“The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne: A Critique

Introduction: “The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

“The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne appearing in 1843 explores the dangers of obsession and perfectionism. Despite receiving mixed reviews upon its publication, the story has since become one of Hawthorne’s most popular and well-known works. It has been widely anthologized and adapted into various forms of media, including television, film, and stage productions. The story’s enduring popularity can be attributed to its timeless themes of human nature, morality, and the struggle between science and nature.

Main Events of “The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

1. Aylmer, a brilliant scientist, marries Georgiana, a beautiful woman with a small birthmark on her cheek.
2. Aylmer becomes obsessed with removing the birthmark, believing it to be a flaw in her otherwise perfect appearance.
3. Aylmer creates an elixir that he believes will remove the birthmark and convinces Georgiana to drink it.
4. Georgiana becomes ill from the elixir but eventually recovers, and the birthmark appears to have faded.
5. Aylmer becomes overjoyed at the success of his experiment but becomes fixated on removing a tiny remaining portion of the birthmark.
6. Aylmer performs a dangerous experiment on Georgiana to remove the final portion of the birthmark, which causes her to become even more ill.
7. Despite Georgiana’s condition, Aylmer continues his experiment until it is too late, and Georgiana dies on the operating table.
8. Aylmer becomes consumed with guilt over Georgiana’s death, realizing that his obsession with perfectionism and science has led to her demise.
9. Aylmer has a dream in which Georgiana appears with the birthmark still on her cheek, reminding him of the beauty and imperfection of human nature.
10. Aylmer dies shortly after the dream, possibly from grief or madness.

Literary Devices in “The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

1. Allusion – a reference to a literary, historical, or cultural figure or event, such as the story of the Garden of Eden in the Bible, which is alluded to in the story when Aylmer names his laboratory “Eden” (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
2. Foreshadowing – hints or clues about events that will occur later in the story, such as Aylmer’s previous failures in scientific experiments, which foreshadow Georgiana’s death during his final experiment (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
3. Hyperbole – an exaggeration used for emphasis or effect, such as Aylmer’s description of Georgiana’s birthmark as “the fatal flaw” that “Nature, in one shape or another, stamps ineffaceably on all her productions” (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
4. Imagery – the use of vivid and descriptive language that appeals to the reader’s senses, such as the description of Georgiana’s beauty and the laboratory’s atmosphere, which create strong mental images for the reader (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
5. Irony – a contrast between what is expected and what actually happens, such as the irony of Aylmer’s obsession with removing the birthmark, which ultimately leads to Georgiana’s death (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
6. Metaphor – a comparison between two unlike things, such as the comparison of Georgiana’s birthmark to a “crimson hand” that “seemed to spread its stain with the magic of a wizard” (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
7. Motif – a recurring image or idea, such as the motif of science and experimentation, which runs throughout the story and serves to highlight the dangers of pursuing perfection (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
8. Narration – the way the story is told, such as the use of third-person limited narration, which allows the reader to see inside Aylmer’s mind but not Georgiana’s (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
9. Personification – giving human qualities to non-human things, such as the personification of the laboratory equipment as “weird ministers” that “kept watch” over the experiment (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
10. Point of view – the perspective from which the story is told, such as the use of omniscient narration, which allows the reader to see the thoughts and feelings of multiple characters (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
11. Repetition – the use of repeating words, phrases, or images, such as the repetition of the birthmark as a symbol of imperfection and mortality throughout the story (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
12. Satire – the use of humor, irony, or ridicule to criticize and expose flaws in society or individuals, such as the satire of Aylmer’s pursuit of perfection, which is shown to be misguided and ultimately tragic (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
13. Simile – a comparison between two things using “like” or “as,” such as the simile comparing Georgiana’s birthmark to a “crimson stain” that is “deepening like a blush” (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).
14. Symbolism – the use of symbols to represent ideas or themes, such as the birthmark symbolizing mortality, imperfection, and the dangers of pursuing perfection (Hawthorne, “The Birthmark”).

Characterization in “The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Major Characters:

1. Aylmer: The protagonist of the story, a scientist obsessed with perfection, and husband to Georgiana. He seeks to remove her birthmark, which he sees as a symbol of her imperfection, ultimately leading to her death.
2. Georgiana: The wife of Aylmer and the owner of the birthmark. She is a beautiful and virtuous woman who is deeply in love with her husband and agrees to undergo the dangerous experiment to remove her birthmark.
3. Aminadab: Aylmer’s assistant and a physical embodiment of the natural world. He is seen as crude and unrefined, serving as a contrast to Aylmer’s intellectual pursuits.

Minor Characters:

1. Alchemy: A fictional medieval precursor to modern chemistry, which Aylmer is deeply interested in.
2. Baglioni: A fellow scientist and rival of Aylmer, who warns Georgiana about the dangers of her husband’s experiment.
3. Nature: A recurring theme in the story, representing the beauty and imperfection of the natural world that Aylmer seeks to overcome.
4. Handmaidens: Women who attend to Georgiana and offer their condolences after her death.

Major Themes in “The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Obsession with Perfection

• Aylmer, the scientist, becomes fixated on his wife Georgiana’s tiny, hand-shaped birthmark, a perceived imperfection in his otherwise beautiful wife.
• His obsession fuels his drive to use science to erase this mark and create a “perfect” woman.
• This pursuit symbolizes the dangers inherent in the relentless quest for the unattainable ideal of perfection.

The Dangers of Hubris and Playing God

• Aylmer’s arrogance leads him to believe he has the power to alter the very essence of nature itself and improve upon it.
• His attempts highlight a belief that science can conquer all, including human mortality and imperfection.
• The story acts as a cautionary tale about the dangers of overstepping boundaries and tampering with the natural world.

The Destructive Nature of Idealism

• Aylmer’s idealism is focused on an external idea of beauty rather than embracing the true essence of his wife.
• He objectifies Georgiana, seeing her only as a project rather than a whole person.
• This pursuit of an ideal destroys their relationship and ultimately leads to Georgiana’s demise.

The Ambiguity of Science

• Hawthorne presents science as a double-edged sword – a force that could be used for good or for ill.
• Aylmer’s laboratory represents the potential of science for creation, but also of the unforeseen dangers and the potential for destruction.
• The story doesn’t condemn science outright but asks us to consider the ethics and consequences of its application.

Writing Style in “The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

1. Rich Symbolism: The birthmark itself, described as “a slender, reddish line, projected like a tiny scarlet streamlet, purposely inflicted by the malice of an enemy” (Hawthorne), becomes a symbol of Georgiana’s supposed imperfection and Aylmer’s obsession.
2. Intricate Characterization: Hawthorne delves into the characters’ inner struggles. We see Aylmer’s “cold and analytic intellect” (Hawthorne) in conflict with his love for Georgiana, creating a complex and morally ambiguous character.
3. Emphasis on the Human Condition: The story explores universal themes like the fear of imperfection, the destructive nature of ambition, and the limitations of science.
4. Omniscient Narrator with Depth: The narrator goes beyond just events, revealing “the secret workings of the human heart” (Hawthorne), providing insight into the characters’ motivations.
5. Vivid Imagery and Eerie Atmosphere: Descriptions like Aylmer’s “dusky walls of his laboratory” (Hawthorne) and the “lurid gleam” (Hawthorne) of his experiments create a sense of suspense and gothic horror.
6. Allegorical Interpretation: The story can be read as an allegory for the dangers of seeking a utopian world, with Aylmer representing the overreach of science and Georgiana symbolizing the flawed yet beautiful nature of humanity.
7. Thought-Provoking Complexity: Hawthorne’s use of metaphor, like comparing Georgiana to a “fallen angel” (Hawthorne), invites readers to question societal ideals and the pursuit of knowledge.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Literary Theory	Interpretation of “The Birthmark”	References from the Story
Feminist Criticism	Examines the patriarchal power structures and how they affect women.	* Aylmer’s obsession with removing Georgiana’s “flaw” reflects a desire to control and perfect her according to his male-centric standards. * Georgiana’s submission to her husband’s will highlights the limited agency of women within this societal structure. * “Had she been less beautiful – if envy’s self could have found aught else to sneer at – he might have felt his affection heightened by the prettiness of this mimic hand…” (Hawthorne)
Psychoanalytic Criticism (Freudian)	Explores the unconscious desires and motivations of characters.	* Aylmer’s obsession with the birthmark can be seen as a manifestation of his repressed anxieties about mortality and imperfection. * Georgiana’s willingness to undergo the dangerous procedure could signify a subconscious desire to self-erase and conform to social ideals of beauty. * “The crimson hand…was the most vivid object in the scene” (Hawthorne) – suggests the birthmark holds deep subconscious significance.
New Historicism	Considers the social and historical context in which the work was written.	* The story reflects the 19th century’s growing fascination with science and the pursuit of knowledge, often at the expense of respect for natural processes. * The pursuit of physical perfection connects to societal ideals of beauty prevalent during Hawthorne’s time. * “He had devoted himself…too unreservedly to scientific studies…” (Hawthorne) – Reflects the era’s over-reliance on rationality.
Reader Response Theory	Focuses on how a reader’s own experiences shape interpretations of a text.	* Readers might sympathize with Georgiana, seeing her as a tragic victim of societal expectations. * Other readers might see Aylmer as a cautionary figure, consumed by his hubris in trying to ‘play God’. * Aylmer’s quest for perfection could resonate with a reader’s own striving in different areas of life.
Archetypal Criticism	Seeks universal patterns and symbols within a work.	* The birthmark symbolizes the inescapable reality of human imperfection and mortality. * Aylmer’s laboratory represents the archetype of a space where one attempts to transcend human limits. * The story can be viewed as a cautionary tale about the dangers of the ‘quest for perfection’ archetype

Questions and Thesis Statements about “The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

1. Question: How does Hawthorne use symbolism to convey the theme of perfectionism in “The Birthmark”?

Thesis statement: Through the symbol of the birthmark, Hawthorne explores the dangers of perfectionism and the human desire to control and manipulate nature.

2. Question: How does the conflict between science and nature drive the plot and character development in “The Birthmark”?

Thesis statement: The conflict between science and nature in “The Birthmark” highlights the tension between the pursuit of knowledge and the natural order, ultimately leading to tragic consequences for the characters involved.

3. Question: In what ways does Georgiana’s character represent the societal expectations of women in the 19th century?

Thesis statement: Through Georgiana’s willingness to conform to male standards of beauty and her eventual sacrifice for her husband’s desires, Hawthorne critiques the patriarchal societal expectations placed on women in the 19th century.

4. Question: How does Aylmer’s character reflect the dangers of scientific hubris in “The Birthmark”?

Thesis statement: Aylmer’s scientific hubris and obsession with perfectionism ultimately lead to the tragic consequences of the story, serving as a cautionary tale against the dangers of unchecked scientific ambition.

5. Question: How does Hawthorne’s use of irony contribute to the overall meaning of “The Birthmark”?

Thesis statement: Through his use of irony, Hawthorne critiques the societal expectations of perfection and the dangers of scientific ambition in “The Birthmark”, ultimately revealing the tragic consequences of these ideals.

Short Question-Answers about “The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

1. How does Hawthorne use symbolism to comment on societal expectations of beauty in “The Birthmark”?
   In “The Birthmark,” the birthmark on Georgiana’s face represents societal expectations of beauty and the pressure placed on women to conform to male standards of perfection. Aylmer’s obsession with removing the birthmark highlights the dangers of perfectionism and the societal belief that women must be perfect in order to be valuable. The birthmark itself is symbolic of the imperfections that exist within all people, and Georgiana’s decision to sacrifice herself in order to meet Aylmer’s expectations is a commentary on the sacrifices women have been expected to make throughout history in order to meet societal expectations.
2. How does “The Birthmark” reflect the anxieties of the time period it was written in?

“The Birthmark” was written in the mid-19th century, a time period marked by rapid scientific and technological advances. The story reflects the anxieties of the time period by exploring the consequences of unchecked scientific ambition and the dangers of the pursuit of perfection. The conflict between science and nature in the story mirrors the anxieties of the time period over the potential consequences of technological progress and the fear of upsetting the natural order of things.

3. What is the significance of Aylmer’s dream in “The Birthmark”?

Aylmer’s dream in which he attempts to remove the birthmark from Georgiana’s face represents his obsession with perfection and his desire to control nature. The dream foreshadows the tragic consequences that will result from Aylmer’s unchecked ambition and serves as a warning about the dangers of playing God.

4. How does Hawthorne use irony in “The Birthmark” to comment on societal expectations of women?

Hawthorne uses irony in “The Birthmark” to comment on societal expectations of women by portraying Georgiana as the epitome of perfection, but ultimately punishing her for her perceived imperfection. Aylmer’s obsession with perfection is ultimately what leads to Georgiana’s death, highlighting the societal pressure placed on women to meet impossible standards of beauty and perfection. The irony serves as a critique of the patriarchal societal expectations placed on women during the time period in which the story was written.

Literary Works Similar to “The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

1. “Rappaccini’s Daughter” (Nathaniel Hawthorne): A story centered on a scientist’s dangerous obsession with manipulating nature, exploring the potential consequences of altering living beings.
2. The Picture of Dorian Gray (Oscar Wilde): A novel focused on the corrupting pursuit of eternal youth and beauty, ultimately highlighting the moral consequences of defying the natural order.
3. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (Robert Louis Stevenson): A novella examining the duality of human nature and the dangers of scientific experimentation in attempting to separate good and evil.
4. Frankenstein (Mary Shelley): A seminal Gothic novel exploring themes of overreaching scientific ambition, the consequences of defying nature, and the boundaries between life and death.
5. “The Yellow Wallpaper” (Charlotte Perkins Gilman): A short story illustrating the destructive confinement imposed by societal expectations, and a descent into madness stemming from a suppression of identity and autonomy.
6. The Works of Edgar Allan Poe: Particularly stories such as “Ligeia” and “The Fall of the House of Usher,” often delve into themes of obsession, macabre beauty, mortality, and the psychological effects of transgressing boundaries.

Suggested Readings: “The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Scholarly Articles

• Bersani, Leo. “The Birthmark.” Novel: A Forum on Fiction, vol. 1, no. 3, 1968, pp. 256-263.
• Cervo, Nathan. “The Birthmark’: A Romance of Science.” Essays in Literature, vol. 13, no. 1, 1986, pp. 51-63.
• Idol, John L. “New Spirits and Old Prejudices: The Growth of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Image of Science.” American Quarterly, vol. 22, no. 2, 1970, pp. 316-331.

Books

• Bloom, Harold, editor. Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Birthmark. Chelsea House Publishers, 2004.
• Newberry, Frederick. Hawthorne’s Divided Loyalties: Characters and Themes in His Major Tales. Associated University Presses, 1997.
• Waggoner, Hyatt Howe. Hawthorne: A Critical Study. Revised Edition, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963.

Reputable Websites

• LitCharts: The Birthmark. https://www.litcharts.com/ (Provides detailed summaries, analysis, and contextual information)
• Shmoop: The Birthmark. https://www.shmoop.com/ (Offers accessible analysis and study guide resources)

Further Research Resources

• Academic Search Engines: JSTOR (https://www.jstor.org/) and Project Muse (https://muse.jhu.edu/) are excellent resources for finding peer-reviewed scholarly articles.
• Library Resources: Consult your local or university library for books dedicated to Hawthorne’s works or the analysis of short fiction