Introduction: “The Context of Diaspora” by Brian Keith Axel
“The Context of Diaspora” by Brian Keith Axel, first appeared in 2004 in the journal Cultural Anthropology, examines the formation of diasporic subjects, particularly Sikhs, through the lens of Internet technologies, state violence, and the performative enactment of identity. Axel challenges traditional anthropological frameworks that spatialize diaspora as a connection to a singular homeland. Instead, he redefines diaspora as a globally mobile category of identification, marked by complex temporalities—past, present, and future—and the performative acts that constitute subjectivity. The essay critically interrogates notions of context, highlighting how new technologies and narratives of violence transform diasporic identities and unsettle anthropological methodologies. It holds a pivotal place in literature and literary theory by integrating diaspora studies with linguistic anthropology, advancing a nuanced understanding of identity, temporality, and subject formation in a globalized, mediated world.
Summary of “The Context of Diaspora” by Brian Keith Axel
Internet as a Medium for Diasporic Subject Formation:
- Axel explores how the Internet serves as a platform for diasporic identity formation, particularly for Sikh communities, transforming traditional methods of communication like newspapers and portraiture.
- Internet practices are not merely extensions of older technologies; they represent new dynamics that challenge anthropological methodologies.
State Violence and Sikh Identity:
- The formation of Sikh identities is deeply influenced by state-sponsored terror, especially the torture of Sikh men during conflicts in Punjab.
- Visual media on the Internet, such as images of torture and martyrdom, profoundly shape Sikh diasporic subjectivity, altering traditional modes of identification within Sikh life.
Rethinking Diaspora and Context:
- Diaspora is reframed as a globally mobile category of identification, not limited to a dispersed population from a homeland.
- Axel argues that diaspora is a process involving the production of disparate temporalities (past, present, and future) and the emergence of new subjects.
Performative Enunciation in Diasporic Expression:
- The article highlights how performative utterances, such as a poem inspired by Khalistani discourse, embody the subjectivity of the diasporic “I.”
- This performative “I” is shaped by its context—a fusion of linguistic, cultural, and historical factors mediated through Internet technologies.
Intersection of Diaspora Studies and Linguistic Anthropology:
- Axel calls for a dialogue between diaspora studies and linguistic anthropology, using the concepts of performativity and subjectivity to interrogate notions of context and identification.
- He critiques the spatialization of diaspora (defining it through homelands and geographic locales) and instead emphasizes its temporal and performative dimensions.
Gendered Normativity and Sikh Representation:
- The dominant representation of Sikh identity is tied to the masculinized figure of the amritdhari (turbaned and bearded Sikh), which has become a norm in Sikh and non-Sikh discourses.
- Gender plays a crucial role in Sikh subjectification, as female Sikhs or those deviating from the norm face stigmatization and exclusion.
The Role of Violence in Sikh Diasporic Imagination:
- Violence is central to the Khalistani movement, where Internet practices archive and circulate images of tortured bodies, fostering a diasporic imaginary.
- The juxtaposition of torture and martyrdom creates a powerful iconography that informs the political and cultural identity of Sikh diasporic subjects.
Challenges of Contextualizing Diaspora:
- The concept of “context” in diaspora studies is interrogated as a colonial product, often tied to spatial or territorial origins.
- Axel proposes understanding the context of diaspora as a dynamic process of temporalization and displacement, moving beyond static notions of place and identity.
Globalization and the Locality of Diaspora:
- Diaspora is framed as a translocal phenomenon, where local and global forces interact dialectically, producing new forms of belonging and identification.
- The study of Sikh diaspora provides insights into how globalization operates as a radically localized process.
Implications for Anthropology:
- Axel concludes by urging anthropologists to rethink their analytic models to address the complexities of globalization and diasporic subjectivity.
- Diasporas challenge traditional understandings of place, identity, and temporality, offering a richer perspective on the interplay between the local and the global.
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “The Context of Diaspora” by Brian Keith Axel
| Theoretical Term/Concept | Definition/Explanation | Significance in the Article |
| Diaspora as a Mobile Category | A view of diaspora not as a fixed community of displaced individuals but as a globally mobile identification. | Challenges static, spatial definitions of diaspora, emphasizing its fluid and temporal nature. |
| Temporalities in Diaspora | The production of disparate temporalities (past, present, future) within diasporic identification. | Highlights how diasporic subjects engage with multiple temporal frames, reshaping identity beyond static historical ties. |
| Performativity | The idea that language and acts (e.g., poetry) do what they say, forming identity in the process. | Used to explain how Sikh diasporic identities are enacted and constructed through performative utterances and practices. |
| Diasporic Subjectivity | The process through which individuals identify as part of a diaspora, shaped by cultural, political, and technological forces. | Central to understanding how Internet practices and state violence create specific Sikh identities in diaspora. |
| State-Sponsored Terror | Systematic violence (e.g., torture, disappearances) by state entities. | Explains the context of Sikh diaspora formation, where state violence acts as a key driver of diasporic subjectification. |
| Cyber-Archive | Online collections of images, narratives, and testimonies. | Integral to diasporic identity formation by archiving and circulating symbols of suffering, martyrdom, and resistance. |
| Gender Normativity | The reinforcement of traditional gender roles and identities, such as the masculinized amritdhari Sikh figure. | Highlights exclusions within Sikh identity formation and the challenges faced by those outside normative gender expectations. |
| Spatialization | The tendency to frame diaspora and context in spatial or geographic terms, such as “homeland” or “place.” | Critiqued as reductive; Axel suggests focusing on temporal and processual aspects instead. |
| Diasporic Imaginary | A collective vision or conceptualization of diaspora shaped by images, narratives, and symbols. | Explains how Sikhs create and sustain a sense of community and identity through shared imaginaries of displacement. |
| Displacement and Place | The experience of being removed from an origin (place of birth) and the continued reference to it. | Explored as a dynamic interaction rather than a fixed condition; displacement shapes but does not define diaspora. |
| Contextualization vs. Entextualization | The process of situating discourse within a context vs. the creation of portable, decontextualized texts. | Helps understand how diasporic narratives are both localized and globalized through practices like poetry and online media. |
| Archive and Context | The archival principle of gathering and binding together symbols and the generative process of creating context. | Shows how diasporas produce their archives and contexts dynamically rather than inheriting them from history. |
| Translocality | The interplay between local and global forces, producing new forms of belonging and identity. | Central to understanding diaspora as a phenomenon that transcends traditional spatial boundaries. |
| Iconicity and Visuality | The use of powerful images (e.g., of tortured bodies) to create and sustain collective identity. | Demonstrates how visual media become focal points for diasporic identity and political resistance. |
| Masculinized Subject | The dominant image of the Sikh amritdhari male as the normative Sikh identity. | Explores how this norm marginalizes non-conforming identities and genders within Sikh discourses. |
| Dialectic of the “I” and “You” | The relationship between the speaking subject (“I”) and the addressed subject (“you”) in identity formation. | Used to analyze how the Khalistani subject emerges in discourse and interacts with temporal and performative processes. |
Contribution of “The Context of Diaspora” by Brian Keith Axel to Literary Theory/Theories
- Deconstruction and Post-Structuralism
- Concept of Diaspora as Non-Spatial: Axel critiques spatial metaphors traditionally tied to diaspora, such as “homeland,” and reframes it as a temporal, dynamic process.
- Citation: “Diaspora, rather than a community of individuals dispersed from a homeland, may be understood more productively as a globally mobile category of identification.”
- Theoretical Relevance: Aligns with Derrida’s notion of deconstruction by challenging fixed origins and emphasizing displacements and differences.
- Performativity (Judith Butler and J.L. Austin)
- Speech Acts and Identity Formation: Axel uses the concept of performativity to explore how diasporic subjects emerge through enunciative acts, such as poetry and declarations.
- Citation: “The performative, in simple terms, is an enunciation that in saying something does what it says.”
- Theoretical Relevance: Extends Butler’s work on gender performativity to include diasporic identities, showing how they are enacted in linguistic and visual spaces.
- Postcolonial Theory
- Diaspora and State Violence: The work connects diasporic identity formation to postcolonial realities, emphasizing how state-sponsored terror influences subjectivity.
- Citation: “The ethnographic ground for exploring these new modes of subjectification is inextricably bound to a critical inquiry into state-sponsored terror.”
- Theoretical Relevance: Enriches postcolonial theory by tying diaspora to the ongoing effects of colonial histories and nation-state violence.
- Linguistic Anthropology and Context
- Challenge to Spatialized Context: Axel critiques the reduction of context to a bounded location and instead defines it as a dynamic, temporal process of displacement.
- Citation: “Spatializations of context may threaten to distract us from formations of temporality and desire.”
- Theoretical Relevance: Engages with linguistic anthropological theories to redefine context in literary and cultural analysis.
- Globalization and Translocality
- Diaspora as a Globalized Phenomenon: Axel reframes diaspora as part of globalization, with local identities shaped by global flows.
- Citation: “Diaspora, in these terms, provides one avenue for understanding globalization as a radically localized process.”
- Theoretical Relevance: Contributes to theories of globalization by emphasizing the dialectics of local and global in identity formation.
- Imagined Communities and Benedict Anderson
- Diasporic Imaginary: Axel explores how diasporic communities form through shared imaginaries of displacement and origin, resonating with Anderson’s concept of imagined communities.
- Citation: “This globalized domain of images, which I call a diasporic imaginary, has ‘meaning’ for the Khalistani Sikh subject.”
- Theoretical Relevance: Expands the notion of imagined communities to include diasporic identities mediated by digital technologies.
- Visual Culture and Iconicity
- Role of Visual Media: The analysis of iconic images (e.g., tortured bodies) highlights how visuality and visual culture contribute to identity formation.
- Citation: “The archiving of these disparate corporeal images through Internet technologies has become integral, indeed central, to the creation of a particular Khalistani Sikh subject.”
- Theoretical Relevance: Links visual culture to diaspora studies, emphasizing the performative power of imagery.
- Temporalities and Literary Narrative
- Non-linear Temporalities: Axel foregrounds disparate temporalities (anteriority, present, futurity) in the understanding of diaspora.
- Citation: “Diaspora may be understood through its production of disparate temporalities (anteriorities, presents, futurities).”
- Theoretical Relevance: Challenges linear narrative structures, contributing to literary theories of time and narrative.
- Intersectionality and Gender Studies
- Critique of Normative Masculinity: The article interrogates gendered representations, such as the masculinized amritdhari Sikh, to reveal exclusions in diasporic identity formation.
- Citation: “The masculinized figure of the amritdhari body has attained a hegemonic quality that is so extensive that all other ways of being a Sikh are constituted in relation to it.”
- Theoretical Relevance: Advances gender studies by examining the interplay of gender, religion, and diasporic identity.
Examples of Critiques Through “The Context of Diaspora” by Brian Keith Axel
| Literary Work | Critique Using “The Context of Diaspora” | Relevant Concepts from Axel |
| V.S. Naipaul’s A House for Mr. Biswas | Mr. Biswas’s alienation and quest for belonging reflect Axel’s concept of diaspora as a process of temporal dislocation rather than rooted in a spatial origin. His subjectivity forms through displacement and local struggles. | – Diaspora as temporality – Subject formation through displacements |
| Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake | Gogol’s struggle with his cultural identity mirrors Axel’s critique of spatialized diaspora. His identity emerges through temporal displacements and performative acts rather than attachment to an ancestral homeland. | – Diaspora as temporality rather than spatiality – Performativity in identity formation |
| Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Americanah | Ifemelu’s blog and her reflections on race in America illustrate Axel’s idea of diasporic imaginary. The Internet serves as a medium for negotiating transnational identities. | – Internet-mediated subject formation – Diasporic imaginary and visuality |
| Hanif Kureishi’s The Buddha of Suburbia | Karim’s navigation of racial, cultural, and sexual identities challenges hegemonic narratives of diaspora as unified. Axel’s critique of gender normativity and performativity aligns with Karim’s multiple, shifting subjectivities. | – Intersection of gender, race, and diasporic identity – Critique of normative subject formation |
Criticism Against “The Context of Diaspora” by Brian Keith Axel
- Over-reliance on Abstract Terminology
Axel’s analysis heavily uses abstract theoretical language, which may obscure the accessibility of his arguments for readers outside specialized academic circles. This reliance on dense terminology can make the work challenging for interdisciplinary engagement. - Limited Empirical Data Integration
While the work focuses on theoretical advancements, critics argue that it lacks sufficient empirical data or case studies to substantiate its claims comprehensively. For instance, the analysis of Internet practices and diasporic subjectivities could benefit from a broader and more systematic dataset. - Neglect of Alternative Diasporic Frameworks
Axel’s critique of spatialized diaspora prioritizes his perspective on temporality and performativity but does not adequately address or integrate other viable frameworks, such as those emphasizing transnational networks or hybrid identities (e.g., works by Stuart Hall or Paul Gilroy). - Overemphasis on Technological Mediation
While Axel’s focus on the role of the Internet in shaping diasporic identities is innovative, critics suggest that he overemphasizes its significance, potentially marginalizing other critical factors such as economic, political, and cultural conditions influencing diaspora. - Gender Analysis Requires Greater Nuance
Axel critiques gender normativity in diasporic studies, yet his exploration of feminist and gender theory lacks depth. Some readers argue that his analysis could better integrate insights from contemporary feminist thinkers to enrich his discussions on gendered subjectivities. - Underrepresentation of Diverse Diasporic Experiences
The study’s focus on Sikh diasporic identity and Khalistani discourse may be seen as limiting. Critics contend that a more comparative approach including diverse diasporic communities could strengthen the generalizability and applicability of Axel’s framework. - Ambiguity in Defining Key Concepts
Key terms such as “diasporic imaginary” and “context of diaspora” are not always clearly defined or consistently applied throughout the work. This lack of clarity can lead to interpretive difficulties and dilute the strength of the theoretical contributions. - Potential Eurocentric Bias in Theoretical Foundations
Axel’s reliance on Western philosophical traditions (e.g., Heidegger, Derrida, and Austin) has been critiqued for potentially overlooking non-Western epistemologies and frameworks that might better account for diasporic experiences in global South contexts.
Representative Quotations from “The Context of Diaspora” by Brian Keith Axel with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Diaspora, rather than a community of individuals dispersed from a homeland, may be understood more productively as a globally mobile category of identification.” | This redefinition challenges traditional spatial notions of diaspora, positioning it instead as a process that encompasses fluid and mobile identity categories shaped by transnational dynamics. |
| “The Internet was not simply derivative of prior forms of social communication so much as it constituted something new.” | Axel emphasizes the transformative role of the Internet in shaping diasporic subjectivities, suggesting that it introduces unprecedented modes of interaction, identification, and community formation. |
| “The confluence of Internet productions of diasporic subjects with state terror provides anthropologists with a unique provocation to think closely about analytic categories like diaspora, context, temporality, and gender.” | This highlights the interplay between technology and violence in redefining diasporic experiences, calling for a reexamination of conventional categories in social and cultural analysis. |
| “The context of diaspora is defined by this vicissitude.” | Here, Axel underscores the inherent instability and flux in diasporic identities and contexts, rejecting fixed or static interpretations and instead emphasizing a dynamic, evolving process. |
| “Diaspora might be understood to mediate archive and context, accentuating a mutual (semantico-referential) relation, showing up the one within the other.” | This establishes diaspora as a bridge between historical archives and present contexts, suggesting a complex interplay between the two in shaping diasporic identity and subjectivity. |
| “How do we escape the desire of the temporal ‘before’ that defines context itself and locates a point of mediation between the social sciences and the discourses of the people we study?” | Axel critiques the nostalgia for origins and tradition in diaspora studies, advocating for a forward-looking and temporally nuanced understanding of diasporic identity. |
| “The diasporic subject is generated through its own futurity (i.e., constituted in the moment of enunciation, visualized in the image of the child, and projected as a sovereign homeland).” | Axel introduces the concept of “futurity” in diaspora, where subjects are not merely tied to their past but also shaped by their visions and projections of the future. |
| “The Khalistani subject, emerging through Internet mediations and subject to a transnational domain of visual images, is at the same time subjected to language.” | This identifies the dual role of visual and linguistic media in constructing diasporic subjects, particularly in the context of Sikh activism and identity. |
| “Performativity has its own social temporality in which it remains enabled precisely by the contexts from which it breaks.” | Drawing on Judith Butler and Derrida, Axel elaborates on performativity as a process that disrupts traditional contexts, enabling new meanings and identities to emerge in diasporic spaces. |
| “Diaspora as a globally mobile category of identification engenders forms of belonging that are both global in breadth and specifically localized in practice.” | This synthesizes Axel’s argument, portraying diaspora as a phenomenon that integrates global networks and local practices, transcending traditional notions of place and community. |
Suggested Readings: “The Context of Diaspora” by Brian Keith Axel
- Axel, Brian Keith. “The Context of Diaspora.” Cultural Anthropology, vol. 19, no. 1, 2004, pp. 26–60. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3651526. Accessed 1 Dec. 2024.
- el-Sayed el-Aswad. “The Dynamics of Identity Reconstruction among Arab Communities in the United States.” Anthropos, vol. 101, no. 1, 2006, pp. 111–21. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40466623. Accessed 1 Dec. 2024.
- Virdi, Preet Kaur. “Diaspora as a Spectrum: Punjabi-Sikh Subjects and the Gendered Context of Diaspora Membership.” Relation and Resistance: Racialized Women, Religion, and Diaspora, edited by SAILAJA V. KRISHNAMURTI and BECKY R. LEE, vol. 10, McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2021, pp. 117–46. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1z7kk7j.9. Accessed 1 Dec. 2024.