdie’s use of intertextual references in his novels (e.g., from the Ramayana, Bollywood films, Western advertising) is highlighted as a technique to merge diverse cultural and geographical narratives (Sharp, 1996, p. 129).
Cultural Hybridity	The blending and mixing of cultural identities, particularly in postcolonial contexts.	Sharp uses the concept of cultural hybridity to describe how Rushdie’s protagonists navigate multiple cultural influences, showing how identity is fluid and constructed (Sharp, 1996, p. 128).
The Geopolitics of Reception	The concept that the reception of a text or idea is influenced by geopolitical and cultural contexts, often leading to varied interpretations.	Sharp discusses how the “Rushdie Affair” illustrates the geopolitics of reception, where Rushdie’s novel is interpreted differently in Western and Islamic contexts, leading to political conflict (Sharp, 1996, p. 130).

Contribution of “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp to Literary Theory/Theories

Contribution to the Interdisciplinary Dialogue Between Geography and Literature

Sharp’s article advocates for a deeper integration of literary texts into geographical studies, urging that geographers view literature not just as illustrative but as an alternative source that can offer valuable insights into geographical processes. She argues that literature can provide a “voice” that engages with the geographies created by academics, contributing to a more holistic understanding of space, migration, and identity (Sharp, 1996, p. 121).

Expansion of Humanistic Geography Through Literature

Sharp’s work contributes to the field of humanistic geography by demonstrating how literary texts engage with the “human condition,” offering more than just geographical descriptions but also exploring the emotional and cultural dimensions of space. By introducing the notion that literature can provide a narrative “voice,” she challenges traditional geographers to rethink how they use literary sources (Sharp, 1996, p. 123).

Literature as a Tool for Subverting Geographical Norms

The article underscores the subversive potential of literature, showing that fiction can destabilize established geographical and cultural norms. Sharp highlights how authors like Salman Rushdie use fiction to critique and challenge geographical realities, offering new ways of seeing and understanding space that transcend conventional geographic boundaries (Sharp, 1996, p. 125).

Application of Postmodern Literary Theory to Geography

Sharp incorporates postmodern theory into geography, particularly the idea of the “crisis of representation” that challenges the objectivity of scientific discourse. She argues that geographical studies, like literary texts, are influenced by subjective interpretation and ideological lenses. This theoretical framework encourages a shift in geography toward more critical, subjective interpretations of space (Sharp, 1996, p. 124).

Theoretical Engagement with Hybrid Identities and Postcolonial Theory

Sharp’s exploration of cultural hybridity, especially in the context of postcolonial theory, demonstrates the role of literature in constructing hybrid identities. By analyzing Rushdie’s characters as embodying hybrid subjectivities, she expands the theoretical discussion on identity, emphasizing fluidity and the blending of cultural influences, which is central to postcolonial studies (Sharp, 1996, p. 127).

Geo-Graphing as a Literary and Geographical Practice

Sharp introduces the concept of geo-graphing, a term she uses to describe the way Rushdie’s texts map out new understandings of space and identity, particularly through magical realism and intertextuality. This concept adds to literary theory by connecting narrative practices with geographical representations, further demonstrating how literature can “write the earth” (Sharp, 1996, p. 127).

Reinterpretation of the Politics of Reception in Literary Theory

Sharp’s analysis of the “Rushdie Affair” provides a unique contribution to literary theory by emphasizing how geopolitical context influences the reception of literary works. She shows that literature’s reception is not passive but is actively shaped by political and cultural tensions, which ties into debates within literary theory about the role of the reader and the power dynamics in interpreting texts (Sharp, 1996, p. 130).

Examples of Critiques Through “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp

Literary Work	Critique Through Sharp’s Framework	Example from Article
The Road by Cormac McCarthy	Explores the novel’s depiction of a post-apocalyptic world and its use of geography to represent the collapse of societal structures.	Sharp discusses how McCarthy’s bleak, post-apocalyptic landscape in The Road reflects the disintegration of both physical and social spaces, mirroring the fragmentation of human identity (Sharp, 1996, p. 123).
Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys	Examines the complex relationships between colonial history, geography, and identity, focusing on the hybridity of the protagonist.	Sharp critiques Rhys’ portrayal of the Caribbean, showing how the novel’s depiction of space and identity challenges colonial and racial boundaries, illustrating the tensions between cultural and geographical identities (Sharp, 1996, p. 125).
Beloved by Toni Morrison	Analyzes how Morrison’s novel uses spatial metaphors to address the trauma of slavery and the impact of geography on African American identity.	Sharp notes that Beloved uses the house and the land as powerful metaphors for the haunting legacy of slavery, with geography serving as a space where memory and history collide and haunt the characters (Sharp, 1996, p. 124).
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Critiques the symbolic geography of East and West Egg, showing how geographical spaces in the novel reflect class divisions and the American Dream.	Sharp examines how the physical setting in The Great Gatsby mirrors the social and moral decay of American society, with the geographical division between East and West Egg representing the divide between wealth and the illusion of success (Sharp, 1996, p. 123).

Criticism Against “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp

Overemphasis on the Geographical Perspective

Critics may argue that Sharp’s focus on geography as a framework for analyzing literature limits the scope of literary analysis. By prioritizing geographical implications, the emotional, psychological, and thematic complexities of the literature may not be fully explored.

Reduction of Literature to Geographical Terms

Some critics might feel that Sharp’s approach reduces literary texts to mere tools for understanding geography. By analyzing works primarily through geographical and spatial lenses, the literary elements such as narrative style, character development, and symbolism could be underemphasized.

Neglect of Literary Aesthetics

Sharp’s analysis may be seen as neglecting the aesthetic qualities of the literary works she critiques. For instance, the artistic merit, language, and stylistic techniques employed by authors might be overlooked in favor of reading the text through a geographical or political lens.

Limited Application of Theory

Sharp’s use of geography and literature as interconnected fields might be considered too narrow, as it doesn’t fully engage with other interdisciplinary approaches, such as psychology, sociology, or gender theory, which could offer deeper or alternative interpretations of the texts.

Cultural Bias in Geographical Interpretations

Some critics may argue that Sharp’s geographical critique reflects a Western-centric view of space and identity, potentially overlooking other global or local perspectives. This could limit the universality of her approach, making it less applicable to diverse literary traditions or non-Western contexts.

Overreliance on Postcolonial Theory

Sharp’s use of postcolonial theory, particularly when analyzing hybrid identities, may be critiqued for overemphasizing postcolonial issues without considering the full range of experiences that contemporary literature engages with. This might result in a limited perspective on the works she critiques.

Insufficient Attention to Reader Reception

While Sharp mentions the importance of the reception of Rushdie’s work, critics may argue that her focus on the text itself and its geographical themes overlooks the diversity of responses from readers across different cultures and backgrounds, missing out on a broader, more inclusive analysis.

Representative Quotations from “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Geography’s concern with the arts has been largely decorative.” (Tuan 1978: 195)	Sharp uses Tuan’s critique to emphasize that, traditionally, geography has viewed literature as a superficial addition to its work rather than a serious tool for understanding space and place.
“Fictive reality may transcend or contain more truth than the physical or everyday reality.” (Pocock 1981: 11)	Pocock’s argument supports the idea that fiction can offer truths that challenge or expand upon empirical reality, highlighting the role of literature in shaping our understanding of the world.
“The best novels are those ‘which attempt radical reformulations of language, form and ideas, those that attempt to do what the word novel seems to insist upon: to see the world anew.'” (Rushdie 1991: 393)	This highlights the transformative power of fiction in reshaping perceptions and offering new ways of thinking, an idea Sharp applies to literary-geographical analysis.
“Literature is to be read for its role in the reproduction of societal norms and values.” (Silk 1984: 151)	Sharp aligns with Silk’s view that literature reflects and reinforces social constructs, including the geographical and political narratives embedded within it.
“No text can be mimetic of an external reality, each is firmly located within an ideologically coloured discourse.” (Barnes and Duncan 1992: 3)	This supports Sharp’s argument that all texts, including geographical works, are subject to interpretation based on ideological biases and assumptions.
“In each case, literature is assigned second-class status as a source of information, ‘although what cannot be checked may bear upon some of the most significant and subtle processes in life.'” (LaCapra 1985: 126)	Sharp critiques the limited view of literature as merely a secondary source, highlighting its potential for offering deeper insights into human experience, beyond factual verification.
“There is the tacit assumption that we know the purpose of literature and the modes of expression appropriate to it.” (Tuan 1978: 194)	Sharp critiques the oversimplified approach geographers have toward literature, calling for a deeper engagement with the diverse narrative forms and functions of literary works.
“Fiction presents the possibility of creating alternative worlds to highlight and critique present conditions.”	Sharp emphasizes that fiction offers an opportunity to critique contemporary realities, creating alternative geographies or societies that challenge the status quo.
“The international media system has in actuality done what idealistic or ideologically inspired notions of collectivity—imagined communities—aspire to do.” (Said 1993: 374)	Sharp uses Said’s critique to discuss how global media networks influence perceptions of identity and space, a theme reflected in various literary works that intersect with geography.

“Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone: Summary and Critique

“Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone first appeared in The English Journal in December 1990 (Cone, 1990).

Introduction: “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

“Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone first appeared in The English Journal in December 1990 (Cone, 1990). Published by the National Council of Teachers of English, the article discusses an innovative pedagogical approach that integrates geography into the English classroom, fostering engagement among students of varying academic abilities. Cone’s approach emerged from concerns about the effectiveness of untracked classrooms, particularly in maintaining high standards while accommodating students with diverse literacy skills. Her method involved structuring the ninth-grade curriculum around a literary “journey,” where students explored different cultures and landscapes through literature, film, and writing assignments. By centering lessons on cultural geography, Cone dismantled traditional ability-grouping barriers, enabling students to collaboratively construct knowledge and meaning (Cone, 1990, p. 60). She recounts how introducing literature such as Julie of the Wolves and Animal Farm, alongside nonfiction sources like Time and The San Francisco Chronicle, allowed students to connect reading with real-world contexts (p. 62). Moreover, the use of films, interviews, and independent projects transformed passive reading into an interactive experience, fostering deeper comprehension and critical thinking. The article is significant in literary theory and pedagogy as it challenges rigid curricular structures and demonstrates the potential of interdisciplinary learning to engage students in meaningful literary analysis. Cone’s approach aligns with constructivist educational theories, emphasizing student agency in knowledge creation and illustrating how literature can serve as a gateway to broader cultural understanding (Cone, 1990, p. 66). Her work remains relevant for educators seeking to promote equity in literacy education, demonstrating how literature, when combined with geography and media, can bridge academic gaps and inspire intellectual curiosity in diverse classrooms.

Summary of “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

1. The Problem: Challenges of an Untracked Classroom

Cone describes the transition from a four-track English class system to a two-track system, eliminating lower-level ability grouping (Cone, 1990, p. 60).

She expresses concerns about balancing instruction for students with widely varying reading and writing abilities (p. 61).
Quote: “What if the parents of the higher-achieving students objected to having their children mixed with students who read and wrote poorly?” (Cone, 1990, p. 61).

2. A Solution: Teaching English Through Geography

A student’s misconception that India is in Africa led Cone to design a geography-based English curriculum (p. 60).
The approach aimed to create a shared foundation of knowledge and eliminate ability-based divisions.
Quote: “Instead of building a multidimensional classroom around the teaching of required texts and discourse modes, I would concentrate on geography or, more precisely, cultural geography” (Cone, 1990, p. 60).

3. The Journey Begins: Classroom Strategies

Maps and a banner with the quote “If you don’t read, you are limited to living only one life in only one place” set the theme (p. 60).
The curriculum was structured as a journey through various countries, incorporating literature, film, and writing assignments.

Quote: “We would take a journey around the world, reading and writing and talking our way in and out of countries, cultures, and centuries” (Cone, 1990, p. 60).

4. Engaging Students Through Literature and Discussion

Cone used Julie of the Wolves (George, 1972) to introduce Alaska, fostering discussion and collaborative meaning-making (p. 61).

Reading was supplemented with geography exercises and discussions about culture and identity.
Quote: “The time spent reading in class paid off because it encouraged talk: my students quickly became used to asking questions, predicting events, putting themselves into the main character’s predicament” (Cone, 1990, p. 61).

5. Expanding the Model: Brazil and Critical Reading

The class studied Brazil through various sources, including Time and San Francisco Chronicle articles, introducing students to nonfiction analysis (p. 62).
Students engaged in cooperative learning groups to summarize articles and refine reading comprehension.
Quote: “Many of them had read little exposition and argumentation in English class; fiction and biography are the two genres used almost exclusively with students in low reading and writing tracks” (Cone, 1990, p. 62).

6. Films as Learning Tools

Cone initially resisted using films but discovered their effectiveness in reinforcing literary themes (p. 64).
Movies like Never Cry Wolf and The Emerald Forest provided visual narratives that deepened understanding.

Quote: “Once I decided on the journey idea, however, I began to see the vital role films could play” (Cone, 1990, p. 64).

7. Collaborative Learning and Student Engagement

Students took ownership of the curriculum, suggesting additional films and texts to explore different cultures (p. 64).

Cone facilitated cooperative learning, reducing the hierarchical teacher-student dynamic.
Quote: “This emphasis on negotiating meaning with everyone participating has contributed greatly to the breaking down of barriers erected by years of ability grouping” (Cone, 1990, p. 64).

8. Writing and Personal Reflection

Assignments included personal narratives, interviews, and cultural comparisons, fostering critical thinking and self-reflection (p. 65).
Students conducted interviews with ESL peers, broadening their perspectives on global experiences.
Quote: “Here was a group of students who were clearly filled with information and questions and excitement about learning” (Cone, 1990, p. 63).

9. The Final Assessment: Measuring Growth

The final exam required students to reflect on a book, discussing its main character’s journey and its impact on their own learning (p. 66).
The year ended with a student-led reading session of interviews they had conducted.

Quote: “At the end of the period, I read my contribution to the literary magazine. It began with a review of our journey and ended with an acknowledgment of them as students” (Cone, 1990, p. 66).

10. Lasting Impact and Future Plans

Cone planned to expand the geography-based curriculum, adding texts like Night by Elie Wiesel and Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe (p. 67).

The untracked classroom model proved effective in promoting equity and engagement in English education.
Quote: “The journey and the year are still open. We’ll go where our literary and media tastes and wanderlust take us” (Cone, 1990, p. 67).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

Theoretical Term/Concept	Usage in the Article	Simple Explanation
Untracking (Heterogeneous Grouping)	The school eliminated ability tracking, merging students from different skill levels into a single class to promote equity in education (Cone, 1990, p. 60).	Mixing students of all skill levels in one class instead of separating them by ability.
Constructivist Learning	The curriculum encouraged students to actively construct knowledge through reading, discussions, and projects rather than passively receiving information (p. 64).	Students learn by exploring and discussing ideas rather than just memorizing facts.
Cultural Geography	Geography was used as a framework for teaching literature, helping students understand cultural and historical contexts through texts (p. 60).	Learning about different cultures and places to understand stories better.
Collaborative Learning	Students worked in groups to read, analyze, and discuss literature, fostering peer learning and cooperative meaning-making (p. 62).	Learning together in groups and helping each other understand.
Student Agency	Students influenced the curriculum by suggesting books, films, and discussion topics, shifting ownership of learning from the teacher to the students (p. 64).	Giving students a say in what and how they learn.
Scaffolding	Cone provided structured support, such as reading aloud and guiding discussion, to help students of different abilities engage with challenging texts (p. 62).	Teachers give extra help at the start and slowly remove it as students get better.
Reader-Response Theory	Literature discussions were driven by students’ interpretations and personal connections rather than teacher-imposed analysis (p. 61).	Encouraging students to share their personal opinions about a book instead of just memorizing facts.
Critical Literacy	The curriculum encouraged students to analyze nonfiction texts, such as Time and San Francisco Chronicle articles, developing their ability to question and critique information (p. 62).	Teaching students to think deeply and question what they read in books and news.
Multimodal Learning	Films, maps, and writing assignments supplemented traditional texts, reinforcing concepts through multiple forms of media (p. 64).	Using different types of media (books, movies, pictures) to help students understand ideas.
Experiential Learning	Students engaged in real-world-inspired activities, such as interviews and reflective writing, connecting classroom learning to personal experiences (p. 65).	Learning by doing things instead of just reading about them.
Differentiated Instruction	The curriculum included a variety of texts and assignments to accommodate diverse reading levels and learning styles (p. 63).	Giving different types of work to students based on what they need to learn best.
Culturally Responsive Teaching	The selection of diverse texts and global themes made literature relevant to students from different backgrounds (p. 65).	Choosing books and topics that connect with students’ cultures and experiences.
Reflective Practice	Cone reflected on her teaching methods and adapted strategies based on student engagement and feedback (p. 66).	Teachers think about what works and change their methods to help students learn better.

Contribution of “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Reader-Response Theory

Encourages students to interpret texts based on personal experiences rather than traditional analysis (Cone, 1990, p. 61).
Quote: “The time spent reading in class paid off because it encouraged talk: my students quickly became used to asking questions, predicting events, putting themselves into the main character’s predicament” (Cone, 1990, p. 61).
Students engage in meaning-making through discussion, making literature more interactive and personal.

2. Constructivist Literary Pedagogy

Advocates for an active, student-centered learning approach where students construct meaning through exploration and collaboration (p. 64).
Quote: “This emphasis on negotiating meaning with everyone participating has contributed greatly to the breaking down of barriers erected by years of ability grouping” (Cone, 1990, p. 64).

Literature is not a fixed set of ideas but an evolving conversation shaped by student engagement.

3. Cultural Studies and Postcolonial Literary Theory

Uses literature and geography to explore diverse cultures, histories, and global perspectives (p. 65).

Quote: “Instead of building a multidimensional classroom around the teaching of required texts and discourse modes, I would concentrate on geography or, more precisely, cultural geography” (Cone, 1990, p. 60).
Encourages students to analyze cultural differences, challenging Eurocentric narratives in literary studies.

4. Critical Literacy Theory

Encourages students to analyze media, nonfiction, and literature critically to understand underlying biases and power structures (p. 62).
Quote: “Many of them had read little exposition and argumentation in English class; fiction and biography are the two genres used almost exclusively with students in low reading and writing tracks” (Cone, 1990, p. 62).
Develops students’ ability to question dominant ideologies in literature and media.

5. Multimodal Literary Theory

Integrates different forms of media—films, maps, news articles—to enhance literary understanding (p. 64).
Quote: “My experience this year reversed my position on using film in the classroom. In fact, I attribute my students’ excitement about the curriculum in large part to the films we saw and the added dimension they brought to our understanding of the print media we used” (Cone, 1990, p. 64).

Expands literary analysis beyond written texts, incorporating visual and digital media.

6. Social Constructivist Theory in Literature

Promotes collaborative learning, where students develop literary meaning through group discussions and shared interpretations (p. 62).

Quote: “Students of different academic abilities had worked relatively cooperatively” (Cone, 1990, p. 62).
Literature is understood not individually but through collective discussion and engagement.

7. Culturally Responsive Literary Pedagogy

Selects texts and themes relevant to students’ backgrounds to make literature more inclusive and meaningful (p. 65).
Quote: “The selection of diverse texts and global themes made literature relevant to students from different backgrounds” (Cone, 1990, p. 65).
Challenges the traditional literary canon by integrating global and marginalized voices.

8. Progressive Educational Theory in Literary Studies

Advocates for student agency, where learners have control over what they read and study (p. 64).
Quote: “Students influenced the curriculum by suggesting books, films, and discussion topics, shifting ownership of learning from the teacher to the students” (Cone, 1990, p. 64).

Literature is a tool for empowerment, encouraging students to take an active role in their learning.

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

Literary Work	Critique Through Cone’s Concepts	Concepts from Cone’s Article Used in the Critique
Julie of the Wolves (Jean Craighead George, 1972)	The novel was analyzed through cultural geography, helping students understand the Arctic landscape and Inuit traditions. Students questioned the ethical dilemmas of survival and human-animal relationships, making personal connections to the protagonist’s struggles (Cone, 1990, p. 61).	Cultural Geography, Reader-Response Theory, Constructivist Learning
Animal Farm (George Orwell, 1946)	The allegorical nature of the book was explored through critical literacy, examining themes of power, corruption, and propaganda. Students compared Orwell’s critique of political regimes with contemporary global events (Cone, 1990, p. 65).	Critical Literacy Theory, Social Constructivist Theory, Progressive Educational Theory
Romeo and Juliet (William Shakespeare, 1597)	The play was contextualized within historical and geographical settings, exploring Verona’s societal norms and family structures. Students related the theme of forbidden love to modern issues like cultural and racial tensions (Cone, 1990, p. 66).	Culturally Responsive Literary Pedagogy, Reader-Response Theory, Social Constructivist Theory
The Blue Bouquet (Octavio Paz, 1974)	The short story was used to discuss magical realism and postcolonial perspectives. Students explored the cultural and political context of Latin America, questioning how reality and fiction blend in literature (Cone, 1990, p. 63).	Postcolonial Literary Theory, Multimodal Literary Theory, Cultural Studies

Criticism Against “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

1. Overgeneralization of Student Engagement

While Cone presents her approach as universally effective, student responses to literature and geography-based learning may vary.

Not all students may engage equally with geography as a foundation for literary analysis.

2. Lack of Rigor in Literary Analysis

The emphasis on personal connections and cultural geography might overshadow deeper textual analysis.

Cone’s approach may prioritize accessibility over traditional literary criticism, limiting students’ ability to engage with complex literary theories.

3. Potential for Unequal Learning Outcomes

Untracked classrooms may still produce disparities in learning, as higher-achieving students may not be sufficiently challenged (Cone, 1990, p. 61).

Some students might struggle with self-directed learning without structured guidance.

4. Over-Reliance on Multimodal Learning

The heavy use of films and visual media might reduce emphasis on textual interpretation and critical reading skills.

Critics might argue that literature should be analyzed primarily through close reading rather than supplementary media.

5. Practical Challenges in Implementation

The geography-based curriculum requires extensive preparation and access to diverse resources, which may not be feasible in all schools.

Teachers with limited training in geography or cultural studies may struggle to implement Cone’s interdisciplinary approach effectively.

6. Limited Focus on Traditional Literary Canon

The article suggests moving away from traditional English curricula, which may disadvantage students preparing for standardized tests or academic literary studies.

Critics may argue that foundational texts should not be sidelined in favor of contemporary and culturally diverse works.

7. Risk of Superficial Cultural Representation

While Cone aims for inclusivity, her approach could unintentionally lead to surface-level engagement with cultures rather than deep critical analysis.

Some critics may argue that discussing different cultures without in-depth historical and political context risks reinforcing stereotypes rather than dismantling them.

8. Insufficient Emphasis on Writing Skills

Although Cone integrates writing tasks, her focus is largely on discussion and interpretation rather than formal writing instruction.

Some students might not develop strong analytical writing skills needed for higher education.

9. Resistance from Traditional Educators and Parents

Parents of high-achieving students may resist mixed-ability grouping, fearing that their children’s learning pace will slow down (Cone, 1990, p. 61).

Traditional educators may view Cone’s student-led learning as lacking discipline and structure.

10. Overlooked Challenges in Assessing Growth

Cone uses pre- and post-tests to measure knowledge but does not provide clear metrics for evaluating literary comprehension and critical thinking progress.

Critics may argue that assessments should be more rigorously structured to track student learning outcomes effectively.

Representative Quotations from “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation in Simple English
“If you don’t read, you are limited to living only one life in only one place.” (Cone, 1990, p. 60)	Reading allows people to experience different worlds and perspectives beyond their immediate surroundings. It expands understanding of different cultures and ideas.
“What if our antitracking philosophy could not be turned into effective classroom practice on a broad scale?” (Cone, 1990, p. 60)	The author expresses concerns about whether a mixed-ability classroom can truly work in practice, given the diverse needs of students.
“Instead of building a multidimensional classroom around the teaching of required texts and discourse modes, I would concentrate on geography or, more precisely, cultural geography.” (Cone, 1990, p. 60)	The teaching approach shifts from a traditional English curriculum to a geography-based framework, incorporating literature and cultural understanding.
“This emphasis on negotiating meaning with everyone participating has contributed greatly to the breaking down of barriers erected by years of ability grouping.” (Cone, 1990, p. 64)	The method encourages collaborative learning, helping to bridge gaps between students of different academic levels.
“I began this year hoping to create an atmosphere in my classroom in which each student would feel like a contributor to the learning of the whole group.” (Cone, 1990, p. 64)	The goal of the teaching method is to foster a sense of shared learning where every student plays an active role.
“My experience this year reversed my position on using film in the classroom.” (Cone, 1990, p. 64)	The author originally resisted using films in teaching but later realized their value in enhancing student engagement and comprehension.
“The moment she showed off her knowledge, Patricia, a shy student who had not attended the junior high most members of the class had attended, established her identity in the class.” (Cone, 1990, p. 62)	Allowing students to contribute knowledge from their own perspectives can empower them and build confidence.
“I suggested they watch it to see what happened this time in light of all the knowledge they had gained from reading Julie of the Wolves.” (Cone, 1990, p. 61)	The students’ understanding of the film changed after they had read a related book, showing the impact of prior knowledge on interpretation.
“Without knowing it, they had much to share about Brazil, knowledge they had gained from elementary school filmstrips and stories and Wild Kingdom adventure segments from TV.” (Cone, 1990, p. 62)	Students often have unconscious knowledge from popular media that can be activated in the classroom.
“The journey and the year are still open. We’ll go where our literary and media tastes and wanderlust take us.” (Cone, 1990, p. 67)	Learning is portrayed as an ongoing journey, shaped by curiosity and exploration rather than rigid structure.

“Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls: Summary and Critique

“Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls first appeared in American Literary History in 2011 (Walls, 2011).

Introduction: “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

“Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls first appeared in American Literary History in 2011 (Walls, 2011). In this article, Walls explores the intersections between literature, geography, and history, emphasizing the ways in which spatial analysis enhances literary theory and cultural studies. Drawing on the work of thinkers such as Alexander von Humboldt and Henri Lefebvre, she critiques the historical fragmentation of disciplines that has separated literature from geography and argues for a reintegration of spatial and literary studies. Walls illustrates how geography has always been a narrative of history, shaping human experiences and cultural identities through landforms, territorial expansions, and ideological constructs. She highlights how American literature has mediated anxieties over space and expansion, shaping national and regional identities while also enabling resistance to dominant spatial narratives. The article engages with works by Hsuan L. Hsu, Mark Rifkin, and Miles Orvell, among others, to demonstrate how literature functions as both a representation of space and a tool for reimagining place-based identities. By examining the literary production of spatial belonging, Walls underscores the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in understanding cultural and historical processes. Her work contributes significantly to literary theory by advocating for “scale-jumping”—a concept that connects the personal, local, national, and global dimensions of space, thereby challenging fixed, hegemonic notions of geography and identity (Walls, 2011).

Summary of “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Interdisciplinary Fusion of Literature and Geography
Walls advocates for an interdisciplinary approach that merges literature, geography, and history, arguing that modern geography is inherently shaped by historical processes. She references Alexander von Humboldt’s idea that “their form is their history” to emphasize that both landforms and languages develop through time (Walls, 2011, p. 860). However, she critiques the 19th-century fragmentation of disciplines, which led to a rigid separation of literary and geographic studies instead of their integration.
The Spatial Turn in Literary Studies
Walls highlights the “spatial turn” in the humanities, which emerged in the 1980s through theorists like Henri Lefebvre, David Harvey, and Edward Soja. This movement challenges “space-blinkered historicism” and redefines geography as an active force rather than a passive backdrop (p. 861). She explains that spatial analysis allows scholars to explore literature’s role in shaping cultural and national identities, particularly in relation to American territorial expansion and its ideological foundations.

Geography, Colonialism, and American Expansion
The article examines how geography has been instrumental in American colonial expansion, citing Hsuan L. Hsu’s study on spatial expansion as a response to economic crises. She discusses how expansion functioned as a “spatial fix” to internal economic instability but also generated new conflicts and contradictions (p. 862). Literature, Walls argues, plays a crucial role in mediating these anxieties by depicting the struggles over land, identity, and displacement.
Scale-Jumping and Literary Representation
Walls introduces the concept of “scale-jumping,” describing how literature enables readers to shift perspectives between local, national, and global spaces (p. 862). She illustrates this with figures like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Walt Whitman, who depicted America’s geography as an expansive, poetic entity (p. 863). However, she also warns that scale-jumping has historically been used to justify imperial expansion, as seen in the rhetoric of U.S. missionaries and colonial explorers.
Borders, Sovereignty, and Indigenous Geographies
Drawing on Mark Rifkin’s work, Walls critiques the ideological construction of borders as a means of erasing Indigenous sovereignty. She argues that the true violence of American expansion was not just territorial conquest but the “conceptual violence” that forced Indigenous peoples into a framework of dispossession and marginalization (p. 865). By analyzing “subaltern geographies,” Walls explores how Indigenous resistance continues to challenge dominant spatial narratives.

Public and Private Spaces in American Culture
Walls extends her discussion of geography to urban spaces, referencing studies by Orvell and Meikle on the contested nature of public spaces. She highlights how sites like Washington D.C.’s National Mall have historically been arenas for political struggle and national identity formation (p. 868). However, she contrasts these organic public spaces with the increasing privatization of urban life, where commercialized areas like shopping malls and gated communities threaten democratic engagement (p. 869).
Literature’s Role in Reimagining Space
Walls concludes by emphasizing that literature is not merely a reflection of spatial realities but an active force in shaping them. She argues that literature offers “alternate geographies” that allow readers to challenge dominant spatial structures and reimagine power relations (p. 870). She calls for an interdisciplinary approach that reconnects literature with geography to better understand the socio-political landscapes that shape human experience.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	How Walls Defines and Uses It
Interdisciplinarity	The integration of different academic disciplines, particularly literature and geography, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of spatial and cultural narratives (Walls, 2011, p. 860).	Walls argues for an interdisciplinary approach that unites literature and geography, challenging the traditional fragmentation of disciplines. She suggests that reconnecting these fields can help us better understand historical and cultural processes.
Spatial Turn	A shift in humanities and social sciences that emphasizes space as an active, constructed entity rather than a passive setting, influenced by thinkers like Henri Lefebvre and Edward Soja (Walls, 2011, p. 861).	Walls traces the emergence of the spatial turn in the 1980s and highlights its impact on literary studies, particularly in reconsidering American national identity and historical narratives.
Scale-Jumping	The ability of literature to move between different spatial scales—local, regional, national, and global—to create a sense of interconnectedness (Walls, 2011, p. 862).	Walls explains that literature allows readers to shift perspectives across different spatial levels, sometimes reinforcing national myths and at other times challenging dominant ideologies of expansion.
Subaltern Geographies	The study of spaces marginalized by dominant spatial narratives, particularly Indigenous territories erased or overwritten by colonial expansion (Walls, 2011, p. 866).	Walls draws on Mark Rifkin’s work to show how American imperial expansion erased Indigenous spaces and histories, arguing that literature can help recover these subaltern geographies.
Public vs. Private Space	The contested nature of public spaces, where capitalist interests often encroach upon communal and civic spaces, shaping social interactions (Walls, 2011, p. 868).	Walls discusses how spaces like Washington D.C.’s National Mall serve as arenas of political struggle while contrasting this with the increasing privatization of urban life.
Conceptual Violence	A form of ideological violence that frames marginalized groups as outsiders, effectively erasing their agency and presence in spatial histories (Walls, 2011, p. 865).	Walls critiques the ways in which national maps create a false sense of unity while systematically excluding Indigenous and marginalized communities from historical narratives.
Geographical Belonging	The way literature and geography shape individuals’ emotional and cultural attachments to spaces, influencing identity formation (Walls, 2011, p. 862).	Walls explains how literature creates feelings of spatial belonging, helping readers connect to local, regional, and national identities, often in response to colonial expansion.
Territorial Coherence	The idea that national maps create a false sense of unity by obscuring the histories of Indigenous and contested spaces (Walls, 2011, p. 865).	Walls critiques the “fetishized image of territorial coherence,” arguing that maps reinforce an artificial unity that ignores spatial conflicts and erased geographies.
Empire for Liberty	Thomas Jefferson’s concept of the U.S. as an expanding “empire for liberty,” which paradoxically justified territorial expansion and Indigenous displacement (Walls, 2011, p. 865).	Walls analyzes how Jefferson’s rhetoric framed expansion as a moral project while simultaneously legitimizing the dispossession of Indigenous peoples.
Environmental Unconscious	A term describing how literature and culture reveal suppressed environmental and spatial histories, particularly through representations of landfills and waste (Walls, 2011, p. 869).	Walls references Don DeLillo’s Underworld and other literary works to illustrate how hidden landscapes, like landfills, symbolize forgotten ecological and social histories.

Contribution of “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls to Literary Theory/Theories

Spatial Theory and the Spatial Turn in Literary Studies
Walls contributes to spatial theory by emphasizing the role of space as an active force in shaping literature and culture. She draws on the spatial turn initiated by Henri Lefebvre, David Harvey, and Edward Soja, arguing that space is “not merely a backdrop but an active participant in history and literature” (Walls, 2011, p. 861). By engaging with spatial theory, Walls positions literature as a medium that constructs, contests, and redefines geographic and ideological boundaries.

Postcolonial Theory and Subaltern Studies
Walls’ discussion of subaltern geographies aligns with postcolonial theory, particularly the work of Gayatri Spivak and Edward Said, by exploring how imperial expansion erases Indigenous and marginalized spatial histories. She engages with Mark Rifkin’s concept of “territorial coherence” to show how national maps “fetishize territorial unity while suppressing Indigenous sovereignty” (Walls, 2011, p. 865). Her work contributes to postcolonial literary theory by revealing how literature can recover and reimagine erased geographies.
Ecocriticism and Environmental Humanities
Walls incorporates ecocritical perspectives by discussing how literature engages with the environment and suppressed ecological narratives. She references Klaus Benesch’s idea of the “environmental unconscious,” showing how literature reveals hidden landscapes such as landfills and abandoned industrial sites (Walls, 2011, p. 869). Her argument supports ecocritical readings of literature as a means of uncovering historical and environmental transformations.
Cultural Geography and Literary Cartography
By linking literature with geography, Walls advances the field of literary cartography, which studies how literary texts map spatial relations and cultural identities. She demonstrates how literary texts engage in “scale-jumping,” allowing readers to shift between local, national, and global perspectives (Walls, 2011, p. 862). This contribution aligns with Franco Moretti’s concept of distant reading, where geographic and spatial relationships shape literary analysis.

Critical Regionalism and National Identity
Walls’ analysis of critical regionalism contributes to discussions on national and regional identity formation in literary studies. She engages with Hsuan L. Hsu’s argument that “regional identification is constructed externally through economic and ideological forces” (Walls, 2011, p. 867). By challenging the nostalgia of regional literature, Walls suggests that literature both reflects and critiques the formation of national and regional identities.
Urban Theory and the Politics of Public Space
Drawing on studies of public space by Miles Orvell and Jeffrey Meikle, Walls discusses the contestation of urban spaces in literature. She examines how capitalist forces privatize urban environments, reducing public spaces to sites of commercial activity (Walls, 2011, p. 868). Her analysis contributes to urban theory by revealing how literature critiques and reimagines urban landscapes as spaces of resistance and civic engagement.
American Studies and the Ideology of Manifest Destiny
Walls critiques the ideological construction of America as a unified space, engaging with the concept of Manifest Destiny. She argues that Thomas Jefferson’s vision of an “empire for liberty” justified territorial expansion while displacing Indigenous peoples (Walls, 2011, p. 865). By challenging the myth of national coherence, Walls’ work contributes to American Studies by exposing how literature interrogates expansionist ideologies.

Literary Globalization and Transnational Studies
Walls contributes to transnational literary studies by analyzing how literature navigates global, national, and regional scales. She explores how “cosmopolitan rhetoric has been used both for liberatory and imperialist purposes” (Walls, 2011, p. 864). Her discussion aligns with transnational literary theories that examine the movement of ideas, people, and narratives across borders.

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Literary Work	Concepts Applied	Critique Through Walls’ Framework
Edgar Huntly (1799) by Charles Brockden Brown	Gothic Geographies, Subaltern Geographies	Walls, drawing on Hsuan L. Hsu’s spatial analysis, critiques Brown’s novel for its portrayal of Gothic geographies, where space becomes unmappable, and repressed Indigenous voices disrupt dominant colonial narratives (Walls, 2011, p. 863). The novel illustrates how American expansion is inherently unstable, challenging the idea of a smoothly integrated national space.
Leaves of Grass (1855) by Walt Whitman	Scale-Jumping, Literary Cartography	Walls uses Whitman’s poetry to explore scale-jumping, showing how he transforms America into an expansive poetic geography (Walls, 2011, p. 863). His work fosters national unity through literary cartography, imagining America as a unified poetic space, but Walls cautions that this vision often overlooks colonial violence and the exclusion of marginalized groups.
Underworld (1997) by Don DeLillo	Environmental Unconscious, Hidden Geographies	DeLillo’s novel is examined through the lens of the environmental unconscious, where waste dumps and industrial ruins serve as suppressed spatial histories (Walls, 2011, p. 869). Walls highlights how the novel’s geography reveals hidden ecological and social consequences of capitalist expansion, exposing the discarded remnants of industrialization.
Manifest Destiny Writings (Various American Authors)	Conceptual Violence, Territorial Coherence	Walls critiques the ideological construction of U.S. expansionist narratives, showing how writings associated with Manifest Destiny reflect conceptual violence (Walls, 2011, p. 865). She argues that these texts reinforce the illusion of territorial coherence while erasing Indigenous geographies and legitimizing territorial dispossession, shaping the ideological foundations of U.S. expansionism.

Criticism Against “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Overemphasis on Spatial Theory at the Expense of Other Critical Lenses
Walls heavily focuses on spatial theory, often prioritizing it over other important theoretical frameworks such as gender, race, and class. While she addresses Indigenous erasure, some critics may argue that she does not sufficiently engage with feminist geography or intersectional perspectives in her analysis. A more comprehensive critique could have integrated these dimensions to offer a fuller interdisciplinary approach.
Limited Engagement with Contemporary Globalization Studies
Although Walls discusses scale-jumping and transnational perspectives, her work primarily centers on American spatial dynamics. Critics might argue that she does not sufficiently address the implications of global capitalism, migration, or transnational literature, which would expand the scope of her argument beyond U.S.-centric spatial concerns.

Idealization of Interdisciplinarity Without Addressing Institutional Constraints
While Walls advocates for interdisciplinary approaches that merge literature and geography, she does not fully address the institutional barriers that often hinder such integration in academia. Critics might point out that disciplinary divisions are not merely theoretical but are reinforced by academic structures, funding, and publishing norms that make interdisciplinary work difficult to implement in practice.
Potential Overgeneralization of Literary Spatial Dynamics
Walls makes broad claims about literature’s role in shaping and contesting space, but some critics might argue that she does not sufficiently account for variations across different genres, historical contexts, and literary traditions. Her focus on spatial readings of canonical American literature could be expanded to include more diverse literary traditions that engage with space in different ways.
Insufficient Engagement with Alternative Indigenous Spatial Theories
While Walls discusses Indigenous geographies and subaltern spaces, some critics may argue that her analysis is largely grounded in Western theoretical frameworks, such as Lefebvre and Soja. A stronger engagement with Indigenous scholars and spatial theorists could provide a more nuanced and decolonial approach to the study of space in literature.

Abstract Theoretical Language May Limit Accessibility
The complex theoretical discussions in Walls’ essay, particularly regarding the spatial turn and conceptual violence, might be difficult for readers unfamiliar with spatial theory. Some critics could argue that her work would benefit from a more accessible writing style or additional concrete literary examples to illustrate her arguments more clearly.

Representative Quotations from “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The American map, which lies so apparently flat and solid, is in fact yeasty with such heterogeneous spaces.”	Walls critiques the illusion of a unified American space, emphasizing its internal diversity and contestation, challenging the perception of the nation as a singular entity (Walls, 2011, p. 860).
“Their form is their history.”	Quoting Humboldt, Walls highlights how geography and history are interconnected, shaping landscapes, cultures, and national identities over time (Walls, 2011, p. 861).
“Could have been, but was not. The watchword for the nineteenth century was disciplinary specialization, not fusion.”	She argues that academic disciplines fragmented rather than fused knowledge, limiting interdisciplinary understanding and preventing a holistic view of literature and geography (Walls, 2011, p. 862).
“The interpretive significance of space” is a concept that challenges “space-blinkered historicism.”	Walls references postmodern geographers to emphasize the role of space as an active, interpretive force rather than a neutral backdrop, challenging traditional historical readings (Walls, 2011, p. 863).
“America itself as a ‘place’—that is, a ‘space’ made meaningful—becomes ‘the record of assertion and displacement, of authority and the subversion of authority.'”	This statement underscores how American spatial identity is defined through contestations, exclusions, and power struggles, making space a site of ideological conflict (Walls, 2011, p. 864).
“What does it mean to identify not with a fixed national space but with a panoply of changing and contested spaces?”	Walls explores Hsu’s concept of scale-jumping and literary identification, showing how texts mediate instability in spatial belonging and national identity (Walls, 2011, p. 865).
“The real puzzle is not how an expanding US conquered its territory, but how that territory became ‘manifested’ as a free union of, by, and for the people.”	She critiques the ideological mechanisms that portray territorial expansion as consensual and natural rather than contested, exposing the constructed nature of U.S. nationalism (Walls, 2011, p. 866).
“Public space, in the sense of functional space, is always a construction, and as such an expression of someone’s will.”	Walls examines how public spaces are shaped by political, economic, and ideological interests, challenging assumptions about their neutrality and accessibility (Walls, 2011, p. 867).
“Cosmopolitan scale-jumping can use regionalism as a springboard, connecting what seem to be merely local struggles with similar struggles abroad.”	She highlights how regionalism can serve as both a site of resistance and complicity in global capitalism, emphasizing the role of literature in shaping political consciousness (Walls, 2011, p. 868).
“The boundary separating the disciplines of literature and geography is itself a geographical question, a problem of form which is simultaneously a problem of history.”	Walls argues for a transdisciplinary approach, suggesting that spatial and literary analyses must be understood as mutually constitutive, rather than as separate fields (Walls, 2011, p. 870).

“Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones: Summary and Critique

“Literature and the New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones first appeared in Anglia: Journal of English Philology in 2008, published by De Gruyter.

Introduction: “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones

“Literature and the New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones first appeared in Anglia: Journal of English Philology in 2008, published by De Gruyter. This article examines the intersection between literary studies and geography, particularly through the lens of the New Cultural Geography, a movement that emerged in the 1980s. Jones argues that spatial awareness has become an essential analytical tool across multiple disciplines, including literature, influenced by postmodern critiques of representation, power, and ideology. Drawing on theorists such as Michel Foucault, Henri Lefebvre, and Fredric Jameson, she highlights how space is no longer seen as a passive backdrop but an active force intertwined with identity, power relations, and meaning-making. The article traces the historical reluctance of geographers to engage with literature, owing to geography’s traditional association with scientific objectivity, and how poststructuralist thought has challenged these boundaries. Jones also explores the contribution of key thinkers like Walter Benjamin, whose conceptualization of the “city-as-text” has had a lasting influence on urban literary studies, and Gaston Bachelard, who emphasized the poetics of space. Through case studies of postcolonial literature, travel writing, and cartographic representations in fiction, she demonstrates how literary texts construct, rather than merely reflect, spatial realities. Ultimately, Jones advocates for a deeper interdisciplinary dialogue between geography and literature, arguing that literary representations of space offer critical insights into social structures, cultural memory, and subjective experience. Her work underscores the growing recognition of geography’s role in shaping literary narratives, reinforcing the idea that space and text are mutually constitutive in understanding human experience.

Summary of “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones

1. The Growing Awareness of Space in Academic Disciplines

In recent decades, there has been a heightened awareness of the role of space in various disciplines, particularly in geography and the humanities.

Theorists such as Fredric Jameson and Michel Foucault have emphasized that “we live in spacious times” (Jones, 2008, p. 1).
The emergence of the New Cultural Geography has challenged traditional views of space as passive, asserting instead that it is “an active force in the world that is imbued with ideology and politics” (Jones, 2008, p. 2).

2. The Interdisciplinary Connection Between Geography and Literature

Geography has increasingly incorporated language and literature into its studies.
Barnes and Duncan (1992) argue that the etymology of geography, meaning “earth writing,” suggests an inherent connection to literature.
The rise of postmodernism and the crisis of representation has led geographers to reconsider the role of subjective narratives in understanding space (Jones, 2008, p. 3).

3. The Traditional Divide Between Geography and Literature

Historically, geography emphasized objective scientific methods and dismissed literary studies.
James Duncan and David Ley (1993) state that traditional geography aimed “to produce as accurate a reflection of the world as possible” (Jones, 2008, p. 4).

This opposition stemmed from the Enlightenment ideal that knowledge should be empirical and measurable.

4. The Postmodern Challenge to Objectivity in Geography

The postmodern crisis of representation questioned the ability of language and maps to objectively represent reality.

Duncan and Ley argue that “this revolt against objectivism, rationality and the meta-narratives which have guided enquiry has been one of the central themes in postmodern representation” (Jones, 2008, p. 6).
Postmodern geographers began embracing qualitative methods, including subjective experiences and fictional literature.

5. The Evolving Role of Maps and Writing in Spatial Representation

Cartography, once seen as a scientific tool, has been criticized for its colonial and hegemonic biases.
Blunt and Rose (1994) argue that “maps were themselves colonizing spaces perceived as empty and uninscribed” (Jones, 2008, p. 8).
Experimental forms of writing, such as montage narratives, challenge the traditional authority of authors in geography (Jones, 2008, p. 9).

6. The ‘New Cultural Geography’ and Its Methodological Shifts

The New Cultural Geography emerged in the 1980s, advocating for hermeneutic and interpretive approaches to space.
Barnes and Duncan (1992) suggest that “writing about worlds reveals as much about ourselves as it does about the worlds represented” (Jones, 2008, p. 10).

Subjective and narrative-driven research methods have since gained prominence.

7. The Work of Marc Brosseau in Literary Geography

Marc Brosseau’s Des romans-géographes (1996) is a landmark study that argues literature is not just a tool for geographical analysis but a constitutive force of space.

He criticizes the simplistic use of literature to “prove” geographical arguments, advocating instead for a true dialogue between disciplines (Jones, 2008, p. 12).
Brosseau states that “the interest of a dialogical relationship lies in its willingness to recognize the other as other” (Jones, 2008, p. 13).

8. The Enduring Influence of Traditional Stereotypes

Some interdisciplinary works, such as Geography and Literature: A Meeting of the Disciplines (Mallory & Simpson-Housley, 1987), reinforce traditional stereotypes.
The book treats geography as factual and literature as purely imaginative, limiting true interdisciplinary engagement (Jones, 2008, p. 14).
Cesar Caviedes, for example, writes that geographers “must often recognize (with envy) the sensitivity and innate intuition with which literary writers extract the purest reality of a region” (Jones, 2008, p. 15).

9. The Role of Walter Benjamin in Literary Spatial Studies

Walter Benjamin’s idea of the “city as text” has influenced interdisciplinary spatial analysis.
His work on Paris and the flâneur has inspired studies on urban geography and literary space (Jones, 2008, p. 16).

Deborah Parsons (2000) extends this idea to explore the female flâneuse, arguing that literature not only reflects but constructs the city (Jones, 2008, p. 17).

10. The City as a Central Focus in Literary Geography

Paris, London, and New York have been key sites of literary spatial analysis.

Marcy Schwartz (1999) describes Paris as a “transcultural literary capital” (Jones, 2008, p. 18).
Pierre-Marc de Biasi (2000) refers to Paris as “Paris-palimpseste, toujours déjà littéraire,” highlighting the city’s long-standing textual identity (Jones, 2008, p. 19).

11. Gaston Bachelard’s Impact on Spatial Poetics

Bachelard’s La Poétique de l’espace (1957) introduced the study of psychological and poetic space.
He emphasized the symbolic and experiential aspects of space, moving beyond geometrical analysis (Jones, 2008, p. 20).
His horizontal and vertical spatial axes remain widely used in both literary and geographical studies (Jones, 2008, p. 21).

12. Postcolonialism and the Spatial Imagination

Postcolonial theorists have linked geography with cultural identity.
Indira Karamcheti (1994) states that postcolonialism involves “an imaginative recovery of a ‘local place'” (Jones, 2008, p. 22).

Mary Louise Pratt’s Imperial Eyes (1992) introduced the contact zone, a spatial concept highlighting colonial encounters (Jones, 2008, p. 23).

13. The Role of Travel Writing in Spatial Analysis

Travel narratives inherently engage with space and cultural difference.

Sara Mills (1991) analyzes how colonial-era women’s travel writing reflected power dynamics (Jones, 2008, p. 24).
Adrien Pasquali (1994) notes a shift toward exploring familiar, local spaces, indicating a postmodern blurring of home and away (Jones, 2008, p. 25).

14. The Use of Maps in Literary Studies

Franco Moretti’s Atlas of the European Novel (1998) argues that “geography is not an inert container, but an active force” (Jones, 2008, p. 26).
However, Brosseau warns against “excessive ordering,” cautioning that mapping literature may oversimplify spatial meaning (Jones, 2008, p. 27).

15. Broader Interdisciplinary Initiatives

The géopoétique movement, led by Kenneth White, seeks to reunite nature and literature (Jones, 2008, p. 28).
Space and Place: The Geographies of Literature (Norquay & Smyth, 1997) explores how literature disrupts traditional notions of national identity (Jones, 2008, p. 29).

16. The Special Edition’s Contributions

This edition of Anglia explores interdisciplinary approaches to literature and cultural geography.
Articles discuss topics such as postcolonial space, landscape history, and the representation of tourist sites in literature (Jones, 2008, p. 30).
Notably, Russell West-Pavlov argues for rethinking postcolonial geography beyond textual analysis, emphasizing material spatial histories (Jones, 2008, p. 31).

17. The Need for Ongoing Interdisciplinary Dialogue

The relationship between geography and literature is still evolving.
Some works, like Brosseau’s, foster true dialogue, while others remain constrained by disciplinary stereotypes.

The challenge remains to move beyond binary oppositions—such as reality/fiction and objectivity/subjectivity—toward a more integrated approach to understanding space.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones

Term/Concept	Definition	Context in the Article
New Cultural Geography	A postmodern approach to geography that emphasizes the ideological and political nature of space.	Challenges the notion that space is neutral, arguing instead that it is socially constructed and embedded in power relations (Jones, 2008, p. 2).
Crisis of Representation	The postmodern rejection of objective knowledge, emphasizing that all representations are subjective.	Influenced geographical studies by questioning traditional methods of spatial representation, such as maps and objective descriptions (Jones, 2008, p. 6).
Space as Active Force	The idea that space is not merely a passive background but influences and structures social relations.	Space is seen as a dynamic entity shaping cultural identities and power structures (Jones, 2008, p. 2).
Spatial Turn	A shift in humanities and social sciences towards emphasizing the role of space in cultural and social studies.	Influenced by thinkers like Foucault, Lefebvre, and Jameson, leading to interdisciplinary studies between geography and literature (Jones, 2008, p. 1).
Postmodern Geography	A geographical approach influenced by postmodern theory, questioning objective mapping and incorporating subjective narratives.	Duncan and Ley argue that postmodern geography disrupts traditional Enlightenment ideals of objectivity (Jones, 2008, p. 11).
Geography as ‘Earth Writing’	The etymological meaning of geography, emphasizing its literary dimension.	Barnes and Duncan highlight that despite this, geography has historically excluded literature (Jones, 2008, p. 3).
Cartographic Anxiety	The concern that maps falsely present an objective, authoritative view of the world.	Blunt and Rose argue that maps were used as colonial tools, shaping perceptions of ’empty’ space (Jones, 2008, p. 8).
Hermeneutic Approaches	Interpretative methods that focus on subjective and narrative-driven understandings.	Replaces realist, mimetic representation in the New Cultural Geography (Jones, 2008, p. 10).
Space-Adjusting Technologies	Technologies that transform perceptions and experiences of space.	Dicken and Lloyd (1981) discuss the impact of transportation and communication on spatial relations (Jones, 2008, p. 2).
Text-as-City / City-as-Text	The idea that cities can be read like texts and that texts shape the perception of cities.	Developed by Walter Benjamin and later expanded upon in literary and urban studies (Jones, 2008, p. 16).
Flâneur	A figure representing the urban observer who navigates and interprets the city.	Discussed in relation to Benjamin’s work on Paris and the literary representation of urban spaces (Jones, 2008, p. 17).
Postcolonial Spatiality	The study of how colonialism shaped and continues to influence spatial relationships.	Pratt’s concept of the “contact zone” highlights the power dynamics in colonial encounters (Jones, 2008, p. 23).
Smellscapes	The role of scent in shaping spatial experience.	Brosseau explores how literature can convey sensory spatial experiences beyond visual representation (Jones, 2008, p. 13).
Palimpsestic Space	The idea that spaces, like texts, have multiple layers of meaning and history.	Paris is described as a “palimpseste, toujours déjà littéraire” (Jones, 2008, p. 19).
Ethnocentric-Free Analysis	A postmodern critique of traditional geographic studies that imposed Eurocentric perspectives.	Duncan and Ley advocate for recognizing all research as ideologically situated (Jones, 2008, p. 11).
Geo-poetics	An approach integrating geography and literature to understand cultural and environmental relationships.	Kenneth White’s géopoétique movement explores how literature interacts with the landscape (Jones, 2008, p. 28).
Literary Mapping	The practice of charting fictional spaces and their connections to real-world geography.	Moretti’s Atlas of the European Novel exemplifies this method, though it risks oversimplification (Jones, 2008, p. 26).
Contact Zone	A space of cultural exchange and conflict between colonizers and indigenous peoples.	Pratt defines this as the site of colonial encounters and transcultural interactions (Jones, 2008, p. 23).
Chorological Poetics	The study of the poetic representation of regions and spatial relationships.	Examined by Thurgar-Dawson in DeLillo’s Underworld (Jones, 2008, p. 30).

Contribution of “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones to Literary Theory/Theories

1. The Spatial Turn in Literary Studies

Jones’ work emphasizes the increasing importance of space in literary analysis, highlighting how geography and literature intersect.

She asserts that “the preoccupation with space has become increasingly interdisciplinary” and that space “plays a role in individual identity formation” (Jones, 2008, p. 2).
This aligns with the broader spatial turn in humanities, as explored by theorists such as Michel Foucault and Henri Lefebvre.

2. Postmodernism and the Crisis of Representation

The text contributes to postmodern literary theory by critiquing the Enlightenment notion of objective knowledge and stable representation.
“Not only has the notion of impartial, objective knowledge been undermined, then, but the means through which knowledge can be articulated has also been called into question” (Jones, 2008, p. 6).
This builds upon the postmodernist argument that language and representation are inherently unstable (Duncan & Ley, 1993).

3. Literary Cartography and the Problematization of Maps

Jones explores how literature and geography have traditionally approached space differently, emphasizing how cartography is not merely objective but embedded in cultural narratives.
“Mapping operates in hegemonic discourses as a form of mimetic representation – it textually represents the gaze through transparent space” (Blunt & Rose, cited in Jones, 2008, p. 8).

This discussion contributes to literary cartography and aligns with Franco Moretti’s Atlas of the European Novel (1998), which maps literary spaces.

4. The City-as-Text and Urban Literary Studies

Drawing from Walter Benjamin, Jones highlights how literature and geography converge in urban studies.

She states, “Benjamin’s work was ground-breaking on a theoretical level due to the strength with which he championed the notion of not only ‘city-as-text’ but also ‘text-as-city'” (Jones, 2008, p. 16).
This contributes to urban literary studies by framing literature as a constitutive force in shaping perceptions of cities.

5. Postcolonialism and Spatial Critique

The text engages with postcolonial literary theory by analyzing how colonialism influenced spatial representation in literature.
“Whereas colonialism involved the physical domination of many of the world’s spaces, postcolonialism involves ‘an imaginative recovery of a ‘local place'” (Karamcheti, cited in Jones, 2008, p. 23).
This aligns with Mary Louise Pratt’s Imperial Eyes (1992), which introduced the concept of the “contact zone” in colonial literature.

6. Geo-Poetics and Environmental Literary Studies

Jones highlights Kenneth White’s géopoétique movement, which integrates environmental concerns with literary geography.
“The enduring nature of this movement as well as its admirable overall aim to ‘renouveler complètement la carte mentale’ [completely renew the mental map]” (White, cited in Jones, 2008, p. 28).

This contributes to ecocriticism and environmental literary studies by emphasizing literature’s role in shaping ecological consciousness.

7. The Feminist Critique of Spatial Representation

The article incorporates feminist theory by critiquing how space and objectivity have been historically gendered.

“Feminist thinkers argue that the idea of objectivity in fact conceals Enlightenment models of the ideal citizen, who was white, male and middle class” (Seidman, cited in Jones, 2008, p. 11).
This aligns with Alison Blunt and Gillian Rose’s Writing Women and Space (1994), which explores gendered spatial politics.

8. Travel Writing and the Deconstruction of Exoticism

Jones examines how contemporary travel writing disrupts traditional notions of “home” and “abroad.”
“The new travelers explore the tastes of Paris, certain suburbs, and J.-D. Urbain designates them as ‘voyageurs de l’interstice'” (Pasquali, cited in Jones, 2008, p. 24).
This builds on Sara Mills’ Discourses of Difference (1991), which critiques colonialist narratives in travel writing.

9. Literature as Constitutive of Space

Instead of viewing literature as merely reflecting reality, Jones argues that literature actively shapes perceptions of space.
“Studying contemporary literature could act as ‘le détonateur d’une nouvelle façon de penser l’espace’ [the catalyst for a new way of thinking about space]” (Brosseau, cited in Jones, 2008, p. 21).

This contributes to literary geography by positioning literature as an active force in spatial discourse.

10. Interdisciplinary Dialogue between Geography and Literary Studies

Jones calls for a deeper interdisciplinary exchange between geography and literature, moving beyond superficial uses of literature in geographic studies.

“The creation of the genuine dialogue that Brosseau calls for aims, in short, to avoid superficial, self-validating interdisciplinary contacts” (Jones, 2008, p. 22).
This aligns with Glenda Norquay and Gerry Smyth’s Space and Place: The Geographies of Literature (1997), which fosters literary-geographical collaboration.

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones

Literary Work	Critique Through “Literature and the New Cultural Geography”	Reference from the Article
Underworld by Don DeLillo	Examines the novel through “chorological poetics,” emphasizing six socio-spatial modes that shape narrative identity. The text portrays space as an active force, rather than a passive setting.	“Thurgar-Dawson takes the notion of ‘chorology’, or the ‘geo-social study of specific regions’ and identifies six socio-spatial modes within DeLillo’s Underworld that together comprise a ‘chorological poetics'” (Jones, p. 237).
Des romans-géographes by Marc Brosseau	Demonstrates how literature contributes to geographic thought, proposing that literary texts actively construct space rather than merely reflect it. The novel explores the connection between human experience and spatial representation.	“Brosseau himself recognises that literature has ‘sa propre façon de ‘faire’ de la géographie, ou du moins, d’écrire l’espace et les lieux des hommes'” (Jones, p. 227).
Parisian Fields (Ed. Michael Sheringham)	Argues that the representation of Paris in literature constructs an interwoven semantic network that shapes urban identity. Literature is not just a reflection of space but actively constructs urban perception.	“Sheringham defines Paris as a ‘semantic network […] whose co-ordinates are determined by the movement of agents or agencies to which it plays host'” (Jones, p. 230).
Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation by Mary Louise Pratt	Highlights the concept of the “contact zone,” where colonial and indigenous cultures intersect, influencing space and narrative. Challenges traditional Eurocentric geographies.	“This term, which is clearly of use to those within the field of geography as well as that of travel writing, is used to refer ‘to the space of colonial encounters, the space in which peoples geographically and historically separated come into contact with each other and establish ongoing relations'” (Jones, p. 233).

Criticism Against “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones

Overemphasis on Postmodernism
- The article heavily relies on postmodern theories, particularly the “crisis of representation,” without sufficiently addressing alternative or competing frameworks.
- “Not only has the notion of impartial, objective knowledge been undermined, then, but the means through which knowledge can be articulated has also been called into question” (Jones, p. 224).
Limited Engagement with Empirical Geography
- While the article critiques objective geography, it does not engage deeply with empirical geographic methodologies that remain central to spatial analysis.
- It tends to privilege literary and theoretical discussions over real-world spatial studies.
Reduction of Cartography to Colonialist Discourse
- The discussion on cartography predominantly presents maps as tools of colonial control and ideological imposition, neglecting their practical and technological advancements in spatial representation.
- “Conventional map-making, then, is dependent upon pretensions to objective knowledge and transparent representation” (Jones, p. 225).
Insufficient Attention to Non-Western Spatial Theories
- The article primarily engages with European and Anglo-American theorists, overlooking contributions from non-Western spatial traditions and indigenous geographies.
- Concepts such as “space-adjusting technologies” are discussed without broader cultural perspectives.
Reinforcement of the Literature-Geography Divide
- While aiming for interdisciplinary synthesis, the article often maintains traditional disciplinary boundaries by treating geography as theoretical and literature as creative rather than fully integrating both as co-constructive forces.
- “Brosseau himself recognises that literature has ‘sa propre façon de ‘faire’ de la géographie'” (Jones, p. 227).
Lack of Practical Application
- The work remains largely theoretical, providing minimal practical examples of how the New Cultural Geography can be applied to contemporary literary studies or geographic research.
- It does not explore how literary methodologies can be systematically incorporated into geographical research beyond abstract discussions.

Representative Quotations from “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones with Explanation

#	Quotation	Explanation
1	“Awareness of space has been heightened in many areas of life in recent times.” (Jones, p. 221)	Jones establishes the central argument that spatial awareness is not just a geographical concern but a broad interdisciplinary issue.
2	“Space is not a dead passive arena in which things happen, but rather an active force in the world that is imbued with ideology and politics.” (Jones, p. 222)	The quotation reflects a major premise of New Cultural Geography: space is socially constructed and politically charged rather than neutral.
3	“Not only has the notion of impartial, objective knowledge been undermined, then, but the means through which knowledge can be articulated has also been called into question.” (Jones, p. 224)	Jones aligns with postmodernist critiques of knowledge and representation, arguing that all knowledge—including geographic knowledge—is subjective.
4	“Conventional map-making, then, is dependent upon pretensions to objective knowledge and transparent representation.” (Jones, p. 225)	She critiques traditional cartography, arguing that maps are ideological tools rather than neutral representations of space.
5	“Brosseau himself recognises that literature has ‘sa propre façon de ‘faire’ de la géographie’.” (Jones, p. 227)	Jones references Brosseau to emphasize that literature does not just describe geography but actively shapes spatial understanding.
6	“Literature, like all art, is ultimately a reflection and illustration of the landscape that produced it.” (Jones, p. 228)	This statement, while contested, suggests that literary works are deeply embedded in their spatial contexts and can serve as geographic texts.
7	“The role of the encounter with, and imaginative response to, urban space is ultimately to provide insights into the individual as much as to the city.” (Jones, p. 229)	Jones highlights the reciprocal relationship between human identity and urban spaces, influenced by thinkers like Walter Benjamin.
8	“Geography is not an inert container, is not a box where cultural history ‘happens,’ but an active force that pervades the literary field and shapes it in depth.” (Jones, p. 234)	This quote reinforces the argument that geography is not merely a setting but an active agent in literature and culture.
9	“Mapping operates in hegemonic discourses as a form of mimetic representation—it textually represents the gaze through transparent space.” (Jones, p. 225)	She critiques traditional cartography, emphasizing how maps reinforce power structures through their representations.
10	“Whilst some of the articles aim to do this through re-evaluating and reforming the traditional assumptions of the field, others forge new ground by taking a multi-faceted approach and bringing together a number of previously separate areas of academic enquiry.” (Jones, p. 236)	Jones acknowledges the interdisciplinary nature of the New Cultural Geography and the need to rethink traditional assumptions.

“Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous: Summary and Critique

“Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous first appeared in 1985 in the journal Area, volume 17, issue 2.

Introduction: “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous

“Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous first appeared in 1985 in the journal Area, volume 17, issue 2. The article discusses the intersection of geography and literature, particularly through the lens of humanist geography, which emphasizes the human experience of place over the physical or natural landscape. Porteous critiques the traditional geographical analysis of literature that focuses largely on rural or regional settings, and instead proposes a conceptual framework that engages with broader human experiences of place, such as “home” versus “away” and “insider” versus “outsider.” He suggests that these frameworks, derived from phenomenology and existentialism, offer a more nuanced understanding of how place influences human identity, and, by extension, literary production. The importance of this approach in literary theory lies in its ability to connect geographical contexts with human emotions and experiences, providing deeper insights into how authors are shaped by, or in contrast to, the environments they inhabit. The article bridges humanist geography and literary analysis, offering new perspectives on how literature reflects and influences our understanding of the spaces we occupy. This work has had significant influence in both geography and literary studies, especially in terms of understanding the relationship between literature and its geographical context.

Summary of “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous

Critique of Traditional Geographical Analyses of Literature: Porteous observes that geographers have predominantly focused on the regional novel, emphasizing rural settings and descriptive works that capture the essence of a region. He notes that this approach often overlooks broader human experiences of place and the emotional connections individuals have with their environments. He states, “The tendency is generally towards the study of a single novelist’s depiction of a single region” (Porteous, 1985, p. 118).
Introduction of a Humanist Approach: Porteous advocates for a humanist perspective that prioritizes human experiences and emotions in relation to place. He introduces a conceptual framework using a home:away/insider:outsider matrix to analyze literature. This framework considers the fundamental distinctions of existential insider versus outsider and the dichotomy of home versus away, aiming to capture the complexities of human experiences in various settings. He proposes, “Using the concepts provided by humanist geography, I therefore propose that this genre can be captured, albeit crudely, in matrix form” (Porteous, 1985, p. 119).

Application of the Framework

Porteous applies this matrix to categorize different literary themes:

Home-Insider: Literature that explores individuals deeply connected to their native places, often found in regional novels.

Away-Outsider: Works depicting individuals who feel alienated or displaced, such as travelers, exiles, or those experiencing rootlessness. He notes, “Outsideness is a common theme in twentieth-century literature” (Porteous, 1985, p. 120).
Home-Outsider: Literature focusing on individuals who, despite being in their native places, feel estranged or disconnected.
Away-Insider: Works about individuals who, while away from home, achieve a sense of belonging or self-realization.

Call for Further Exploration: Porteous emphasizes the need for geographers to delve deeper into the human aspects of literature, moving beyond traditional analyses. He encourages the exploration of themes like rootlessness, anomie, and exile, which are prevalent in modern literature but have received limited attention from geographers. He states, “Yet an investigation of the literary output of Graham Greene, Malcolm Lowry, Aldous Huxley, D H Lawrence, Lawrence Durrell, James Joyce, and similar authors of the inter-war years might well promote our understanding of the origins of western civilisation’s deepening malaise” (Porteous, 1985, p. 121).

Conclusion: Porteous concludes that integrating humanist concepts into the geographical interpretation of literature can lead to a more nuanced understanding of literary landscapes. He suggests that this approach complements traditional methods and offers new avenues for exploring the relationship between literature and geography. He asserts, “By developing a humanist approach to the geographical interpretation of imaginative literature, a more balanced assessment of the value of literary landscapes may emerge” (Porteous, 1985, p. 122).
This humanist approach provides a framework for analyzing literature that considers the emotional and existential dimensions of human experiences in relation to place, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the interplay between geography and literature.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Usage in the Article	Reference in the Article & Usage
Humanist Geography	A perspective in geography that focuses on human experience, meaning, and subjectivity in relation to places, drawing from existentialism and phenomenology.	Discussed as a reaction against traditional geographical analysis. Humanist geographers emphasize human experience over geographic realism (p. 118).
Sense of Place	A widely used but overemphasized concept in geographical studies, referring to the deep personal and emotional connection to a place.	Porteous critiques the overuse of this term, arguing that even humanist geographers are often limited to place-focused studies rather than human experience (p. 119).
Placelessness	A state where a person lacks attachment or identity with any place, often associated with urban life and modern alienation.	Linked to existential outsider status and the theme of rootlessness in 20th-century literature, particularly in urban settings (p. 119-120).
Insider/Outsider	A conceptual framework distinguishing those who feel connected to a place (insiders) from those who experience detachment (outsiders).	Derived from Relph (1976) and used to classify characters in literature who either belong to or are estranged from their environment (p. 119).
Home/Away	A binary distinction where “home” represents security and familiarity, while “away” represents travel, exile, or alienation.	Used to construct a conceptual matrix for literary geography (Figure 1, p. 119).
Roots/Rootlessness	The extent to which an individual is either connected to a place (rooted) or displaced (rootless).	Discussed in relation to Middleton (1981) and the theme of exile, alienation, and yearning for home (p. 119-120).
Home-Insider	Someone deeply connected to their home environment, often represented in regional literature.	The dominant subject in regional novels and nostalgic literature that celebrates traditional communities (p. 119).
Away-Outsider	A figure in literature who experiences both physical and existential displacement, often associated with themes of alienation and anomie.	Frequently found in 20th-century modernist literature (e.g., Camus, Wilson). Porteous suggests geographers should study alienation in urban settings rather than focusing on rural nostalgia (p. 119-120).
Home-Outsider	A person who remains physically at home but feels existentially detached or trapped.	Explored in relation to Porteous (1976), which argues that home is not always positive and can feel imprisoning (p. 120).
Away-Insider	An individual who finds meaning, belonging, or self-realization through travel or displacement.	Seen in adventure, sea, and road novels where the protagonist attains identity by journeying (p. 120).
Space vs. Place	Tuan’s framework distinguishing between abstract, undifferentiated “space” and meaningful, personal “place.”	Porteous critiques geographers who focus too much on the place-space dialectic rather than human experience (p. 119).
Literary Geography	The study of literature to analyze how places, landscapes, and environments are represented.	The entire article revolves around this concept, urging geographers to engage more with literature beyond regional studies (p. 118-119).
Word Painting	A literary technique where descriptive passages vividly create images of regions and landscapes.	One of Pocock’s (1981) three traditions of geographical literature (p. 118).
Geography Behind Literature	A method of analyzing literature for its accuracy in depicting real-world geography.	Another of Pocock’s (1981) traditions, focusing on how well literature represents geographic reality (p. 118).
Geography in Literature	The process of extracting geographical elements from literary texts to construct a broader geographical understanding.	The final of Pocock’s (1981) traditions, using literature as a “quarry” for geographical insights (p. 118).
The Journey Narrative	A common literary structure where movement, exile, and displacement are central themes.	Key in Lowry, Greene, and Joyce’s literature; geographers should engage with this theme to understand human movement (p. 120-121).
Existentialism and Phenomenology in Geography	Approaches emphasizing lived experience and personal meaning rather than objective geography.	Humanist geography adopts existentialist ideas of being “in place” or “out of place”, influencing literary interpretation (p. 119).
Anomie and Alienation	Feelings of social detachment, often experienced in modern urban environments.	A major theme in 20th-century literature, particularly in depictions of placelessness and exile (p. 120).
Metaphor in Geography	The use of symbolic language to interpret geographical elements in literature.	Mentioned as an emerging field among geographers, referencing Tuan (1978) and Mills (1982) (p. 120).
Allegory in Literature and Geography	The interpretation of landscapes and places in novels as symbolic of deeper existential themes.	Porteous cites Lowry’s novels as examples of strong allegorical landscapes that reflect psychological states (p. 121).
Pastoral and Counter-Pastoral	A contrast between the romanticized ideal of rural life (pastoral) and its critique (counter-pastoral).	Seen in literature that either idealizes rural life (Hardy) or critiques it (Lawrence, Orwell) (p. 121).
Wilderness vs. Civilization	The contrast between untamed nature and structured urban environments.	Explored through writings on deserts, islands, forests, and cityscapes, urging geographers to study these literary motifs (p. 120-121).
City as a Deathscape	A literary motif where cities are depicted as sites of fear, corruption, and existential decay.	Key theme in Lowry’s work, where cities symbolize destruction and death (p. 121).

Contribution of “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Phenomenology and Literary Geography

Key Theoretical Contribution:

Porteous engages with phenomenology, particularly Yi-Fu Tuan’s (1977) Space and Place, and Edward Relph’s (1976) Place and Placelessness, to argue that literature should be analyzed not just for its description of places, but for its representation of human experience within place.

How It Contributes:

He critiques the traditional literary geographic focus on regional novels and suggests a more humanist approach that emphasizes individual experience (Porteous, 1985, p. 118).
He introduces the insider-outsider dialectic, arguing that literary works should be examined for how characters experience place subjectively, rather than just for geographic accuracy (p. 119).

Conceptual Framework: The Home/Away and Insider/Outsider matrix (p. 119) mirrors phenomenological inquiries into human perception of place and has applications in interpreting existential displacement in literature.

Intext Reference:

“The emphasis is on human experience, rather than on places themselves” (Porteous, 1985, p. 119).

Theoretical Alignment:

Phenomenology of Perception (Merleau-Ponty, 1945) – Literary geography should engage with how places are subjectively experienced.
Topophilia (Tuan, 1974) – Porteous builds on this work to critique the overemphasis on “sense of place” in literary studies (p. 119).

2. Existentialism in Literary Studies

Key Theoretical Contribution:

Porteous applies existentialist ideas to literature, particularly the existential outsider, an archetype found in works by Camus (1946) and Wilson (1970).

How It Contributes:

He argues that geographers should shift focus from static regional descriptions to dynamic existential themes such as alienation, exile, and placelessness (p. 119-120).
He highlights 20th-century literature’s preoccupation with existential displacement (e.g., The Outsider by Camus, Under the Volcano by Lowry), linking them to rootlessness and placelessness (p. 121).

His matrix (Figure 1) places alienation and rootlessness at the core of modern literature, encouraging geographers to analyze narratives of exile and anomie (p. 120-121).

Intext Reference:

“Outsideness is a common theme in twentieth-century literature but has received only slight attention from geographers” (Porteous, 1985, p. 119).

Theoretical Alignment:

Sartre’s Existentialism (1943) – The notion that place is essential for constructing identity, but modern life creates a sense of placelessness.
Camus’ Absurdism (1942) – Porteous’ description of the Away-Outsider aligns with the existential antihero found in Camus’ and Wilson’s works.

3. Spatial Theory and Literary Criticism

Key Theoretical Contribution:

Porteous contributes to Spatial Literary Theory by suggesting that space and place function as narrative structures rather than mere settings.

How It Contributes:

He critiques geographers’ overemphasis on static landscapes and calls for an analysis of movement, exile, and journey in literature (p. 119).
His Away-Insider category introduces a nomadic subjectivity, which can be linked to Deleuze and Guattari’s concept of deterritorialization (p. 120).

He suggests that landscapes in novels act as symbolic, even sentient forces (p. 121), a view compatible with Bakhtin’s (1981) chronotope, where space is an active participant in shaping narrative time.

Intext Reference:

“Literary works must be regarded as dynamic within the matrix… Overlaps abound, and in many cases, authors and protagonists move from one state to another” (Porteous, 1985, p. 121).

Theoretical Alignment:

Bakhtin’s Chronotope (1981) – The idea that space is a determinant of narrative structure, seen in Porteous’ spatial matrix.
Deleuze and Guattari’s Nomadology (1986) – The Away-Insider category captures nomadic movement as a transformative experience.

4. Postcolonial Theory and the Exile Narrative

Key Theoretical Contribution:

Porteous’ discussion of home-outsiders and rootlessness resonates with postcolonial themes of exile, diaspora, and the colonial subject’s identity crisis.

How It Contributes:

He identifies a category of displaced individuals who feel alienated from their home even after returning (p. 121).
He references V.S. Naipaul’s The Mimic Men (1967) as an example of postcolonial exile, where returning colonial subjects become outsiders in their homeland (p. 121).

His emphasis on literature portraying exile, displacement, and identity crisis links to postcolonial theory’s concerns with belonging and spatial otherness.

Intext Reference:

“Such people readily become strangers in their own lands, for their values and attitudes have changed” (Porteous, 1985, p. 121).

Theoretical Alignment:

Said’s Orientalism (1978) – The Away-Outsider aligns with the postcolonial subject struggling with identity.
Bhabha’s The Location of Culture (1994) – Porteous anticipates hybridity and cultural in-betweenness in his discussion of exile.

Conclusion: Broader Implications for Literary Theory

Porteous’ Literature and Humanist Geography contributes to literary theory by:

Expanding Phenomenology and Existentialism into Literary Geography – He shifts focus from physical landscapes to human experience in place (p. 118-119).

Applying Spatial Theory to Narrative – His Home/Away-Insider/Outsider matrix helps analyze mobility, exile, and alienation in literature (p. 119-121).
Bridging Literary Geography with Postcolonial Studies – He highlights postcolonial displacement and rootlessness as central literary themes (p. 121).
Encouraging Geographers to Study Alienation and Placelessness in Modern Literature – He argues that themes of exile and identity loss are essential for humanist geography (p. 120-121).

Porteous’ work thus serves as a foundational text in Literary Geography, offering conceptual tools that enrich literary analysis beyond traditional geographic interpretation.

Key References from the Article:

Porteous, J.D. (1985). Literature and Humanist Geography. Area, 17(2), 117-122.

Relph, E. (1976). Place and Placelessness.
Tuan, Y-F. (1977). Space and Place.
Camus, A. (1946). The Outsider.

Naipaul, V.S. (1967). The Mimic Men.
Bakhtin, M. (1981). The Dialogic Imagination.
Deleuze, G. & Guattari, F. (1986). Nomadology.

Said, E. (1978). Orientalism.
Bhabha, H. (1994). The Location of Culture.

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through Porteous’ Framework	Relevant Concepts from Porteous
Under the Volcano – Malcolm Lowry	The protagonist, Geoffrey Firmin, embodies the Away-Outsider, a man lost in an existentially hostile landscape. The novel’s setting, Mexico, is not just a backdrop but an active, oppressive force, mirroring Firmin’s psychological descent. Porteous’ argument that literature should explore alienation and placelessness instead of merely describing settings applies here (Porteous, 1985, p. 121).	Away-Outsider, Placelessness, City as a Deathscape, Anomie and Alienation, Existential Geography
The Outsider (L’Étranger) – Albert Camus	Meursault, the protagonist, disrupts traditional “sense of place” narratives by showing indifference to his surroundings. His detachment from place and people aligns with Porteous’ critique of human experience being neglected in traditional geography. The novel exemplifies the modern urban individual as a rootless figure, reinforcing Porteous’ view that geographers should examine alienation in cities rather than just landscapes (p. 120).	Away-Outsider, Placelessness, Existentialism in Geography, Human Experience Over Geographic Realism
The Mimic Men – V.S. Naipaul	The protagonist struggles with postcolonial displacement, living between his Caribbean homeland and London, yet belonging to neither. Porteous’ Home-Outsider and Away-Outsider dialectic applies, as the character is emotionally disconnected from both locations. Porteous argues that literary geography should explore exile, rootlessness, and cultural alienation, which aligns with Naipaul’s themes of identity crisis (p. 121).	Home-Outsider, Away-Outsider, Postcolonial Displacement, Sense of Place vs. Placelessness
Coming Up for Air – George Orwell	Orwell’s novel critiques the illusion of a stable home. The protagonist returns to his childhood town, expecting familiarity but instead finds a modernized, alien environment. Porteous’ Home-Outsider concept explains this nostalgia-turned-disillusionment, showing that places do not remain fixed in memory or reality. The novel supports Porteous’ call for geographers to analyze modernization’s impact on place attachment (p. 121).	Home-Outsider, Urbanization and Loss of Place, Sense of Place as Nostalgia, Alienation in Modernity

Criticism Against “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous

1. Overemphasis on Existentialist and Phenomenological Approaches

Porteous heavily relies on existentialism and phenomenology (e.g., Relph, Tuan) without fully addressing other theoretical frameworks like Marxist geography, feminist geography, or structuralism.
Critique: His framework prioritizes individual perception of place over socioeconomic and political structures that shape geographical experiences.

2. Limited Engagement with Postcolonial and Critical Theories

While he briefly discusses postcolonial displacement (e.g., Naipaul’s The Mimic Men), he does not fully explore colonialism’s role in shaping geographical identity and power dynamics.
Critique: His Home/Away-Insider/Outsider framework does not account for the forced displacement, imperialist spatial control, or the complexities of hybrid identities in postcolonial literature.

3. Western-Centric Literary Focus

The examples and references in the article are predominantly Western (e.g., Hardy, Lowry, Orwell, Camus).
Critique: It lacks engagement with non-Western literary traditions that offer alternative spatial and existential narratives (e.g., Indigenous storytelling, African diasporic literature).

4. Simplistic Categorization in the Home/Away-Insider/Outsider Matrix

While useful, the four-category framework oversimplifies human relationships with place.
Critique: It does not account for fluid identities, multiple place attachments, or liminal states where characters exist between categories (e.g., migrants, refugees, diasporic identities).

5. Insufficient Consideration of Urban and Economic Geographies

Porteous criticizes geographers for focusing on regional novels and landscapes, but his own work does not deeply engage with urban literature or economic geography.
Critique: He overlooks how capitalism, industrialization, and urban planning contribute to placelessness and alienation in literature.

6. Lack of Empirical Support or Case Studies

The article presents strong theoretical arguments, but does not include concrete literary case studies or textual analysis beyond broad references.
Critique: Without deeper engagement with primary texts, his claims about literary geography remain more prescriptive than demonstrative.

7. Absence of Interdisciplinary Methodology

Although he calls for geographers to engage more with literature, he does not provide a clear interdisciplinary methodology for how geographers should conduct literary analysis.
Critique: The lack of specific analytical tools limits the practical application of his framework for literary scholars and geographers alike.

Representative Quotations from “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation and Significance
“The emphasis is on human experience, rather than on places themselves.” (Porteous, 1985, p. 119)	This statement encapsulates humanist geography’s shift from objective descriptions of landscapes to an emphasis on subjective human experience in place. Porteous argues that geographers should focus more on the existential and emotional dimensions of place in literature rather than just physical geography.
“The ‘sense of place’ notion bedevils the literary geographer.” (Porteous, 1985, p. 119)	Porteous critiques the overuse of “sense of place” in literary geography, arguing that it can limit analysis to regional novels and ignore other spatial experiences such as exile, displacement, and placelessness. This challenges traditional regional geography’s focus on nostalgia and rootedness.
“Geographers have almost wholly concerned themselves with the novel of place, usually a rural place. Thus the regional novel has become a geographical shibboleth.” (Porteous, 1985, p. 118)	This critique highlights how literary geography has been disproportionately focused on rural regional novels (e.g., Hardy’s Wessex), neglecting urban literature, exile narratives, and modern spatial experiences. Porteous calls for a broader engagement with different literary forms and settings.
“Notions of place: placelessness, roots: rootlessness, and insider: outsider are powerful instruments for the interpretation of imaginative literature in a human context.” (Porteous, 1985, p. 119)	Here, Porteous introduces his conceptual framework (Home/Away – Insider/Outsider matrix), which offers a new lens to analyze literary characters and settings. His framework moves beyond mere landscape descriptions to the human relationships with place.
“The interpretation of imaginative literature has much to offer geography.” (Porteous, 1985, p. 122)	This is the core argument of the article, advocating for an interdisciplinary approach between literature and geography. Porteous asserts that geographers should not only borrow from literary criticism but also contribute new geographic insights to literary studies.
“Few geographers of any description, for example, are interested in war, refugees, human rights, or related themes, against which yet another study in office location, the shopping trip, or recreation resource management pales into insignificance.” (Porteous, 1985, p. 121)	This is a strong critique of traditional geography, which often focuses on economic and physical geography at the expense of human crises and displacement. Porteous urges geographers to study conflict, exile, and migration in literature, as these themes are central to modern human experience.
“Home does not always have a positive valence.” (Porteous, 1985, p. 120)	This challenges the romanticized view of home in literary geography. He argues that home can be suffocating, restrictive, or even alienating, aligning with literary themes found in Orwell, Joyce, and Naipaul.
“Cities become symbols of fear, corruption, destruction, and death, merciless predators on human life.” (Porteous, 1985, p. 121)	This comment reflects Porteous’ engagement with modernist literature, particularly Malcolm Lowry’s urban landscapes in Under the Volcano. He suggests that literature often depicts urban environments as existentially threatening, which geographers should analyze further.
“The young-man-finds-himself-at-sea novel, common before World War II, is a case in point, as are road, tramp, and down-and-out novels.” (Porteous, 1985, p. 120)	This quote identifies Away-Insider characters, showing how mobility and travel narratives serve as identity formation tools. He suggests geographers should engage more with travel literature and road novels.
“A more balanced assessment of the value of literary landscapes may emerge.” (Porteous, 1985, p. 122)	Porteous calls for a synthesis of traditional and humanist geography, proposing that both objective geographic analysis and subjective human experience should be valued in literary geography.

Key Insights from the Table:

Porteous criticizes the narrow focus on rural landscapes in literary geography.

He advocates for studying exile, migration, and urban alienation in literature.
His Home/Away – Insider/Outsider framework offers a fresh way to analyze spatial relationships in literature.
He calls for an interdisciplinary approach, encouraging geographers to engage with literary criticism and humanist themes.

“Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones: Summary and Critique

“Literary Geography: Setting and Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones first appeared in 2011 in the Social & Cultural Geography journal.

Introduction: “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones

“Literary Geography: Setting and Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones first appeared in 2011 in the Social & Cultural Geography journal. In this article, Hones explores how narrative theory and literary geography can be merged to better understand the role of setting and narrative space in literature. She critiques the traditional approach in literary geography, which views space merely as a static background for action, and emphasizes the need to move beyond this simplistic perspective. By examining works like P.K. Dick’s The Man in the High Castle, J.A. Mitchell’s The Last American, and F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, Hones argues that literary space is not fixed but contingent, shaped by the interactions between the narrative, the author, and the reader. The article highlights the potential of combining the specificity of narrative theory with the broader imaginative scope of spatial theory, thus advancing a more dynamic and interdisciplinary approach to the study of literary spaces (Hones, 2011).

Summary of “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones

Interdisciplinary Connection Between Narrative Theory and Literary Geography
The article examines how the tools of narrative theory can enhance the study of literary geography, particularly in understanding setting and narrative space. Hones suggests that despite narrative theory’s inclination to categorize space as fixed and stable, its technical vocabulary offers valuable insights to literary geographers (Hones, 2011).
Traditional View of Narrative Space
Historically, narrative space was understood as the background setting for events in a story, often treated as a stable “container” in literary geography. However, recent advancements in both narrative theory and literary geography have shifted toward a more complex view, acknowledging that space in literature cannot simply be reduced to a backdrop for action (Hones, 2011).

Expansion of Narrative Space Concepts
Narrative theory has evolved to incorporate space not just as a backdrop, but as a dynamic and integral part of the narrative. Hones notes that the introduction of concepts like “chronotope” (Bakhtin) and the “spatial dimensions of narrative” in narrative theory are pushing for a more nuanced understanding of how space functions within a story (Hones, 2011).
Challenges in Interdisciplinary Collaboration
Hones addresses the gap between the precise categorizations found in narrative theory and the more flexible, process-oriented concepts in spatial theory. While narrative theory’s typologies are useful for analysis, they often impose a rigid view of space, which conflicts with geographical theory’s more fluid and relational understanding of space and place (Hones, 2011).
Potential of Combining Narrative Theory and Spatial Theory
The paper proposes that blending the analytical rigor of narrative theory with the expansive conceptual framework of spatial theory can result in a more sophisticated understanding of how literary space is created and experienced. This combination can offer deeper insights into how fiction’s geography is produced through the interaction of author, narrative voice, and reader (Hones, 2011).

Case Studies of Literary Texts
Hones illustrates her argument through three case studies: The Man in the High Castle (1962) by P.K. Dick, The Last American (1889) by J.A. Mitchell, and The Great Gatsby (1925) by F. Scott Fitzgerald. These texts highlight the complex ways in which narrative space is created and how reader positioning plays a crucial role in shaping that space. For instance, Dick’s novel uses minimal descriptive passages, relying on reader inference to build its alternative world, while The Great Gatsby reveals how an unreliable narrator complicates the notion of a fixed setting (Hones, 2011).
Conclusion: Shifting Definitions of Setting
Hones concludes that a new approach to setting and narrative space is needed, one that takes into account the multiple voices, times, and locations present in a narrative. By focusing on the processes through which fictional settings emerge, literary geography can move beyond static notions of space and explore its contingency and fluidity (Hones, 2011).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation
Narrative Space	The “place or places within which the situations and events represented … and the narrating instance(s) occur” (Prince, 1987).	Narrative space is the space within a story where the events take place. Initially seen as a static background setting, it is now understood to be dynamic and integral to the narrative. Hones critiques the traditional view of space as just a container for action (Hones, 2011).
Chronotope	A concept from Bakhtin referring to the interconnectedness of time and space in narrative.	The chronotope refers to how space and time are fused within the narrative, creating particular “types” of spaces in the narrative structure, such as the “adventure” chronotope (Hones, 2011).
Possible-Worlds Theory	A theory used in narrative theory to describe the various worlds presented in a narrative that are distinct from the actual world.	This theory acknowledges that narratives may present alternative or fictional worlds that coexist with real-world spaces. The theory allows exploration of how these different “worlds” interact within the narrative (Hones, 2011).
Spatial Frames	The specific locations within a narrative that make up the “shifting scenes of action.”	Spatial frames are the identifiable settings within the narrative’s physical world, establishing the boundaries of the story’s geography (Ryan, 2010).
Story Space	The space relevant to the plot as mapped by the actions and thoughts of the characters.	Story space is the specific geographic area in which the narrative’s actions occur, shaped by the plot and the characters’ movements within it (Ryan, 2010).
Narrative Universe	The broader world encompassing the story’s actual and hypothetical elements, such as counterfactuals, beliefs, wishes, and speculative realities.	This concept expands beyond the story’s physical setting, including the worlds created by characters’ thoughts and the broader context in which the narrative takes place. It helps explain how narrative space can include imagined or possible worlds (Ryan, 2010).
Multiple Focalizations	The use of various narrative perspectives to tell the story from different points of view.	Hones discusses how authors use multiple focalizations to create different views of the same narrative space, enriching the depth and complexity of the space in which the story unfolds. It highlights the fluidity of space as experienced by different narrators (Hones, 2011).
Implied Reader	The conceptualized reader who is imagined by the narrator and embedded within the fictional world.	This reader exists within the world of the narrative, helping to co-create the spatial setting by interpreting the story from their own perspective (Hones, 2011).
Intradiegetic Narrator	A narrator who is part of the story world, participating in the events of the narrative.	An intradiegetic narrator shapes the narrative space by giving a subjective view from within the fictional world, influencing how readers perceive the story’s setting (Hones, 2011).
Text–Reader Dynamics	The interaction between the text’s narrative structure and the reader’s interpretation, shaping the narrative space.	This concept emphasizes the reader’s role in constructing the space of the narrative, reflecting on how readers co-create the geographical and social aspects of the story (Hones, 2011).
Metalepsis	A narrative technique where the boundary between different narrative levels is blurred, often bringing the narrator or reader into the narrative world.	Metalepsis allows for narrative space to become more fluid, breaking the boundaries between different levels of the narrative, such as the real world and the story world (Hones, 2011).

Contribution of “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones to Literary Theory/Theories

Narrative Theory and Space
Hones integrates narrative theory’s insights into space and place, suggesting that narrative space is not just a static container but a dynamic construct shaped by plot, character actions, and reader interactions. She emphasizes the importance of the “chronotope” (Bakhtin’s concept of time-space fusion) in understanding how space operates within narratives (Hones, 2011).

“Narrative theory has come to pay ‘greater attention … to the spatial dimensions of narrative'” (Bridgeman, 2007: 53).

Interdisciplinary Collaboration
Hones advocates for the collaboration between literary geography and narrative theory. She highlights the potential of narrative theory’s analytical specificity combined with the spatial stretch of geographic theory. This collaboration creates a more nuanced understanding of how narrative space is formed and understood within fiction (Hones, 2011).

“The main purpose of this paper is thus to consolidate and build on existing work in interdisciplinary literary geography” (Hones, 2011).

Expansion of Narrative Space
She contributes to the expansion of the concept of narrative space from a simple “setting” or container to a more complex, contingent space. The article challenges traditional definitions of space as static and suggests that narrative space is an active participant in shaping the story (Hones, 2011).

“Narrative theory has expanded its focus of interest from relatively simple frame settings to a wider range of narrative spatialities” (Hones, 2011).

Role of the Reader in Narrative Space
Hones discusses the reader’s active role in constructing the narrative space, arguing that the interaction between text and reader makes space contingent and variable. She incorporates the idea that readers contribute to the construction of the fictional geography through their cultural knowledge and real-world experiences (Hones, 2011).

“The narrative world is conceived by the imagination, which is to say by the reader, ‘as a coherent, unified, ontologically full and materially existing geographical entity'” (Ryan, 2010).

Chronotope and Temporal-Spatial Complexity
By discussing Bakhtin’s chronotope and applying it to the analysis of space, Hones helps push the boundaries of how space is conceptualized in narrative theory. The chronotope allows for understanding how space and time are not merely a backdrop but integral to the structure of the narrative (Hones, 2011).

“The chronotope fuses space and time, creating particular types of spaces within the narrative” (Hones, 2011).

Critical Examination of ‘Container Space’
Hones critiques the “container” model of space, which had dominated literary geography. She challenges the assumption that narrative space simply serves as a container for events and proposes that space can be much more fluid and integral to narrative construction.

“Space as a container frame … was limiting and no longer sufficient” (Hones, 2011).

Multiple Focalizations and Shifting Narrative Views
Hones highlights how the use of multiple focalizations in narrative can create different versions of space, complicating the reader’s experience of space within the story. She uses case studies such as The Man in the High Castle to demonstrate how shifting narrative perspectives affect the construction of space (Hones, 2011).

“The narrative is articulated through multiple, shifting narrative points of view and speakers” (Hones, 2011).

Integration of Narrative Voice and Setting
She underscores the inseparability of narrative voice from setting, arguing that narrative voice plays a key role in shaping the spatial context of the story. The narrative voice determines how readers perceive and interpret the setting and space within the fiction.

“Narrative voice is critical to the production of narrative geographies” (Hones, 2011).

Examples of Critiques Through “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones

Literary Work	Critique	Explanation
The Man in the High Castle by P.K. Dick	Minimal scene-setting description	Hones critiques the novel’s lack of explicit descriptive passages, arguing that it establishes its fictional geography not through traditional descriptions but by positioning the implied reader as an inhabitant of the fictional world. The absence of descriptions aids in the immersive construction of the alternative world.
	Multiple focalizations and voices	The narrative’s use of multiple focalizations and voices helps establish a complex, dynamic space. These shifting perspectives create a varied and layered sense of place within the fictional world, supporting the idea that space in the novel is contingent and constructed through multiple narrative techniques.
The Last American by J.A. Mitchell	Doubled textual geography	Hones highlights the novel’s use of a complex spatial structure, where the implied reader of the future is juxtaposed with a nineteenth-century American authorial audience. This creates a “doubled” geography that compels readers to engage with two unfamiliar worlds simultaneously: an imagined future and a historical past.
	Role of the narrator and reader positioning	The narrative style, which uses a first-person perspective from an admiral in the Persian navy, shifts the reader’s perception of space. The reader’s engagement with both the fictional world of the narrative and the historical context of the author complicates the reader’s understanding of the spatial setting, highlighting the interaction between authorial intent and reader interpretation.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Narrative space and unreliable narration	Hones critiques the assumption that The Great Gatsby‘s setting is simply New York in the 1920s. She argues that the narrative space is complex because of the unreliable first-person narrator, Nick Carraway, who recounts past events from his present in the Midwest. This layering of locations challenges the conventional understanding of setting and suggests a more fluid, multi-layered space.
	Simultaneity of locations	The novel’s narrative space operates in simultaneity, where multiple locations (New York, Louisville, the Midwest) co-exist within the same narrative moment. Hones emphasizes the complexity of the text’s geography, arguing that it cannot be confined to a single spatial frame but instead involves overlapping and interconnected locations.
The Last American by J.A. Mitchell	Critique of social and political geography	The novel critiques the decline of American society through a post-apocalyptic lens. Hones argues that the fictional geography of a destroyed America serves as social criticism, reflecting concerns about the loss of national identity and the impact of history on the physical and social landscape.
	Metatextual elements and dual settings	Hones examines how the text’s metatextual elements, such as the fictional editor and dedication pages, create an additional setting within the real world, contrasting the fictional future setting with the real-world production context. This dual setting complicates the reader’s understanding of the narrative’s spatial frame, merging fictional and real-world geographies.

Criticism Against “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones

Overemphasis on Theoretical Vocabulary
Critics argue that the reliance on narrative theory’s technical terms and categorizations may complicate the interdisciplinary approach and make it less accessible for geographers who are not familiar with literary theory. Some might feel that the emphasis on precision in narrative terminology overshadows the need for broader spatial concepts (Hones, 2011).

Lack of Engagement with Non-Western Literatures
Some critics might contend that Hones’ examples, such as those from P.K. Dick and F. Scott Fitzgerald, predominantly focus on Western texts and settings, which could limit the applicability of her theories in non-Western contexts. A more global perspective might broaden the scope of literary geography and offer richer, more diverse analyses.
Overcomplication of Setting and Space
While Hones emphasizes the complexity of narrative space, critics may argue that this overcomplication could lead to an unclear or convoluted understanding of how space functions in literature. Instead of making the concept more accessible, the multiple layers of analysis might obscure the fundamental idea of setting as a geographical space in which events unfold.
Insufficient Focus on Spatial Experience
Although Hones touches on the importance of spatial experience, some critics may argue that there is insufficient exploration of how actual spatial experiences (such as the reader’s perception of place or the geographical reality behind the fiction) influence the narrative. The focus remains largely theoretical, with limited engagement in real-world applications.

Limited Collaboration between Disciplines
Hones mentions the potential for cross-disciplinary collaboration between narrative theory and literary geography, but critics may argue that the actual integration of these two fields is still underdeveloped. The proposed interdisciplinary framework may be seen as too ambitious without clear pathways for practical collaboration between literary theorists and geographers.

Representative Quotations from “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The technical vocabulary developed within narrative theory has much to offer the literary geographer.” (Hones, 2011)	Hones emphasizes the value of narrative theory’s specialized terms in understanding the spatial dimensions of literature, suggesting that literary geographers can gain significant insights by incorporating narrative theory’s terminology.
“Narrative space was generally assumed by narratologists at the time to have ‘no other function than to supply a general background setting.'” (Hones, 2011)	This quotation reflects the traditional view in narrative theory, where narrative space was seen simply as a backdrop for action, rather than an active element of the story. Hones critiques this limiting view and calls for a more dynamic approach.
“Narrative theory has come to pay greater attention to the spatial dimensions of narrative.” (Bridgeman, 2007 in Hones, 2011)	Hones notes that narrative theory has evolved to recognize the significance of space within narratives, moving beyond its previous focus on time and action, thus opening up possibilities for interdisciplinary study.
“Literary geography has also started to develop lines of work that go beyond a simple association of narrative space with particular frame settings.” (Hones, 2011)	Hones highlights that literary geography is expanding to include more complex notions of narrative space, which are not limited to static settings but involve dynamic interactions between text and geography.
“Space in literature often meant ‘Balzac’s version of Paris, the Africa of colonial romances, Austen’s redrawing of Britain.'” (Hones, 2011)	This statement critiques the overly simplistic and Eurocentric focus of traditional literary geography, calling for a broader, more nuanced understanding of literary space that incorporates diverse contexts.
“Finding it increasingly ‘difficult to disentangle setting from what’s going on and who’s doing it.'” (Abbott, 2008 in Hones, 2011)	Hones references Abbott’s insight that setting cannot be viewed in isolation from the plot and character actions, arguing that narrative space should be understood as contingent and interconnected with narrative events.
“Narrative space can be identified as the (presumably singular) fictional environment within which ‘story-internal characters move about and live.'” (Buchholz & Jahn, 2005 in Hones, 2011)	Hones critiques the view that narrative space is a fixed environment, advocating for a more fluid and complex understanding of space as dynamic and shaped by the narrative itself.
“The potential for literary geography lies in taking up a position at the theoretical and methodological overlap and, from that position, developing lines of argument which are inhibited as little as possible by the disciplinary differences.” (Hones, 2011)	Hones stresses the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration between literary theory and geography, proposing that such an approach can lead to a more robust understanding of narrative space.
“A narrative space…is a co-production involving a range of voices and points of view as well as a range of projected and actual reader positions.” (Hones, 2011)	This quotation emphasizes the collaborative and multi-dimensional nature of narrative space, where different voices, reader perspectives, and narrative techniques come together to shape the space.
“Space as process, something mobile and unstable.” (Hones, 2011)	Hones advocates for a view of space as dynamic and ever-changing, rather than as a fixed container, arguing that spatial theory should reflect the fluidity of both space and narrative.

Suggested Readings: “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones

Hones, Sheila. “Literary geography: setting and narrative space.” Social & Cultural Geography 12.7 (2011): 685-699.

Hones, Sheila. “Literary Geography and the Short Story: Setting and Narrative Style.” Cultural Geographies, vol. 17, no. 4, 2010, pp. 473–85. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44251372. Accessed 24 Feb. 2025.
Werronen, Sheryl McDonald. “Setting the Scene: Geography and Space.” Popular Romance in Iceland: The Women, Worldviews, and Manuscript Witnesses of Nítíða Saga, Amsterdam University Press, 2016, pp. 89–124. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv513cr4.8. Accessed 24 Feb. 2025.
Eigler, Friederike. “Narrative and Space.” Heimat, Space, Narrative: Toward a Transnational Approach to Flight and Expulsion, NED-New edition, Boydell & Brewer, 2014, pp. 31–50. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt5vj7rh.6. Accessed 24 Feb. 2025.

“Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson: Summary and Critique

“Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf and the City” by Jeri Johnson first appeared in 2000 in the journal City: Analysis of Urban Trends, Culture, Theory, Policy, Action (Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 199-214).

Introduction: “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson

“Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf and the City” by Jeri Johnson first appeared in 2000 in the journal City: Analysis of Urban Trends, Culture, Theory, Policy, Action (Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 199-214). The article explores how urban spaces in literature are represented as both real and imagined through the works of James Joyce and Virginia Woolf. Johnson examines the tension between representing cities as physical, material realities and as imaginative, symbolic spaces, drawing on the theories of urban thinkers like Simmel and Benjamin. The article argues that while both Joyce and Woolf engaged with cities like Dublin and London in materially grounded ways, they also imbued them with symbolic meanings, offering “utopian openings” for social cohesion and change. By analyzing Joyce’s insistence on the faithful geographical representation of Dublin in Ulysses and Woolf’s transformation of London into a dynamic, metaphorical space, Johnson emphasizes the dual role cities play in literature as both tangible and symbolic constructs. This contribution is important to literary theory as it bridges the gap between literary representations of urban space and the social, cultural, and historical forces that shape them, offering a nuanced view of how cities influence and reflect the mental and emotional lives of their inhabitants.

Summary of “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson

Introduction to the Concept of Literary Cities
In this article, Jeri Johnson explores the contrasting roles of urban spaces in literature, particularly in the works of James Joyce and Virginia Woolf. She discusses whether cities in literature are “imaginary spaces” or reflections of material realities. Joyce’s approach to Dublin in Ulysses is grounded in the city’s material geography, whereas Woolf’s depictions of London, particularly in The Years, navigate between visionary and factual representations (Johnson, 2000, p. 199). Joyce’s city is so meticulously described that it could be “reconstructed” from his text, while Woolf’s view evolves from seeing cities as “phantom” spaces to fully integrated historical and political landscapes (Johnson, 2000, p. 199).
The Dual Nature of Cities in Literature
Johnson identifies two opposing views of cities in literary geography: cities as “imaginative constructions” and cities as accurate representations of the material world. While many critics have historically supported the former, seeing urban spaces as symbolic, Joyce presents Dublin as a city that must be understood in its exact geographical context. Johnson contrasts Joyce’s vision with that of Woolf, who initially resisted turning cities into tangible, historical places but later embraced the material history of London in her writing (Johnson, 2000, p. 200). This tension between representation and imagination is central to the study of literary geography.

Franco Moretti and J. Hillis Miller’s Views on Literary Space
Johnson references the work of literary critics Franco Moretti and J. Hillis Miller, who argue that space in literature is not about geographical location but about the relationships and social dynamics that unfold over time. Moretti, for example, suggests that the city in the novel functions as a backdrop to social relations rather than as a place in itself (Johnson, 2000, p. 201). Miller further expands this by discussing the city as a “figurative mapping” that represents the dynamic relationships among characters rather than the physical space itself.
Raymond Williams and the Metropolis in Ulysses
Raymond Williams’ Marxist interpretation of Ulysses is also discussed, where he asserts that the city in Joyce’s novel is largely an internalized experience, shaped by the character’s consciousness rather than the physical reality of Dublin (Johnson, 2000, p. 202). Johnson agrees with Williams in some respects but also highlights Joyce’s insistence on accuracy in his representation of Dublin’s geography, suggesting that Joyce’s treatment of the city allows for a deeper engagement with the material history of the urban space.
Woolf’s Changing Attitudes Toward the City
Johnson traces the evolution of Virginia Woolf’s attitude toward cities, noting her shift from a rejection of the tangible city to a full embrace of London’s material and political dimensions in The Years (Johnson, 2000, p. 207). Woolf, who once viewed cities as “phantom” spaces, later acknowledged that understanding the city’s historical and political contexts was essential to understanding individual lives and social structures. The article explores how Woolf integrates the urban landscape with the private lives of her characters, especially through the lens of political change, gender roles, and social class.

Conclusion: Cities as Both Material and Symbolic
Johnson concludes that both Joyce and Woolf view cities as essential to understanding their characters’ lives, but they approach this representation differently. Joyce insists on the materiality of Dublin, making it a site for historical and political critique, while Woolf uses the city to reflect personal and social transformation. Both writers, however, depict cities as spaces that are both “insistently themselves and persistently something other,” allowing for both material reality and symbolic meaning in their literary geography (Johnson, 2000, p. 214).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson

Theoretical Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference
Imaginary Spaces	Refers to the idea of cities in literature as constructed, fictional representations rather than accurate depictions of physical locations.	“Cities as found in literature are imaginative constructions” (Johnson, 2000, p. 199).
Material Realities	The notion that cities in literature aim to represent actual, tangible places with a material and historical foundation.	“Cities in literature represent at least themselves” (Johnson, 2000, p. 199).
Literary Geography	The study of how geographical locations and urban spaces are represented in literature, including both symbolic and material representations.	“Literary geography…is concerned with the intersection of literature and the spatial arrangement of urban places” (Johnson, 2000, p. 199).
Urban Space as Narrative Prop	The idea that the urban environment in literary works is a backdrop to narrative events, playing a secondary role to the social relationships and character dynamics.	“The city as a physical place…becomes the mere backdrop to the city as a network of developing social relationships” (Johnson, 2000, p. 201).
Space and Temporality	The concept that spatial elements in literature, particularly cities, function through narrative time, linking the physical space to the progression of the plot.	“The urban novel…seeks to resolve the spatial in terms of the sequential” (Johnson, 2000, p. 201).
Flâneur	A concept from modernist urban theory describing a detached observer or stroller who experiences the city without fully engaging with its inhabitants.	“Joyce’s own flâneur, Leopold Bloom, in Ulysses, is alienated, but not because he lives in a metropolis” (Johnson, 2000, p. 202).
The Metropolis and Mental Life	A theory from Georg Simmel discussing how urban life affects the mental state of individuals, making them more detached or alienated.	“The significance of ‘the city’ lies in the effect it has on the mental life” (Johnson, 2000, p. 202).
Material History of Cities	The idea that cities are not just fictional or symbolic, but are deeply tied to historical, political, and social contexts that influence characters’ lives.	“Cities were both ‘insistently themselves and persistently something other’” (Johnson, 2000, p. 214).
Political Geography	A concept that examines the political significance embedded in geographical locations, specifically in how urban settings relate to broader political issues.	“Woolf’s works are loaded with political geography” (Johnson, 2000, p. 207).
Utopian Space	A theoretical term referring to spaces in literature that offer idealized versions of society, often providing moments of escape or social cohesion.	“The possibility of charitable action as a stimulus to social cohesion” (Johnson, 2000, p. 202).

Contribution of “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson to Literary Theory/Theories

Contribution to Literary Geography Theory
The article contributes significantly to the development of literary geography, examining how cities in literature represent both the material reality of their physical locations and the imaginative constructs of writers. It suggests that cities in literature are not mere backdrops but are deeply intertwined with the characters’ lives, reflecting social, historical, and political contexts.
- “Literary geography…is concerned with the intersection of literature and the spatial arrangement of urban places” (Johnson, 2000, p. 199).
Contribution to Modernist Literary Criticism
Johnson’s analysis highlights how modernist writers like Joyce and Woolf navigate the tension between representing cities as both real and imaginative spaces. This intersection challenges traditional ideas of spatial representation and encourages a deeper look into the complexities of urban experiences in modernist texts.
- “Cities were both ‘insistently themselves and persistently something other’” (Johnson, 2000, p. 214).

Contribution to Urban Space and Temporality Theory
The article reinforces the argument that space in literature, particularly in urban settings, operates through temporality. By using cities as a framework for narrative events, both Joyce and Woolf employ urban spaces to advance the plot, while simultaneously imbuing them with social and political meaning.
- “The urban novel…seeks to resolve the spatial in terms of the sequential” (Johnson, 2000, p. 201).
Contribution to Flâneur and Alienation Theory
Drawing on the concept of the flâneur, Johnson explores how Joyce’s Ulysses depicts Leopold Bloom as a modernist figure who experiences alienation in Dublin, despite the city’s detailed representation. The flâneur becomes a lens for understanding the psychological effects of modern urban life, especially the sense of detachment that comes with it.
- “Joyce’s own flâneur, Leopold Bloom, in Ulysses, is alienated, but not because he lives in a metropolis” (Johnson, 2000, p. 202).
Contribution to Simmel’s Theory of the Metropolis and Mental Life
Johnson builds on Simmel’s ideas by demonstrating how Joyce and Woolf’s works reflect the alienating effects of urban life on individuals. In particular, the psychological consequences of living in dense, busy cities are portrayed through the inner experiences of their characters, who navigate a world filled with “stimuli” and “anonymity.”
- “The significance of ‘the city’ lies in the effect it has on the mental life” (Johnson, 2000, p. 202).

Contribution to Political Geography in Literature
The article highlights the intersection of urban geography and political history in literature. Both Joyce and Woolf use the cities of Dublin and London as representations of historical and political forces, exploring how the material city shapes social dynamics and personal lives.
- “Cities were both ‘insistently themselves and persistently something other,’ including utopian openings towards ‘the possibility of charitable action as a stimulus to social cohesion’” (Johnson, 2000, p. 202).

Examples of Critiques Through “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson

Literary Work	Critique	Explanation
James Joyce’s Ulysses	Ulysses and the Representation of Dublin	Joyce’s Ulysses is praised for its precise geographical representation of Dublin. Johnson notes that Joyce’s insistence on accurately portraying Dublin leads to a blending of real and imaginary spaces, showcasing the city’s historical and social layers.
	Alienation in the City	The city in Ulysses is not just a backdrop but a space that influences characters. Joyce presents Dublin as both a place of belonging and alienation, with characters like Leopold Bloom experiencing a sense of detachment from the urban landscape.
Virginia Woolf’s The Years	Urban Landscape and Mental Life	Woolf’s The Years integrates London’s material and social history, exploring how the city’s spaces affect the characters’ psychological states. The narrative shows characters moving between public and private spheres, illustrating how these spaces shape their mental lives.
	Public and Private Worlds in the City	Woolf emphasizes the interaction between public and private spheres in London. Through characters like Rose Pargiter, Woolf critiques how urban life’s “facts” are interwoven with the personal histories and struggles of individuals, making the city an active force in shaping lives.
James Joyce’s Dubliners	Historical and Political Critique	In Dubliners, Joyce reflects on the social and political history of Dublin. In stories like “Two Gallants,” the city is not only a setting but also a critique of Ireland’s political situation, with characters moving through spaces that carry historical weight.
	Representation of Social Betrayal	The critique of social betrayal in Dubliners is connected to the geography of Dublin. The physical streets and buildings mirror the themes of exploitation and betrayal in Irish society, especially under British influence.
Virginia Woolf’s Night and Day	London as an Urban Space	In Night and Day, Woolf presents London as a complex urban space where the characters’ identities are shaped by the city’s landscape. Woolf uses the city to illustrate broader social dynamics and tensions between personal aspirations and societal constraints.
	Material Reality vs. Visionary Imagination	Woolf’s portrayal of London in Night and Day is both grounded in material reality and filtered through the characters’ subjective perceptions. The city’s external space is described in ways that challenge its tangible reality, invoking a more visionary understanding of urban life.

Criticism Against “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson

Overemphasis on Material Geography
Johnson’s focus on the material and geographical accuracy in Joyce’s Ulysses and Woolf’s The Years might be seen as neglecting the more abstract or symbolic uses of the city in these works. Critics may argue that the material reality of the city is only one aspect of its significance in literature, and that Johnson’s critique places too much weight on this perspective.

Neglect of Psychological and Symbolic Dimensions
While Johnson engages with how the city shapes characters’ mental lives, some critics might argue that the article does not delve deeply enough into the symbolic or psychological meanings of the city in these works. For instance, Joyce’s Dublin and Woolf’s London are rich with symbolic resonance, which is not fully explored in the critique.
Over-simplification of City Representations
Johnson’s framework of contrasting ‘cities in literature represent something other than themselves’ versus ‘cities in literature represent at least themselves’ could be criticized for being too simplistic. The complexity of literary depictions of cities might resist such binary categories, as urban spaces often blur these boundaries in nuanced ways.
Limited Focus on Gender and Social Structures
While Woolf’s works are acknowledged for their interaction with urban space, the criticism might fall short of adequately engaging with the ways in which gender and class affect the urban experience. Both Woolf and Joyce portray cities as shaped by social hierarchies, and a more in-depth analysis of these dimensions could strengthen the critique.

Historical Context Overlooked
Johnson’s focus on the literary geography of the cities could be critiqued for not sufficiently engaging with the broader historical contexts that shape these cities. While Joyce’s Dublin and Woolf’s London are discussed as material realities, their historical evolution, including political upheavals, urbanization, and social change, might not be fully addressed in relation to the literary works.
Excessive Focus on Urbanism
Johnson’s critique predominantly emphasizes the role of the city in shaping the narratives and characters in both authors’ works. Critics could argue that this approach overlooks the rural or suburban aspects of their writings, potentially disregarding the broader geographical scope within which these works unfold.
Possible Lack of Engagement with Postcolonial Perspectives
Since both Joyce and Woolf wrote in contexts heavily shaped by colonialism, a critique might argue that Johnson does not sufficiently engage with the postcolonial implications of their urban portrayals. Joyce’s Dublin and Woolf’s London could be critiqued from a postcolonial perspective, especially considering Ireland’s history with British imperialism and the imperial undertones in London during Woolf’s era.

Representative Quotations from “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“A writer’s country is a territory within his own brain; and we run the risk of disillusionment if we try to turn such phantom cities into tangible brick and mortar…” (Woolf)	This quote highlights Virginia Woolf’s idea that the city in literature is a product of the writer’s imagination, suggesting that literary cities are more symbolic than literal representations of actual places.
“I want to give a picture of Dublin so complete that if the city one day suddenly disappeared from the earth it could be reconstructed out of my book” (Joyce)	Joyce’s ambition for his representation of Dublin in Ulysses is to make it so precise and detailed that it could be rebuilt from the text, positioning his work as both a literary and a geographical map of the city.
“The city as a physical place—and therefore as a support to descriptions and classifications—becomes the mere backdrop to the city as a network of developing social relationships…” (Moretti)	This quote from Franco Moretti connects urban space to the narrative’s social dynamics, where the city serves more as a site for evolving human interactions than a mere physical environment.
“A novel is a figurative mapping. The story traces out diachronically the movement of the characters…as the crisscross of relationships gradually creates an imaginary space” (Miller)	J. Hillis Miller’s view reinforces the idea that literary cities are abstract, evolving constructs shaped by the characters’ interactions rather than static, physical settings.
“The substantial reality, the living variety of the city, is in the walker’s mind…The history is not in this city but in the loss of a city, the loss of relationships.” (Williams)	Raymond Williams argues that the city’s material reality is secondary to its representation as a mental and emotional experience, particularly focusing on the psychological impacts of urban life.
“In a way that Williams never imagines, he is right about Joyce’s Ulysses even as he ignores Joyce’s faithfulness to the materiality of Dublin.” (Johnson)	Johnson critiques Williams by acknowledging the tension between Joyce’s attention to Dublin’s material reality and the abstract, mental representation of the city in Ulysses, suggesting both dimensions exist in parallel in Joyce’s work.
“Woolf insisted on representing the city of London as both a material place and a mental one, which constantly interacts with the characters’ perceptions and emotions.”	This quote from Johnson emphasizes Woolf’s dual approach, where the city’s materiality is tied to her characters’ subjective experiences, blending the physical with the emotional.
“The city was a place that shaped the mental lives of those who lived there, but for Woolf, it also held the possibility for charitable action as a stimulus to social cohesion.” (Johnson)	Johnson suggests that for Woolf, London serves not only as a site of psychological alienation but also as a place where positive social change can emerge, offering a utopian view of urban space.
“The metaphorical city is always a reflection of the mental states and internal struggles of the characters.”	Johnson argues that cities in literature often reflect internal, psychological processes, aligning with literary theories that link external environments to characters’ internal states.
“London itself perpetually attracts, stimulates, gives me a play & a poem, without any trouble, save that of moving my legs through the streets.” (Woolf)	This quote demonstrates Woolf’s personal connection to London, suggesting that the city provides both inspiration and movement, reflecting her view of the city as a source of constant stimulation and creativity.

“Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley: Summary and Critique

“Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley first appeared in 1987 in the Scottish Geographical Magazine (vol. 103, no. 3, pp. 122-131).

Introduction: “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley

“Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley first appeared in 1987 in the Scottish Geographical Magazine (vol. 103, no. 3, pp. 122-131). The article explores the relationship between literature and geography, particularly examining how environments influence writers. Matley traces the development of literary geography, from early deterministic approaches to more nuanced studies, highlighting the concept of a “writer’s country” as the place that significantly impacts an author’s works. The article underscores the importance of not just physical landscapes but also social and cultural environments in shaping literary expression. The study is critical for understanding the broader impacts of geography on narrative form and content, especially in relation to British writers such as Thomas Hardy and Walter Scott.

Summary of “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley

Introduction to Literary Geography

Ian M. Matley discusses the emergence of literary geography and the concept of a writer’s country, a region or environment closely linked to a writer’s life and work.

Literary geographers explore how physical landscapes and social environments influence writers’ thoughts and writings, with an emphasis on childhood experiences shaping a writer’s work.
- As Matley asserts, “the influence of early environments was stressed” as crucial in shaping literary output (Matley, 1987, p. 123).

Archibald Geikie’s Environmentalism

Geikie, a geologist, was one of the earliest to apply environmental ideas to literature, arguing that physical landscapes significantly shape human development.
- Geikie posits, “man is in large measure the creature of his environment; that his material progress and mental development have been guided and modified by the natural conditions in which he has been placed” (Geikie, 1905, p. 3).
He believed that geographical regions, like Scotland’s harsh terrain, influenced the people and writers from these areas, imparting traits such as endurance and self-reliance.

William Sharp and Literary Geography

William Sharp is credited with pioneering literary geography with his work on the influence of landscapes on writers such as Robert Louis Stevenson and Thomas Carlyle.
- Sharp argued, “The colours seen in childhood are those with which in maturity whatever is enduring is depicted” (Sharp, 1912, p. 66).

He contended that a writer’s early environment, even if not directly represented in their work, plays a vital role in shaping their imagination and literary themes.

Edward Thomas and Refined Views on the Writer’s Country

Edward Thomas refined the idea of a writer’s country, associating it with the region where a writer spent their formative years.
- Thomas claims, “If a man spends his first twenty years in and about his birthplace, that is his country” (Thomas, 1928, p. 203).
His approach linked regional identity to writers like Hardy and Brontë, where landscapes from their youth had a profound effect on their works.

Modern Contributions: Drabble and O’Brien

Margaret Drabble expanded the concept of literary geography to include not only the natural environment but also cultural and social aspects, acknowledging that early landscapes may not always have a deterministic influence.
- Drabble remarks, “every writer’s work is a record both of himself and of the age in which he lives, as well as of the particular places he describes” (Drabble, 1976, p. 7).
Eoin O’Brien’s analysis of Samuel Beckett’s connection to Ireland, despite his later move to France, exemplifies how a writer’s native landscapes can still influence their work, even when they abandon them physically.

Critique of the Writer’s Country Concept

Matley critiques the deterministic approach to the writer’s country, pointing out that not all writers feel a strong attachment to their birthplace.
- He provides the example of Raymond Chandler, whose writing about Los Angeles was far removed from his Midwestern roots, illustrating that a writer’s country need not be tied to their birthplace or childhood environment.

Conclusion: Literary Geography and Modern Understanding

Over time, the concept of a writer’s country has evolved, with later scholars acknowledging a broader, more complex set of influences on a writer’s work, including urban environments and social contexts.
- As Matley concludes, “the concept of literary geography attains its fullest meaning…involves a totality of influences, physical, cultural, social, and economic” (Matley, 1987, p. 131).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley

Term/Concept	Description	Reference
Literary Geography	A field of study that examines the relationship between geography (physical and social environments) and literature. It explores how landscapes shape writers’ works.	“Literary geography… includes the concept of a writer’s ‘country'” (Matley, 1987, p. 123)
Writer’s Country	A place or region most strongly associated with a writer’s life and works. It often refers to the environment that shaped the writer’s thoughts, particularly during their formative years.	“The writer’s ‘country’ as the region, place, or city most closely identifiable with the writer’s life and works” (Matley, 1987, p. 123)
Environmental Influence	The theory that a writer’s surroundings, both natural and social, deeply impact their literary output. This includes influences from childhood environments.	“The influence of early environments was stressed” (Matley, 1987, p. 123)
Physical Geography	The study of landscapes and the natural environment’s influence on literature, particularly focusing on how scenery shapes writers’ themes.	Geikie’s view: “Man is in large measure the creature of his environment” (Geikie, 1905, p. 3)
Cultural Geography	A perspective that extends beyond physical landscapes to include the impact of social, urban, and cultural environments on literary works.	Drabble emphasizes “the strong connection between writers and their native landscapes” (Drabble, 1976, p. 7)
Determinism in Literature	The belief that a writer’s work is significantly shaped by their early physical environment, implying that certain characteristics or themes in literature are influenced by geography.	Geikie’s idea of “environmentalist beliefs” and their impact on writers (Matley, 1987, p. 124)
Place-Specificity	The concept that literature becomes more grounded and specific in relation to a writer’s birthplace and the landscapes that shaped them.	Pocock states that “the indelible bond is established with the place of earliest activities” (Pocock, 1981, p. 339)
Totality of Influences	A modern refinement of literary geography that incorporates the full spectrum of influences on a writer, including physical, cultural, social, and economic factors.	“A totality of influences, physical, cultural, social, and economic” (Matley, 1987, p. 131)
The Role of Childhood	The idea that the landscapes and environments experienced in early life play a significant role in the later work of a writer.	“The colours seen in childhood are those with which in maturity whatever is enduring is depicted” (Sharp, 1912, p. 66)
Urban Environment in Literature	The exploration of how cities and urban landscapes influence writers, especially in modern literary geography, moving beyond rural landscapes.	Drabble explores “the role of the urban environment as a formative force” (Drabble, 1979, p. 235)

Contribution of “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Contribution to Environmental Determinism in Literary Theory

Matley explores the role of the physical environment in shaping a writer’s work, emphasizing the impact of landscapes and early environments on the writer’s thoughts and writing. This aligns with the theory of environmental determinism, which suggests that human behavior and literary output are heavily influenced by environmental factors.
Reference: “The influence of early environments was stressed” (Matley, 1987, p. 123).

2. Contribution to Geocriticism

The article contributes to the development of Geocriticism, a literary theory that examines how geographical space is represented and influences the construction of narratives. Matley’s study of literary geography, particularly the concept of a writer’s country, highlights how writers’ works are linked to specific landscapes and regions.
Reference: “The concept of a writer’s ‘country’ as the region, place, or city most closely identifiable with the writer’s life and works” (Matley, 1987, p. 123).

3. Contribution to New Historicism

By linking the writer’s environment to their literary output, Matley touches on New Historicism, which looks at the ways in which historical, social, and geographical contexts influence literature. The concept of a writer’s country involves an analysis of how place and historical context influence literary production, a core concern of New Historicism.
Reference: “A totality of influences, physical, cultural, social, and economic, which a person absorbs by living in a particular place at a particular time” (Matley, 1987, p. 131).

4. Contribution to Ecocriticism

Matley’s focus on how natural environments impact literature contributes to Ecocriticism, which studies the relationship between literature and the environment. The article’s exploration of the physical landscape as a determining factor in writers’ works, especially the way rural and urban environments shape their writing, aligns with ecocritical approaches.
Reference: “The influence of the natural environment of a region as a major influence on a writer and his work” (Matley, 1987, p. 123).

5. Contribution to Spatial Literary Studies

The article’s examination of Spatial Literary Studies is evident in its analysis of the spatial and geographical contexts of writers’ works. Matley focuses on the concept of a “writer’s country” as a space that encompasses not just the geographical area but also its social, cultural, and emotional significance in the writer’s life and work.
Reference: “Literary geography and the concept of the writer’s country was of particular interest to British literary historians and critics” (Matley, 1987, p. 123).

6. Contribution to Memory Studies in Literature

Matley discusses how a writer’s attachment to their childhood landscapes impacts their work, contributing to Memory Studies in literary theory. This aspect highlights how memories of place and environment are essential to the creation of narrative and identity in literature.
Reference: “The landscapes of childhood… the colours seen in childhood are those with which in maturity whatever is enduring is depicted” (Sharp, 1912, p. 66).

7. Contribution to Theories of Regionalism

The article contributes to the theory of Regionalism, which explores how specific geographic regions influence literary works. Matley reviews various writers, emphasizing how their connections to particular places or regions influenced the themes and settings of their works.
Reference: “Sharp thought that a knowledge of the landscapes and environment of an author’s birthplace and early home was important in understanding his or her works” (Sharp, 1912, p. 66).

Examples of Critiques Through “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley

Literary Work	Critique through Literary Geography	Key Concept	Reference
“Wuthering Heights” by Emily Brontë	The novel reflects the influence of the Yorkshire moors on the characters, especially Heathcliff and Catherine. The bleak and rugged landscape of the moors is integral to the story’s atmosphere.	Writer’s Country: The landscape of youth shapes the emotional and psychological characteristics of characters.	“Emily fits into the moorland… she is part of it… the moorland was a necessity for her” (Thomas, 1928, p. 271)
“The Return of the Native” by Thomas Hardy	Hardy’s depiction of Egdon Heath, with its harsh and unforgiving landscape, mirrors the emotional struggles of his characters. The regional setting influences the themes of fate and isolation.	Regionalism: The specific environment of Egdon Heath shapes both the plot and the characters’ experiences.	“The placid scenery of the eastern lowlands of England had exerted a strong influence on the works of Cowper” (Geikie, 1905, p. 3)
“The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes” by Arthur Conan Doyle	The urban landscapes of London play a crucial role in the story, influencing Holmes’ investigative methods and the atmosphere of mystery. The city itself becomes a character in the narrative.	Urban Environment: The city as a formative space that shapes character behavior and narrative themes.	“Sharp tried to show the influence of urban environment on Thackeray’s development… the urban background… was equally important” (Sharp, 1912, p. 143)
“Dracula” by Bram Stoker	The novel’s landscapes—ranging from the Gothic castle in Transylvania to Victorian London—reflect the cultural and psychological tension between the Old World and the New.	Cultural Geography: The contrast between rural Transylvanian landscapes and urban London reflects cultural and social tensions.	“The landscapes of childhood… the colours seen in childhood are those with which in maturity whatever is enduring is depicted” (Sharp, 1912, p. 66)

Criticism Against “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley

1. Overemphasis on Environmental Determinism

Matley’s focus on the environmental impact on writers may oversimplify the complexity of literary production, reducing it to a deterministic view where geography and environment are seen as the primary forces shaping a writer’s work.
Critics may argue that this theory undermines other influences, such as personal experiences, psychological factors, or broader social and historical contexts.

Reference: “The influence of early environments was stressed” (Matley, 1987, p. 123).

2. Neglect of the Writer’s Agency and Creativity

Matley’s theory might underplay the writer’s agency, creativity, and conscious choices when it comes to narrative construction. This critique suggests that writers are active creators rather than passive products of their environments.

Some may argue that writers intentionally choose settings and landscapes that serve their artistic or thematic goals, rather than being unconsciously influenced by them.

Reference: “Sharp thought that the early environment of a writer is the most important influence in his use of nature as a background for the human drama” (Sharp, 1912, p. 66).

3. Insufficient Consideration of Non-Geographical Influences

Critics might argue that Matley’s approach fails to adequately address other significant influences on literature, such as cultural, political, or philosophical contexts, which play a critical role in shaping a writer’s worldview and literary style.
The theory could be seen as narrowing the scope of literary analysis to geography, overlooking factors like ideology, historical moment, and literary traditions.

Reference: “Literary geography and the concept of the writer’s country was of particular interest to British literary historians and critics” (Matley, 1987, p. 123).

4. Limited Application to Non-Regional Writers

The theory may be criticized for being particularly relevant to regional novelists but less applicable to writers whose works are less tied to specific geographical locations or who deliberately transcend their environmental roots.
Writers like James Joyce, Franz Kafka, or William Faulkner, whose works deal with universal themes or abstract environments, might challenge the relevance of the “writer’s country” concept.

Reference: “The landscapes of childhood… the colours seen in childhood are those with which in maturity whatever is enduring is depicted” (Sharp, 1912, p. 66).

5. Romanticizing the Connection Between Writer and Landscape

The emphasis on childhood environments and their supposed unbreakable bond with the writer’s work can be seen as overly nostalgic and romantic. Critics may argue that this view idealizes the connection between a writer and their childhood environment, ignoring the possibility that writers might deliberately distance themselves from these roots.

Some may suggest that this approach neglects the evolving and complex nature of literary identity.

Reference: “The influence of the natural environment of a region as a major influence on a writer and his work” (Matley, 1987, p. 123).

6. Limited Engagement with Modern Theoretical Frameworks

Matley’s exploration of literary geography could be criticized for not engaging sufficiently with contemporary theoretical frameworks in literary studies, such as postmodernism, feminist theory, or postcolonial theory, which could offer richer, more nuanced analyses of geography in literature.
The approach might appear somewhat outdated in light of newer literary theories that stress the multiplicity of influences on writers beyond geographic determinism.

Reference: “A totality of influences, physical, cultural, social, and economic, which a person absorbs by living in a particular place at a particular time” (Matley, 1987, p. 131).

7. Over-Simplification of Geographical Influence

Matley’s framework may oversimplify the relationship between geography and literature, assuming a direct causal link between environment and writer’s work. Critics may argue that this is an oversimplification, as the interaction between a writer and their environment is more complex and mediated by individual perception, personal experiences, and intellectual engagement.

Representative Quotations from “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The influence of early environments was stressed” (Matley, 1987, p. 123).	This highlights the emphasis on how childhood environments shape a writer’s thoughts and later works, suggesting a direct connection between place and literary output.
“The concept of a writer’s ‘country’ as the region, place, or city most closely identifiable with the writer’s life and works” (Matley, 1987, p. 123).	This defines the key concept of a “writer’s country,” emphasizing the relationship between a writer’s works and the geographical location that influenced their life and work.
“Man is in large measure the creature of his environment; that his material progress and mental development have been guided and modified by the natural conditions in which he has been placed” (Geikie, 1905, p. 3).	Geikie’s belief in environmental determinism is quoted here, supporting the idea that a writer’s environment shapes their intellectual and creative outputs.
“Literary geography… includes the concept of a writer’s ‘country'” (Matley, 1987, p. 123).	This reinforces the idea that literary geography is not just about the geographical settings in a writer’s works but about the deep connection between the writer and their environment.
“The colours seen in childhood are those with which in maturity whatever is enduring is depicted” (Sharp, 1912, p. 66).	Sharp’s view that childhood experiences, particularly visual impressions of landscapes, influence the themes and style of an author’s later works.
“The instinct of a reader knows the difference between what is merely depicted, however beautifully, and what is thought into the very fibre of the thing created” (Sharp, 1912, p. 69).	Sharp stresses that a writer’s intimate knowledge of their environment comes through in their work, making the depiction more authentic and emotionally resonant.
“He writes of them as an admiring and even enthusiastic spectator, but not as one into whose very soul the power of the mountains had entered” (Geikie, 1905, p. 123).	Geikie’s analysis of how Walter Scott’s depiction of the Scottish Highlands was shaped by admiration rather than personal, emotional connection, highlighting the distance between environment and emotional influence.
“The landscapes of childhood… the colours seen in childhood are those with which in maturity whatever is enduring is depicted” (Sharp, 1912, p. 66).	A reiteration of Sharp’s view that childhood landscapes leave a lasting imprint on a writer’s imagination, shaping the enduring themes they express in their later works.
“A totality of influences, physical, cultural, social, and economic, which a person absorbs by living in a particular place at a particular time” (Matley, 1987, p. 131).	This suggests a modern, holistic understanding of literary geography, where a writer’s work is shaped not just by physical geography but by a broader range of influences.
“The influence of the natural environment of a region as a major influence on a writer and his work” (Matley, 1987, p. 123).	Matley reiterates the traditional view that natural landscapes, such as the countryside, deeply shape a writer’s perspective and literary production.

Introduction: “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones

Summary of “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones

Contribution of “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones

Criticism Against “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones

Representative Quotations from “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Text as It Happens: Literary Geography” by Sheila Hones

Introduction: “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton

Summary of “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton

Contribution of “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton

Criticism Against “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton

Representative Quotations from “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Space, Place and Time”by R. Lawton

Introduction: “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp

Summary of “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp

Contribution of “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp

Criticism Against “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp

Representative Quotations from “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Locating Imaginary Homelands: Literature, Geography, And Salman Rushdie” by Joanne P. Sharp

Introduction: “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

Summary of “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

Contribution of “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

Criticism Against “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

Representative Quotations from “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

Introduction: “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Summary of “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Contribution of “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Criticism Against “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Representative Quotations from “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Introduction: “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones

Summary of “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones

Contribution of “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones

Criticism Against “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones

Representative Quotations from “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Literature And The New Cultural Geography” by Elizabeth Jones

Introduction: “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous

Summary of “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous

Contribution of “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous

Criticism Against “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous

Representative Quotations from “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous with Explanation

Key Insights from the Table:

Suggested Readings: “Literature and Humanist Geography” by J. Douglas Porteous

Introduction: “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones

Summary of “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones

Examples of Critiques Through “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones

Criticism Against “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones

Representative Quotations from “Literary Geography: Setting And Narrative Space” by Sheila Hones with Explanation

Introduction: “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson

Summary of “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson

Contribution of “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson

Criticism Against “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson

Representative Quotations from “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Literary Geography: Joyce, Woolf And The City” by Jeri Johnson

Introduction: “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley

Summary of “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley

Contribution of “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley

Criticism Against “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley

Representative Quotations from “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Literary Geography And The Writer’s Country” by Ian M. Matley