Tag: What is a Literary Theory?

Introduction to Archetypal Criticism

Archetypal criticism is a literary theory that examines the underlying universal symbols, themes, and character archetypes found in literature across different cultures and historical periods.

It is rooted in the work of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, who proposed that these archetypes are part of the collective unconscious shared by all humans. Archetypal critics analyze texts to reveal the deeper, often mythic, layers of meaning and to explore how these archetypal elements resonate with the human experience. This approach offers insights into the enduring and cross-cultural significance of certain narrative patterns and symbols in literature.

Criticism Against Archetypal Criticism

1. Overgeneralization and Reductionism:

• Critics argue that archetypal literary theory tends to oversimplify complex characters and narratives by reducing them to basic, pre-defined archetypes. This oversimplification can lead to a lack of depth and nuance in the analysis done from this perspective.

2. Lack of Empirical Evidence:

• One of the main criticisms against archetypal literary theory is its reliance on universal, innate symbols and patterns without substantial empirical evidence to support its claims. The theory often relies on subjective interpretations rather than concrete data.

3. Cultural and Historical Limitations:

• Archetypes are often based on Western cultural and historical perspectives, not applicable or relevant to all literary works, especially those from diverse cultural backgrounds. This limitation can lead to a narrow understanding of non-Western literature.

4. Disregard for Individuality and Originality:

• Critics argue that archetypal criticism tends to overlook the uniqueness and individuality of literary works and authors. By focusing on recurring patterns, the theory may neglect the specific artistic intentions and innovations of writers.

5. Ambiguous Archetypal Definitions:

• The definitions of archetypes can be vague and open to multiple interpretations. This ambiguity can lead to varying analyses and potential misinterpretations of literary works, causing disagreements among scholars.

6. Incompatibility with Modern and Postmodern Literature:

• Some critics assert that archetypal literary theory is better suited for analyzing traditional and classical literature rather than modern and postmodern works, which often challenge or subvert traditional archetypal patterns.

7. Neglect of Socio-Political and Historical Contexts:

• Archetypal criticism may place less emphasis on the socio-political and historical contexts in which literary works are created, leading to an incomplete understanding of the complexities and influences shaping the texts.

8. Lack of Authorial Intent Consideration:

• The theory may not adequately address the intentions and conscious choices of authors, as it focuses more on underlying patterns than the author’s specific creative decisions.

9. Subjective Interpretations:

• Archetypal literary theory allows for subjective interpretations, which can result in varying and potentially biased analyses based on the personal beliefs and experiences of the critic.

10. Ignores Evolution of Meanings and Symbols:

• Critics argue that archetypal theory can neglect the evolution of symbols and meanings across different historical periods and cultures, leading to an anachronistic analysis of certain works.

Notable Critics Against Archetypal Criticism

Criticism against archetypal criticism as a literary theory includes the following:

1. Roland Barthes: French literary theorist and philosopher who argued that the idea of a universal, shared set of archetypes is a myth and that meanings are created through social and cultural practices rather than innate human experiences.
2. Raymond Williams: Welsh cultural theorist who criticized archetypal criticism for being ahistorical, and argued that the meaning of literary works is always shaped by the social and historical context in which they were produced.
3. Michel Foucault: French philosopher and historian who challenged the idea of a universal, shared set of archetypes, arguing that knowledge is always shaped by power relations and historical context.
4. Edward Said: Palestinian-American literary critic who criticized archetypal criticism for being Eurocentric and failing to take into account the cultural traditions of non-Western societies.
5. Homi Bhabha: Indian cultural theorist who argued that archetypal criticism is limited by its emphasis on fixed, universal meanings, and that the meanings of literary works are always shaped by the process of cultural translation and negotiation.

Examples of Archetypal Criticism

1. The Hero’s Journey in The Lord of the Rings: Archetypal critics often analyze J.R.R. Tolkien’s epic fantasy series, The Lord of the Rings, through the lens of the hero’s journey archetype. Frodo’s quest to destroy the One Ring exemplifies the stages of a hero’s journey, including the call to adventure, trials and challenges, and ultimate transformation.
2. The Trickster Archetype in The Catcher in the Rye: In J.D. Salinger’s novel The Catcher in the Rye, the protagonist, Holden Caulfield, can be seen as embodying the trickster archetype. He challenges societal norms and engages in rebellious behavior, reflecting the trickster’s tendency to disrupt the status quo.
3. The Mother Archetype in Beloved: Toni Morrison’s novel Beloved explores the mother archetype through the character of Sethe, who exhibits both nurturing and destructive maternal qualities. Archetypal analysis reveals the complexity of motherhood and its impact on the characters and their lives.
4. The Quest for Identity in The Great Gatsby: F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby can be examined through the archetype of the quest for identity. Jay Gatsby’s relentless pursuit of the American Dream and his reinvention of himself highlight the universal theme of seeking one’s true identity and place in society.
5. The Heroine’s Journey in Jane Eyre: Charlotte Brontë’s novel Jane Eyre offers an example of the heroine’s journey archetype. Jane’s development from an orphaned, mistreated child to an independent and self-assertive woman follows a narrative pattern that resonates with the journey of female protagonists in many classic works of literature.

Keywords in Archetypal Criticism

1. Archetype: A universal symbol or motif that recurs across different cultures and time periods, representing a fundamental human experience or trait.
2. Collective Unconscious: A concept in Jungian psychology, referring to the inherited pool of shared experiences, memories, and symbols that all humans share and that influence our behavior and perceptions.
3. Myth: A traditional story or narrative that conveys deep cultural, religious, or psychological meaning through archetypal symbols and motifs.
4. Symbolism: The use of symbols to represent complex or abstract ideas, emotions, or themes.
5. Characterization: The process of creating fictional characters who embody archetypal qualities or who serve as representations of larger symbolic concepts.
6. Allegory: A literary work in which characters, events, or settings serve as symbolic representations of abstract ideas or moral lessons.
7. Journey/Quest: A recurring motif in archetypal criticism that refers to the hero’s journey, a narrative pattern in which a character embarks on a physical or spiritual journey to achieve a goal or gain knowledge.
8. Transformation: The process of a character undergoing a fundamental change in personality, identity, or worldview, often as a result of encountering archetypal symbols or undergoing an archetypal experience.
9. Mythic Criticism: A subset of archetypal criticism that focuses specifically on the analysis of mythic elements and motifs in literature.
10. Jungian Criticism: A school of criticism that uses the theories and concepts of Carl Jung, a prominent psychoanalyst and psychologist, to explore the archetypal and symbolic dimensions of literature.

Suggested Readings about Archetypal Criticism

1. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Bollingen Foundation, 1949.
2. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
3. Jung, Carl G. Man and His Symbols. Dell Publishing, 1968.
4. Neumann, Erich. The Origins and History of Consciousness. Princeton University Press, 1970.
5. Propp, Vladimir. Morphology of the Folktale. American Folklore Society, 1958.
6. Samson, Maud Bodkin. Archetypal Patterns in Poetry: Psychological Studies of Imagination. Oxford University Press, 1934.
7. Segal, Robert A. Myth: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2004.
8. Stevens, Anthony. Archetype: A Natural History of the Self. Routledge, 1982.
9. Wheelwright, Philip Ellis. Metaphor and Reality. Indiana University Press, 1962.
10. Zimmer, Heinrich. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Princeton University Press, 1946.

Introduction to Queer Literary Theory

Queer Literary Theory is a critical framework that examines literature through the lens of queer perspectives and experiences. It challenges traditional norms and binary categories related to gender and sexuality, emphasizing fluidity, diversity, and the performative nature of identity.

This theory explores how LGBTQ+ themes and voices are represented in literature, offering insights into the social and cultural contexts that shape queer narratives. By interrogating the intersections of literature, identity, and society, Queer Literary Theory enriches our understanding of the complex and evolving landscape of queer literature.

Criticism Against Queer Literary Theory

Criticism	Explanation	Example
Overemphasis on Identity	Critics argue that it excessively focuses on identity, potentially overshadowing other valuable interpretations within complex literary works. This can narrow the scope of analysis to LGBTQ+ themes at the expense of broader literary nuances.	Example: In analyzing a novel, it may prioritize the protagonist’s sexual orientation over other crucial aspects of the story, leading to an imbalanced interpretation that neglects intricate narrative elements.
Stereotyping and Reductionism	Some critics assert that it may unintentionally perpetuate stereotypes by simplifying and essentializing queer experiences. This reductionism can overlook the rich diversity of LGBTQ+ communities and fail to represent the complexity of individual narratives.	Example: A queer analysis might generalize the experiences of LGBTQ+ characters, unintentionally reinforcing clichéd tropes or narratives, which can undermine the unique and multifaceted aspects of queer individuals’ lives.
Ignoring Authorial Intent	Critics contend that Queer Literary Theory occasionally neglects an author’s original intent and historical context. This may result in imposing contemporary understandings of sexuality and gender onto works from different eras, potentially distorting the author’s intended message.	Example: Analyzing a 19th-century novel using it might lead to interpretations of queer themes that were not within the author’s intended scope or historical context, potentially misrepresenting the work and its cultural significance.
Exclusivity	There is criticism that Queer Literary Theory can be exclusive, occasionally dismissing non-queer perspectives or interpretations. This exclusivity can limit the diversity of critical dialogue and perspectives, potentially leading to a narrower range of insights.	Example: Queer discussions that exclude or downplay heteronormative or non-queer interpretations of a text may unintentionally silence valuable insights and miss opportunities for a more comprehensive analysis of the work.
Political Agendas	Some argue that Queer Literary Theory may become overly focused on advancing specific political agendas, potentially overshadowing the primary goal of nuanced literary analysis. This politicization can shift the emphasis away from the literary aspects of a work.	Example: If queer analyses prioritize advocating for particular LGBTQ+ political causes over examining the literary quality and techniques employed in a novel, the critical discussion may become one-sided and less focused on the literary merits of the work.
Lack of Empirical Rigor	Critics claim that Queer Literary Theory can sometimes lack empirical rigor, with analyses relying heavily on subjective interpretations rather than empirical evidence. This can lead to interpretations that are less grounded in objective analysis.	Example: A queer analysis that primarily draws on personal interpretations and feelings about a text, without substantial evidence from the text itself or external sources, may be less credible and persuasive to readers seeking a more rigorous approach to literary criticism.
Marginalization of Non-Western Voices	There is criticism that Queer Literary Theory predominantly draws from Western literature and experiences, often marginalizing non-Western queer narratives and perspectives. This bias can limit the diversity of voices represented within the theory.	Example: Queer discussions that focus primarily on Western queer literature may overlook valuable contributions from non-Western LGBTQ+ authors and communities, inadvertently perpetuating a Eurocentric perspective within the theory.
Overly Academic Language	Some argue that Queer Literary Theory‘s use of complex academic language can make it less accessible to a broader audience, potentially limiting its impact and relevance beyond academic circles. This can hinder wider engagement with the theory’s ideas.	Example: Queer writings that use dense, jargon-heavy language and terminology may be challenging for non-academic readers to understand and engage with, reducing the theory’s potential to influence a broader cultural and social discourse.
Tension with Other Literary Theories	Critics contend that Queer Literary Theory can sometimes clash with other literary theories, creating tensions and limiting interdisciplinary engagement. This can result in a fragmented approach to literary analysis.	Example: When Queer principles conflict with those of other literary theories, such as Feminist or Marxist literary theory, scholars may face challenges in integrating these diverse perspectives, potentially leading to fractured critical dialogues and incomplete analyses.

Examples of Queer Literary Theory

Work	Critique of Queer Literary Theory
Toni Morrison’s Beloved	Critique: Queer Literary Theory offers valuable insights into Sethe’s complex relationships, particularly her deep bond with Paul D. However, it tends to overshadow other crucial aspects of the narrative. For instance, it neglects the haunting legacy of slavery and the impact of mother-daughter relationships on the characters, resulting in a simplified interpretation of the novel’s richness.
Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray	Critique: It provides a meaningful lens through which to analyze the character of Dorian Gray and his hidden desires. However, it sometimes imposes contemporary understandings of queerness onto a work from the late 19th century. This leads to a misrepresentation of Wilde’s original intent and the historical context in which he writes.
Virginia Woolf’s Orlando	Critique: It illuminates Orlando’s exploration of gender identity and fluidity, but it tends to overshadow Woolf’s broader commentary. Orlando’s journey is not solely about queerness but also about the passage of time, artistic expression, and historical transformations. An exclusive focus on LGBTQ+ themes results in a limited analysis that fails to capture the depth of Woolf’s narrative.
James Baldwin’s Giovanni’s Room	Critique: Queer Literary Theory offers valuable insights into David’s same-sex relationships. However, it tends to reduce the character solely to his LGBTQ+ identity. Such an exclusive focus overlooks Baldwin’s broader critique of race, identity, and personal conflicts in the novel. A more holistic analysis is necessary to fully appreciate David’s complexity and the nuances of his interactions.
Jeanette Winterson’s Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit	Critique: It provides a lens for understanding Jeanette’s journey of lesbian identity in a religiously oppressive environment. However, an exclusive focus on LGBTQ+ themes tends to overshadow the complexity of her personal growth. Jeanette’s story is also about resilience and self-discovery beyond her queerness, and a more nuanced analysis should encompass these aspects to provide a comprehensive understanding of the character’s development.

Literary Pieces Depicting Queer Literary Theory

1. Middlesex by Jeffrey Eugenides: This novel tells the story of Cal, an intersex protagonist who explores questions of gender identity and sexuality. It delves into the complexities of identity formation and challenges traditional notions of gender.
2. Two Boys Kissing by David Levithan: In this young adult novel, several gay teenagers navigate love, relationships, and queer identity. It explores themes of visibility, acceptance, and the power of community.
3. Aristotle and Dante Discover the Secrets of the Universe by Benjamin Alire Sáenz: This coming-of-age novel tells the story of two Mexican-American boys, Aristotle and Dante, as they navigate their friendship and explore their identities, including their sexual orientations. It beautifully explores themes of self-acceptance, friendship, and the search for personal truth.
4. Poetry is Not a Luxury by Audre Lorde: In this poem, Audre Lorde, a prominent queer poet and activist, emphasizes the importance of poetry as a tool for self-expression, resistance, and empowerment. It challenges societal norms and highlights the liberating potential of artistic expression.

Key Concepts in Queer Literary Theory

1. Heteronormativity: Heteronormativity refers to the societal assumption that heterosexuality is the norm and that relationships and identities outside of this norm are marginalized or considered deviant.
2. Performativity: Performativity, as developed by Judith Butler, suggests that gender and sexuality are not inherent traits but are constructed through repeated actions and behaviors, effectively “performing” one’s identity.
3. Queer Temporality: Queer temporality challenges linear notions of time, exploring how queer experiences may exist outside of traditional temporal structures, such as heteronormative life narratives.
4. Intersectionality: Intersectionality recognizes that an individual’s identity is shaped by the intersection of various factors, including race, gender, sexuality, and class, and that these intersections influence one’s experiences and challenges.
5. Subversion: Subversion involves challenging or undermining established norms, often through literature and art, to disrupt conventional understandings of gender, sexuality, and power.
6. Homosociality: Homosociality refers to same-sex relationships and bonds that may not necessarily be sexual but are central to understanding queer dynamics within literature.
7. Resistance Literature: Resistance literature explores how queer authors use their works to resist and challenge societal oppression, discrimination, and norms, often with a political or activist agenda.
8. Queer Aesthetics: Queer aesthetics encompass the unique artistic styles and forms that emerge from queer experiences, often characterized by a rejection of traditional norms and the embrace of alternative modes of expression.
9. Transgressive Narratives: Transgressive narratives break societal taboos and boundaries, often exploring themes of sexual exploration, non-conformity, and rebellion against normative values.
10. Normalization: Normalization refers to the process through which LGBTQ+ identities and relationships are integrated into mainstream culture, often at the expense of radical or non-conforming expressions of queerness.

Suggested Readings

1. Halberstam, Judith. In a Queer Time and Place: Transgender Bodies, Subcultural Lives. New York University Press, 2005.
2. Jagose, Annamarie. Queer Literary Theory: An Introduction. New York University Press, 1996.
3. Muñoz, José Esteban. Cruising Utopia: The Then and There of Queer Futurity. New York University Press, 2009.
4. Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. Epistemology of the Closet. University of California Press, 1990.
5. Warner, Michael. The Trouble with Normal: Sex, Politics, and the Ethics of Queer Life. Harvard University Press, 1999.

Introduction to Queer Theory

Queer theory is a critical and interdisciplinary framework that challenges conventional notions of gender, sexuality, and identity, seeking to understand and dismantle social norms and power structures.

Emerging in the late 20th century, queer theory embraces a fluid and expansive understanding of sexuality and rejects the binary categorizations of gay/straight, male/female, and homosexual/heterosexual.

It also examines how societal norms and institutions shape and regulate sexual and gender identities, highlighting how individuals and communities face marginalization and oppression.

By exploring the intersections of race, class, and other social categories, queer theory aims to deconstruct heteronormativity and promote inclusivity, social justice, and liberation for all individuals regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity.

Etymology and Meanings of Queer Theory

Etymology of Queer Theory	Meanings of Queer Theory
Emergence in Academia: Queer theory had its inception in the early 1990s, drawing inspiration from feminist and LGBTQ+ activism and scholarly discourse. It emerged as a response to the need for a more nuanced understanding of sexuality and gender identity.	Interrogating Normativity: It engages in a rigorous examination of societal norms pertaining to sexuality, gender, and identity. It adopts a critical stance, aiming to deconstruct established categories and binaries in order to uncover underlying power dynamics.
Reclamation of “Queer”: The term “queer,” originally derogatory, was reclaimed by the LGBTQ+ community as a self-identifier. This reclamation is a pivotal aspect of queer theory, challenging conventional heteronormative and binary concepts of sexuality and gender.	Fluidity and Complexity: It underscores the fluid and intricate nature of sexualities and genders. It posits that these aspects of human identity exist along spectrums, resisting fixed definitions and instead embracing a spectrum of possibilities.
	Intersectionality: It extends its reach by intersecting with other critical theories, such as feminism and critical race theory. This interdisciplinary approach explores how various forms of oppression and privilege intersect and mutually shape individuals’ experiences.
	Social and Political Activism: It serves as a cornerstone for LGBTQ+ activism, advocating for equal rights, anti-discrimination laws, and the broader societal acceptance of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities.
	Academic Discourse: Queer theory exerts a substantial influence within academic circles, notably impacting fields including cultural studies, literature, sociology, and anthropology. Its academic presence encourages the exploration of LGBTQ+ themes and perspectives in scholarly work.

Queer Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin of Queer Theory:

• Emergence in the Early 1990s: Queer theory emerged in the early 1990s as an intellectual response to the need for a more nuanced understanding of sexuality and gender identity. It sought to challenge established norms and perceptions regarding these aspects of human identity.
• Influenced by Feminist and LGBTQ+ Activism: Its development was significantly influenced by feminist and LGBTQ+ activism, which highlighted the need for academic exploration and social deconstruction of heteronormative and binary concepts of gender and sexuality.

Notable Theorists in Queer Theory:

• Michel Foucault: In his seminal work The History of Sexuality, Foucault challenged the idea of fixed sexual identities. He emphasized how power and discourse shape our understanding of sexuality, urging critical examination of societal norms.
• Judith Butler: Butler’s groundbreaking work, Gender Trouble, introduced the concept of gender performativity. This work deconstructs fixed gender identities, highlighting that gender is socially constructed and performed, not inherent.
• Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick: Sedgwick’s Epistemology of the Closet is a foundational text in Queer Theory. It challenges binary notions of sexuality and calls for the embrace of multiple sexualities and resistance against heteronormativity.
• José Esteban Muñoz: Muñoz’s work, notably Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics, focuses on the experiences of queer people of color and explores the intersections of race, class, and sexuality in shaping their lives.
• Jack Halberstam: Through works like Female Masculinity and In a Queer Time and Place, Halberstam explores non-normative gender and sexual identities. They challenge traditional notions of masculinity and femininity, emphasizing alternative expressions of gender.
• Gayle Rubin: Rubin’s influential essay Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality critically examines the social construction of sexuality and hierarchies of sexual behaviors. It emphasizes the need to challenge sexual hierarchies.
• Teresa de Lauretis: In Technologies of Gender, De Lauretis explores the intersections of gender, sexuality, and technology. She examines how technology and media contribute to the construction of sexual identities and discusses the importance of queer subjectivity in challenging traditional gender norms.

Primary Arguments in Queer Theory:

• Deconstruction of Fixed Sexual Identities: Queer theory challenges the notion of fixed sexual identities, emphasizing the fluidity and diversity of human sexuality.
• Examination of Power and Discourse: It critically analyzes how power dynamics and societal discourse shape and regulate sexuality and gender, revealing the social construction of these concepts.
• Social Construction of Sexuality: Queer theory emphasizes the social construction of sexuality, advocating for the recognition that societal norms and structures influence our understanding of sexuality.
• Gender Performativity: Through the concept of gender performativity, Queer Theory highlights that gender is not predetermined but rather a social role that individuals perform.
• Fluidity and Complexity: Queer theory underscores the fluid and complex nature of sexualities and genders, acknowledging that they exist on spectrums and resist fixed definitions.
• Intersectionality: Queer theory intersects with other critical theories, such as feminism and critical race theory, to explore how various forms of oppression and privilege intersect and affect individuals’ experiences.
• Advocacy for LGBTQ+ Rights: It serves as a foundation for LGBTQ+ activism, advocating for equal rights, anti-discrimination laws, and social acceptance of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities.
• Influence on Academic Discourse: Queer theory has a significant presence in academia, influencing the exploration of LGBTQ+ themes and perspectives across various fields, including cultural studies, literature, sociology, and anthropology. It has broadened academic discourse, encouraging a more inclusive examination of human experiences and identities.

Principles of Queer Theory

Principal	Explanation	Example
Non-Essentialism	It rejects the belief that identity categories like “male” or “female” are inherent or natural, emphasizing their socially constructed nature.	Example: Queer Theory challenges the assumption that only two genders exist and recognizes that gender identity is shaped by societal norms and expectations.
Deconstruction of Binaries	It challenges binary concepts such as “straight” and “gay,” fostering a more fluid understanding of sexuality and gender.	Example: It explores how individuals can identify as non-binary, acknowledging that gender and sexual orientation exist on a spectrum beyond fixed categories.
Intersectionality	It recognizes the interplay of sexuality and gender with other identity aspects, like race and class, promoting a more inclusive understanding.	Example: Queer Theory explores how the experiences of a queer person of color may differ from those of a white queer person, highlighting the importance of acknowledging multiple identities.
Power Dynamics	It highlights how power influences societal norms related to sexuality and gender, aiming to challenge and diversify these norms.	Example: Queer Theory analyzes how historical power structures have shaped societal perceptions of “normal” sexuality, advocating for the inclusion of marginalized voices.
Performance of Identity	It underscores the performative aspect of identity, acknowledging the role of language, culture, and social interactions in shaping queer identities.	Example: Queer Theory examines how individuals may perform their gender or sexuality differently in various contexts, highlighting the fluidity of identity expression.
Activism	It aligns closely with political activism, advocating for social change to create an equitable society regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity.	Example: Queer activists have fought for legal rights, marriage equality, and anti-discrimination laws, pushing for a more inclusive and just society for all LGBTQ+ individuals.
Queer as Political Identity	It acknowledges “queer” as a political identity that challenges normative assumptions and aligns with resistance and subversion.	Example: The term “queer” has been reclaimed by the LGBTQ+ community as a political identity that challenges societal expectations and promotes self-acceptance.
Affect and Emotion	It recognizes the significance of emotions in identity formation and social change, considering the emotional impact of discrimination and the role of emotions like love and desire.	Example: Queer Theory explores how the emotional experiences of love, desire, and discrimination shape an individual’s understanding of their own identity and the larger queer community.
Reclaiming Representation	It challenges mainstream representations of sexuality and gender, seeking more diverse and authentic depictions that reflect queer experiences.	Example: Queer Theory critiques media portrayals that rely on stereotypes, advocating for more accurate and respectful representations of LGBTQ+ individuals in film, TV, and literature.
Creativity and Resistance	It acknowledges the historical tradition of creativity and resistance within queer communities, utilizing forms of cultural production to express and advocate for queer identities and social transformation.	Example: Queer artists, writers, and activists have used creative expressions like art, literature, and performance to challenge societal norms and promote acceptance and equality.

Suggested Readings

1. Bersani, Leo, and Adam Phillips. Intimacies. University of Chicago Press, 2008.
2. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
3. Edelman, Lee. No Future: Queer Theory and the Death Drive. Duke University Press, 2004.
4. Halberstam, Judith. Female Masculinity. Duke University Press, 1998.
5. Muñoz, José Esteban. Cruising Utopia: The Then and There of Queer Futurity. New York University Press, 2009.
6. Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. Epistemology of the Closet. University of California Press, 1990.
7. Warner, Michael. The Trouble with Normal: Sex, Politics, and the Ethics of Queer Life. Harvard University Press, 1999.
8. Wittig, Monique. The Straight Mind and Other Essays. Beacon Press, 1992.

Etymology and Meanings of “Modernism” Literary Theory

The term modernism has been derived from a Latin term, modernus. It means the present time, the current or existing time. Literally, it connotes the contemporariness of the time that is present and not the past time.

Modernism in social sciences also means the same thing that is the present time, while the literary theory of modernism means a breakup of the literary pieces from the past conventions during the early 20^th century.

Definition of “Modernism” Literary Theory

Modernism could be defined as a movement that rebelled against the classical and Victorian periods, conventions, and clear-cut or straightforward storytelling and poetry writing norms. This definition has two aspects. The first one implies rebellion against the conventions or set -standards and the second one is innovation. Therefore, modernism means a new trend in literary writings.

Origin of “Modernism” Literary Theory

In literature as a movement, modernism, which is often called literary modernism or modernist literature, emerged during the final years of the 19^th century and early years of 20 century. This movement mostly emerged in English-speaking countries in Europe and the United States. It featured the representation of untraditional ways in writing fiction, poetry, and plays giving space to a wide array of experiments in form as well as expressions and style. The impacts of WWI on the social fabric of Europe led to the emergence of this movement which later turned into a theoretical perspective.

Principles of Modernism Literary Theory

1. It broke from the established order in religious, political, and social realms.
2. It broke away from accepted traditions.
3. The belief in the world as per the perceptions of things became strong.
4. It negated absolute truth and the experience of alienation.
5. It showed that life is not systematic and ordered
6. It paid attention to micro issues of the individuals and not the society as a whole.
7. It showed disintegration against harmony.
8. It demonstrated an openness to sexuality, non-superiority of ethics, and propagation of aesthetics.
9. Its major focus was on personal and spiritual decadence.
10. It rejected ideas of rationality, objectivity, and unity in things and the universe.

Criticism Against Modernism Literary Theory

1. It stresses too much on individuality, disintegration, and the world.
2. It has led to several non-issues that have exploded into postmodernism and several other ideologies.
3. It has led to commodity fetishism and consumerism.
4. Modernism has caused the destruction and disintegration of several political, religious, and social orders.
5. It has brought various other literary theoretical perspectives into views such as atheism, capitalism, liberal capitalism, trans-humanism, and post-truth.
6. It has given birth to materialism, negating nature.

Examples of Modernist Literature Literary Theory

Example # 1

From Ulysses by James Joyce

—My name is absurd too: Malachi Mulligan, two dactyls. But it has a Hellenic ring, hasn’t it? Tripping and sunny like the buck himself. We must go to Athens. Will you come if I can get the aunt to fork out twenty quid? He laid the brush aside and, laughing with delight, cried:

—Will he come? The jejune jesuit! Ceasing, he began to shave with care. —Tell me, Mulligan, Stephen said quietly.

—Yes, my love?

—How long is Haines going to stay in this tower? Buck Mulligan showed a shaven cheek over his right shoulder.

—God, isn’t he dreadful? he said frankly.

This passage shows some of the features of a modernist novel. It shows how Malachi Mulligan in Ulysses by James Joyce thinks of his name in dactylic features as being absurd. The other questions and his attempt of equating them to the Hellenic traits show modernism and then his musings point to the modernist trait of self-reflection or stream of consciousness.

Example # 2

From To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf

 Indeed, she had the whole of the other sex under her protection; for reasons she could not explain, for their chivalry and valour, for the fact that they negotiated treaties, ruled India, controlled finance; finally for an attitude toward she her self which no woman could fail to feel or to find agreeable, something trustful, childlike, reverential; which an old woman could take from a young man without loss of dignity, and woe betide the girl–pray Heaven it was none of her daughters!–who did not feel the worth of it, and all that it implied, to the marrow of her bones.

This passage about Mrs. Ramsay, her character traits, and her musings show some features of modernist literary theory. First, she thinks of herself in gendered terms and second that she is quite ambivalent about it as she does not know how to explain this. Despite this modernist thinking, she is in confusion when it comes to breaking social norms and mores.

Example # 3

From Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad

Ah, Mr. Kurtz!’ broke the stick of sealing-wax and seemed dumfounded by the accident. Next thing he wanted to know ‘how long it would take to’ … I interrupted him again. Being hungry, you know, and kept on my feet too. I was getting savage. ‘How can I tell?’ I said. ‘I haven’t even seen the wreck yet— some months, no doubt.’ All this talk seemed to me so futile. ‘Some months,’ he said. ‘Well, let us say three months before we can make a start. Yes. That ought to do the affair.’ I flung out of his hut (he lived all alone in a clay hut with a sort of verandah) muttering to myself my opinion of him. He was a chattering idiot.

This pen picture of Mr. Kurtz from Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad shows modernist traits in writing. He has broken away from the traditional way of writing narratives. This shows how inserting dialogues, emotions, and exclamations within the text became a new normal in modernist writings.

Example # 4

From “The Waste Land” by T. S. Eliot

April is the cruellest month, breeding

Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing

Memory and desire, stirring

Dull roots with spring rain.

Winter kept us warm, covering

Earth in forgetful snow, feeding

A little life with dried tubers.

This is the first stanza of the celebrated poem “The Waste Land” by T. S. Eliot. The stanza shows Eliot breaking several poetic norms. He has not used any rhyme scheme. He has rathered termed April as the cruelest month which is not the poetic norm of those days. It was rather considered the best due to being in the spring season. Several other points such as desire, memory, and rain have been given meanings, not traditionally associated with them.

Example # 5

“In a Station of the Metro” by Ezra Pound

The apparition of these faces in the crowd:

Petals on a wet, black bough

This short poem by Ezra Pound shows the modernist theoretical perspective that is showing people through images. This is one of the best imagist poems written by one of the best imagist poets. The poem is purely modernist not only in writing and poetic conventions but also in its very themes.

Keywords in Modernism Literary Theory

Destabilization, fragmentation of reality, non-linearity, interiority, multiple perspective, allusiveness, self-consciousness, depiction of sexuality, invocation to classicism, grotesqueness, absurdity, absurdism, commodification

Suggested Readings

1. Bertens, Hans. Literary Theory: The Basics. Routledge, 2012. Print.
2. Childs, Peter. Modernism. Routledge, 2016. Print.