Introduction: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)
“The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad) first appeared in 1802 in the collection The English and Scottish Ballads, edited by Francis James Child. This ballad is a significant example of medieval Scottish folklore, blending elements of the supernatural with themes of adventure and mystery. It tells the story of Thomas, a man who is taken by the Queen of Elfland and enters a mystical realm for seven years. The main ideas revolve around Thomas’s journey through an enchanted landscape, his encounters with supernatural forces, and the choices he faces between different paths. The ballad explores concepts of fate, the consequences of silence, and the interplay between the human and the supernatural. Its popularity as a textbook poem arises from its vivid imagery, narrative structure, and the timeless themes of good versus evil, fate, and the supernatural. A key moment in the poem comes when the Queen of Elfland instructs Thomas, saying, “But Thomas you must hold your tongue / Whatever you may hear or see,” highlighting the importance of silence and restraint in his journey. This poem’s rich storytelling, captivating themes, and folkloric elements make it a staple in the study of traditional ballads.
Text: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)
(Note: in this text some of the Scottish dialect words have been Anglicized for the general reader. Detailed texts in the Scottish vernacular are found in F.J.Child’s collection The English and Scottish Ballads.)
1
True Thomas lay on a grassy bank,
And he beheld a lady gay,
A lady that was brisk and bold,
To come riding o’er the ferny brae.
2
Her skirt was of the grass-green silk,
Her mantle of the velvet fine,
And on every lock of her horse’s mane,
Hung fifty silver bells and nine.
3
True Thomas he took off his hat,
And bowed low down to his knee,
“All hail thou virgin, Queen of Heaven,
For your like on Earth I ne’er did see,”
4
“Oh no, oh no True Thomas” she said,
“That name does not belong to me;
I am but the Queen of Fair Elfland
That has come for to visit her with thee”
5
“And you must go with me now, Thomas,
True Thomas you must go with me,
And you must serve me seven years,
Through good or ill as may chance to be”
6
She turned about her milk white steed
And took True Thomas up behind,
And aye whene’er the bridle rang,
The steed flew faster than the wind.
7
For forty days and forty nights
They wade through red blood to the knee,
And he was neither sun nor moon,
But heard the roaring of the sea.
8
Oh they rode on and further on,
Until they came to a garden tree,
“Light down, light down, you lady fair,
And I’ll pull of that fruit for thee”
9
“Oh no, Oh no True Thomas” she says,
“That fruit may not be touched by thee,
For all the plagues that are in hell
Are upon the fruit of this country”
10
“But I have bread here in my lap,
Likewise a bottle of red wine,
And before that we go further on,
We shall rest, and you may dine,”
11
When he had eaten and drunk his fill,
She said “Lay you head down on my knee,
And before we climb yon high high hill,
I will show you wonders three,”
12
“Oh do you see that broad broad road
That lies by the lily leven?
Oh that is the road of wickedness,
Though some call it the road to Heaven”
13
And do you see that narrow narrow road
All beset with thorns and briars?
Oh that is the way of righteousness,
Though after it few enquires.”
14
And do you see that bonny bonny road
Which winds about the ferny brae?
Oh that is the road to Fair Elfland,
And together there you and I will go”
15
“But Thomas you must hold your tongue
Whatever you may hear or see�
For if one word you chance to speak,
You will never get back to your own country.”
16
And he has gotten a coat of woven cloth,
Likewise the shoes of velvet green,
And till seven years were past and gone,
True Thomas ne’er on earth was seen.
Annotations: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)
| Stanza Number | Text | Simple Annotation |
| 1 | True Thomas lay on a grassy bank, And he beheld a lady gay, A lady that was brisk and bold, To come riding o’er the ferny brae. | Thomas sees a lively lady riding across a grassy hill. |
| 2 | Her skirt was of the grass-green silk, Her mantle of the velvet fine, And on every lock of her horse’s mane, Hung fifty silver bells and nine. | The lady’s dress is elegant, and her horse’s mane has silver bells. |
| 3 | True Thomas he took off his hat, And bowed low down to his knee, “All hail thou virgin, Queen of Heaven, For your like on Earth I ne’er did see,” | Thomas bows to the lady, calling her the Queen of Heaven. |
| 4 | “Oh no, oh no True Thomas” she said, “That name does not belong to me; I am but the Queen of Fair Elfland That has come for to visit her with thee” | The lady corrects Thomas, saying she is the Queen of Elfland. |
| 5 | “And you must go with me now, Thomas, True Thomas you must go with me, And you must serve me seven years, Through good or ill as may chance to be” | The lady invites Thomas to serve her for seven years. |
| 6 | She turned about her milk white steed And took True Thomas up behind, And aye whene’er the bridle rang, The steed flew faster than the wind. | The lady rides a white horse, and they travel quickly. |
| 7 | For forty days and forty nights They wade through red blood to the knee, And he was neither sun nor moon, But heard the roaring of the sea. | They travel through a surreal landscape, encountering blood and hearing the sea. |
| 8 | Oh they rode on and further on, Until they came to a garden tree, “Light down, light down, you lady fair, And I’ll pull of that fruit for thee” | They reach a tree in a garden, and Thomas offers to pick fruit. |
| 9 | “Oh no, Oh no True Thomas” she says, “That fruit may not be touched by thee, For all the plagues that are in hell Are upon the fruit of this country” | The lady forbids Thomas from picking the fruit, warning of its danger. |
| 10 | “But I have bread here in my lap, Likewise a bottle of red wine, And before that we go further on, We shall rest, and you may dine,” | The lady offers Thomas food and drink before continuing. |
| 11 | When he had eaten and drunk his fill, She said “Lay you head down on my knee, And before we climb yon high high hill, I will show you wonders three,” | After eating, the lady promises to show Thomas three wonders. |
| 12 | “Oh do you see that broad broad road That lies by the lily leven? Oh that is the road of wickedness, Though some call it the road to Heaven” | The lady points to a broad road, calling it the road of wickedness. |
| 13 | And do you see that narrow narrow road All beset with thorns and briars? Oh that is the way of righteousness, Though after it few enquires.” | The narrow road is the path of righteousness, though few follow it. |
| 14 | And do you see that bonny bonny road Which winds about the ferny brae? Oh that is the road to Fair Elfland, And together there you and I will go” | The lady points to a beautiful road leading to Elfland. |
| 15 | “But Thomas you must hold your tongue Whatever you may hear or see, For if one word you chance to speak, You will never get back to your own country.” | The lady warns Thomas to stay silent or he will be trapped in Elfland forever. |
| 16 | And he has gotten a coat of woven cloth, Likewise the shoes of velvet green, And till seven years were past and gone, True Thomas ne’er on earth was seen. | Thomas receives magical clothes and disappears for seven years. |
Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)
| Device | Example | Explanation |
| Alliteration | “True Thomas he took off his hat” | Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words for rhythmic effect. |
| Allusion | “Queen of Heaven” | A reference to a well-known figure or concept, in this case, a biblical or divine figure. |
| Anaphora | “Oh no, oh no True Thomas” | Repetition of a phrase at the beginning of successive lines to create emphasis. |
| Assonance | “Her skirt was of the grass-green silk” | Repetition of vowel sounds within nearby words to enhance the musicality. |
| Characterization | “True Thomas he took off his hat” | Describes how Thomas shows respect, revealing his humble and respectful nature. |
| Direct Address | “All hail thou virgin, Queen of Heaven” | Speaking directly to a character, in this case, addressing the lady as the Queen of Heaven. |
| Enjambment | “And aye whene’er the bridle rang, / The steed flew faster than the wind.” | A line break that creates a continuation from one line to the next without a pause. |
| Foreshadowing | “For all the plagues that are in hell / Are upon the fruit of this country” | A hint of future consequences, suggesting danger and a warning about the fruit. |
| Hyperbole | “The steed flew faster than the wind” | An exaggeration used for emphasis, highlighting the speed of the steed. |
| Imagery | “Her skirt was of the grass-green silk” | Vivid descriptions that appeal to the senses, helping to create a mental image of the lady’s attire. |
| Irony | “Oh that is the road of wickedness, / Though some call it the road to Heaven” | A contrast between appearance and reality, where the road that looks good is actually wicked. |
| Metaphor | “That fruit may not be touched by thee” | The fruit is metaphorically linked to danger, symbolizing temptation and forbidden knowledge. |
| Motif | “And you must serve me seven years” | The recurring theme of seven years, often associated with a period of trial, testing, or transformation. |
| Onomatopoeia | “And he was neither sun nor moon, / But heard the roaring of the sea” | Words that imitate natural sounds, like the “roaring” of the sea. |
| Personification | “The steed flew faster than the wind” | Giving human characteristics to non-human things, in this case, the steed being described as flying. |
| Repetition | “True Thomas” | Repeating certain words or phrases to emphasize their importance and create rhythm. |
| Rhetorical Question | “Oh do you see that broad broad road” | A question asked to make a point rather than to elicit an answer, used to prompt reflection. |
| Simile | “Her skirt was of the grass-green silk” | A direct comparison using “like” or “as” (implied in this case), drawing a comparison between the silk and the grass. |
| Symbolism | “Her mantle of the velvet fine” | The velvet mantle symbolizes the lady’s supernatural status and royal power. |
| Tone | “Oh no, Oh no True Thomas” | The tone shifts between reverence, urgency, and forewarning, establishing the mood of the narrative. |
Themes: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)
- The Supernatural vs. the Natural World: One of the prominent themes in “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” is the contrast between the supernatural and the natural world. The ballad opens with Thomas, a figure rooted in the natural world, lying “on a grassy bank” and observing a “lady gay” riding across the “ferny brae.” This idyllic setting is abruptly disrupted when the lady reveals herself to be the Queen of Elfland, a supernatural being who invites Thomas into her mystical realm. The natural world, symbolized by the “grassy bank” and “ferny brae,” contrasts sharply with the supernatural realm of Elfland, a place beyond earthly understanding. As Thomas journeys with the Queen, he enters a realm where time and space lose their normal constraints—”For forty days and forty nights / They wade through red blood to the knee.” This supernatural realm represents both a physical and spiritual departure from the familiar, where rules of nature are suspended, and the line between reality and magic becomes blurred. The supernatural world is portrayed as both alluring and dangerous, as seen in the Queen’s warning to Thomas: “But Thomas you must hold your tongue / Whatever you may hear or see / For if one word you chance to speak, / You will never get back to your own country.” This theme of crossing between the natural and supernatural highlights the tension between what is known and what is unknowable.
- The Temptation of Forbidden Knowledge: A central theme in “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” is the temptation of forbidden knowledge and the consequences of yielding to it. Early in the ballad, Thomas is offered the chance to explore the mysteries of Elfland and serve the Queen for seven years. However, the Queen forbids Thomas from touching a particular fruit, warning, “That fruit may not be touched by thee, / For all the plagues that are in hell / Are upon the fruit of this country.” The fruit symbolizes knowledge that is beyond human reach—dangerous and fraught with consequences. The Queen’s prohibition reflects a timeless theme: that there are boundaries humans should not cross, and some knowledge is better left unknown. The moment Thomas disobeys the Queen’s warning and considers reaching for the fruit underscores humanity’s eternal struggle with temptation. Furthermore, when the Queen says, “But Thomas you must hold your tongue / Whatever you may hear or see,” it suggests that silence, like knowledge, carries its own power, and speaking or revealing too much may lead to irreversible consequences. The allure of forbidden knowledge, whether through the fruit or through breaking the silence, creates an ongoing tension in the narrative, as Thomas’s decisions come to define his fate.
- The Conflict Between Free Will and Fate: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” also delves into the theme of free will versus fate, particularly through Thomas’s journey and the choices he is forced to make. Early in the poem, the Queen of Elfland tells Thomas, “And you must go with me now, Thomas, / True Thomas you must go with me,” suggesting that Thomas’s path is already determined. The Queen’s insistence that Thomas “serve me seven years” further emphasizes the idea that his fate is sealed, and he has no choice but to follow her. However, the poem also presents moments where Thomas’s own actions—his willingness to obey or disobey—interact with the course of his destiny. When the Queen warns him, “But Thomas you must hold your tongue,” she presents him with a challenge: his silence or speech will determine whether he can return to his world. This dynamic between fate and free will becomes especially apparent as Thomas’s actions throughout the journey hold significant consequences for his future. The tension between the inevitability of his service and the potential for personal choice underscores the poem’s exploration of how individuals must navigate the forces of fate and their own autonomy. In the end, Thomas vanishes from the earthly realm, never to return, illustrating the finality of the fate he accepted.
- The Nature of Time and Transformation: The theme of time and transformation is central to the narrative of “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer.” The poem’s time markers—such as the seven years Thomas must serve and the forty days and nights he spends in Elfland—suggest the passage of time as a transformative force. The journey itself symbolizes a change in Thomas, from an ordinary man to someone who experiences supernatural forces. The Queen instructs Thomas that, “Till seven years were past and gone, / True Thomas ne’er on earth was seen,” indicating a profound change in his identity and existence. The transformation is not just physical; it is also spiritual. By agreeing to serve the Queen of Elfland, Thomas enters a liminal space where earthly rules and timelines no longer apply. The narrative suggests that time, particularly in a supernatural realm, operates differently, and Thomas’s transformation is linked to his experience of that altered time. Moreover, the change in Thomas is symbolized by the clothes he receives: “And he has gotten a coat of woven cloth, / Likewise the shoes of velvet green,” marking his shift from the familiar world to one where he is no longer the same person. His transformation, however, comes at the cost of losing his earthly life, and by the end of the poem, he is “ne’er on earth was seen,” symbolizing the ultimate effect of his journey through time and the supernatural.
Literary Theories and “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)
| Literary Theory | Explanation | References from the Poem |
| Feminist Theory | This theory focuses on the roles of women and gender dynamics in literature. In “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” the Queen of Elfland plays a dominant role, commanding Thomas’s actions and shaping his fate. The poem explores the power dynamics between the female supernatural figure and the male protagonist. | The Queen of Elfland says, “And you must serve me seven years,” asserting her power over Thomas. Her role as a female figure who manipulates the journey and fate of Thomas reflects the theme of female agency. |
| Psychoanalytic Theory | This theory explores the unconscious motivations and symbolic elements within a text. The Queen of Elfland can be interpreted as a manifestation of temptation and the unconscious mind that lures Thomas away from the natural world. His silence and obedience symbolize repression, and the journey to Elfland represents an unconscious exploration of self. | The Queen tells Thomas, “But Thomas you must hold your tongue,” symbolizing the repression of his desires and emotions. The journey itself, which is both literal and psychological, represents an internal struggle. |
| Structuralism | Structuralism looks at the structures within a text and how they shape meaning. In “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” the structure of the ballad—repetition, parallelism, and the sequence of Thomas’s actions—creates a predictable, ritualistic pattern that reinforces the idea of fate and the cyclical nature of life. | The repeated line “True Thomas” and the parallel construction of the roads in stanza 12 and 13 (“broad broad road” / “narrow narrow road”) exemplify the structuralist focus on repetition to convey deeper meaning. |
| New Historicism | New Historicism examines the historical context of a text and how it reflects the culture and values of its time. “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” reflects a medieval worldview where the supernatural and fate play central roles in human life. It also highlights the tension between Christianity and paganism, with the Queen’s realm of Elfland symbolizing a departure from Christian norms. | The Queen’s warning to Thomas, “For all the plagues that are in hell / Are upon the fruit of this country,” reflects a medieval Christian belief in the dangers of engaging with the supernatural. |
Critical Questions about “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)
- What is the role of the Queen of Elfland in the poem, and how does her character shape the narrative?
- The Queen of Elfland plays a pivotal role in “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” serving as both a supernatural figure and a catalyst for Thomas’s transformation. Her character is portrayed as both alluring and powerful, commanding Thomas’s obedience and guiding him through a mystical journey. Her dominant presence in the poem challenges traditional gender roles by asserting control over Thomas, the male protagonist, as she tells him, “And you must serve me seven years / Through good or ill as may chance to be.” This marks the beginning of Thomas’s entrapment in the supernatural world, as he must relinquish his agency to the Queen. Her mystical realm, Elfland, represents the unknown and the forbidden, offering both temptation and danger. By inviting Thomas to serve her, the Queen sets in motion a series of events that ultimately lead to his disappearance from the earthly realm. Through her interactions with Thomas, the Queen shapes the narrative by guiding him through a journey that tests his obedience, silence, and decision-making, ultimately illustrating the theme of fate versus free will.
- How does the poem explore the tension between temptation and obedience?
- The tension between temptation and obedience is a central theme in “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” particularly in Thomas’s interactions with the Queen of Elfland. Throughout the poem, Thomas is repeatedly faced with choices that test his willpower and obedience. The Queen explicitly warns him to hold his tongue and obey her commands, as she says, “But Thomas you must hold your tongue / Whatever you may hear or see.” The temptation to speak or act outside of the Queen’s directives symbolizes the struggle between human desires and the need for restraint. Thomas’s journey is filled with moments where he must suppress his impulses, especially when he encounters the forbidden fruit. The Queen tells him, “That fruit may not be touched by thee, / For all the plagues that are in hell / Are upon the fruit of this country,” warning him of the consequences of yielding to temptation. Despite the allure of the fruit, Thomas’s obedience to the Queen’s instructions—or lack thereof—becomes the defining factor of his fate, ultimately leading to his transformation and separation from the earthly world.
- What does the ballad suggest about the relationship between fate and free will?
- In “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” the relationship between fate and free will is complex and ultimately shows that fate dominates the protagonist’s life. From the moment the Queen of Elfland appears and invites Thomas to serve her, his destiny seems sealed. She tells him, “And you must go with me now, Thomas, / True Thomas you must go with me,” implying that Thomas has no choice but to follow her. However, the poem also presents moments where Thomas’s own actions—his willingness to obey or disobey—interact with the course of his destiny. When the Queen warns him, “But Thomas you must hold your tongue,” she presents him with a challenge: his silence or speech will determine whether he can return to his world. This dynamic between fate and free will becomes especially apparent as Thomas’s actions throughout the journey hold significant consequences for his future. The tension between the inevitability of his service and the potential for personal choice underscores the poem’s exploration of how individuals must navigate the forces of fate and their own autonomy. In the end, Thomas vanishes from the earthly realm, never to return, illustrating the finality of the fate he accepted.
- What does “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” reveal about the tension between the natural and supernatural worlds?
- “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” presents a significant tension between the natural and supernatural worlds, which is explored through Thomas’s journey from the familiar world to the otherworldly realm of Elfland. The poem opens with Thomas lying “on a grassy bank”, symbolizing his connection to nature and the earthly realm. However, this natural world is disrupted when the Queen of Elfland, a supernatural figure, enters the scene, inviting him to a realm that defies the rules of nature. As the Queen says, “I am but the Queen of Fair Elfland / That has come for to visit her with thee,” signaling that Thomas’s journey will take him far from the earthly sphere into a space governed by different rules and logic. The supernatural world, represented by the Queen and Elfland, contrasts with the natural world by offering both temptation and danger. The poem suggests that once Thomas crosses into this supernatural realm, time and space lose their usual meaning—he “wade[s] through red blood to the knee” and hears the “roaring of the sea,” indicating a disconnection from the natural order. This tension between the two worlds underscores the conflict between human experiences grounded in nature and the mysterious, often perilous allure of the supernatural.
Literary Works Similar to “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)
- “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Both poems explore journeys into mysterious and supernatural realms, with the protagonists facing consequences for their actions and decisions. - “La Belle Dame sans Merci” by John Keats
This poem, like “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” centers on a man who is enchanted by a supernatural female figure and taken to a world where reality and fantasy blend. - “The Lady of Shalott” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson
Similar to “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” this poem features a mysterious, almost mythical female figure whose influence leads to a tragic fate for the protagonist. - “Tam o’ Shanter” by Robert Burns
Like “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” this narrative poem involves encounters with the supernatural, featuring witches and a hero whose fate is shaped by his decisions. - “The Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti
In both poems, supernatural beings influence the lives of humans, particularly through temptation and the ensuing consequences of disobedience or desire.
Representative Quotations of “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)
| Quotation | Context | Theoretical Perspective |
| “True Thomas lay on a grassy bank,” | This opening sets the scene of Thomas in a natural, peaceful setting, introducing his connection to the earthly world. | Ecocriticism – Explores the relationship between humans and nature. |
| “And he beheld a lady gay,” | Thomas sees a mysterious lady who is described as lively and confident, setting up the arrival of the supernatural. | Feminist Theory – The lady’s powerful presence contrasts with Thomas’s passive role. |
| “I am but the Queen of Fair Elfland / That has come for to visit her with thee” | The Queen reveals her supernatural identity, drawing Thomas away from the earthly world into a mystical realm. | New Historicism – Reflects the cultural context of supernatural beliefs in medieval Scotland. |
| “And you must serve me seven years / Through good or ill as may chance to be” | The Queen commands Thomas to serve her for seven years, symbolizing a long commitment and the binding nature of fate. | Structuralism – The recurring motif of “seven years” establishes ritualistic patterns. |
| “And you must go with me now, Thomas,” | The Queen’s assertive command, ensuring that Thomas follows her and signifying the power dynamics at play. | Power Theory – Examines the exertion of control and authority through the Queen’s command. |
| “For forty days and forty nights / They wade through red blood to the knee,” | A surreal image that depicts the journey as both physically and symbolically transformative, challenging the laws of nature. | Psychoanalytic Theory – The blood represents inner turmoil and transformation, tied to unconscious processes. |
| “That fruit may not be touched by thee, / For all the plagues that are in hell / Are upon the fruit of this country” | The Queen forbids Thomas from touching the fruit, symbolizing the danger and consequences of temptation. | Moral Allegory – Represents the moral struggle between temptation and restraint. |
| “But Thomas you must hold your tongue / Whatever you may hear or see / For if one word you chance to speak, / You will never get back to your own country.” | The Queen warns Thomas of the dire consequences of speaking, highlighting the importance of silence. | Feminist Theory – The Queen’s control over Thomas’s speech exemplifies her power and authority. |
| “And he has gotten a coat of woven cloth, / Likewise the shoes of velvet green,” | After his service, Thomas receives new clothes, symbolizing his transformation and change in status. | Symbolism – The clothes represent his physical and spiritual transformation in Elfland. |
| “Till seven years were past and gone, / True Thomas ne’er on earth was seen.” | The final line reveals that Thomas has disappeared from the earthly realm, signifying the complete fulfillment of his fate. | Existentialism – Explores themes of fate, identity, and the irreversible nature of choices. |
Suggested Readings: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)
- Stewart, R.J. The Living World of Faery. Mercury Publishing Inc., 1995/1999. Lake Toxaway, NC 28747. Web. https://www.druidry-sfbayarea.net/The_Faery_Tradition/Thomas_Rhymer.htm
- Raeper, William. “Diamond and Kilmeny: MacDonald, Hogg and the Scottish Folk Tradition.” VII: Journal of the Marion E. Wade Center, vol. 11, 1994, pp. 63–72. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45296243. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
- Masson, Sophie. “Third Night: Into the Other World.” AQ: Australian Quarterly, vol. 72, no. 3, 2000, pp. 34–36. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/20637919. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
- Briggs, K. M. “The Fairies and the Realms of the Dead.” Folklore, vol. 81, no. 2, 1970, pp. 81–96. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1258940. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.