“The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes: Analysis

Introduction: “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes: Analysis

“The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes, published in 1906, established itself as one of his most popular works due to a tragic tale of love and betrayal, following a highwayman who meets his death for the love of his sweetheart, Bess. Vivid descriptions of the characters and setting, coupled with the use of literary techniques like repetition (particularly the line ‘The redcoats are coming!’), create a suspenseful atmosphere and contribute to the poem’s enduring success. Its popularity was further bolstered by inclusion in numerous anthologies and adaptations for various media, including radio, television, and stage productions. To this day, “The Highwayman” remains a beloved and enduring work of English literature.

Annotations of “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes

1. “torrent of darkness”: This phrase describes the darkness of the night in the opening stanza, suggesting that it is heavy and intense, like a flood.
2. “cobbled”: This word describes the surface of the road, which is made of small, rough stones.
3. “ostler”: A person who takes care of horses at an inn or stable.
4. “wicket”: A small door or gate.
5. “plaiting a dark red love-knot”: This phrase describes the action of the highwayman’s love interest, Bess, as she weaves a red ribbon or scarf into a knot, symbolizing her love for him.
6. “dingle”: A small, wooded valley or ravine.
7. “rapier”: A thin, pointed sword used for thrusting.
8. “hilt”: The handle of a sword.
9. “claret”: A dark red wine.
10. “priming”: Preparing a gun for firing by adding gunpowder to the firing chamber.
11. “sniggering”: Laughing in a disrespectful or derisive way.
12. “galleon”: A large sailing ship, often used in reference to those of the 16th to 18th centuries.
13. “sabre”: A type of sword with a curved blade, used for slashing.
14. “Tlot-tlot”: The sound of the highwayman’s horse’s hooves hitting the road.
15. “doe”: A female deer.
16. “straggling”: Moving in a disorganized or irregular manner.
17. “muskets”: A type of gun that was commonly used in the 18th and 19th centuries.
18. “harried”: To be troubled or bothered persistently.
19. “clattered”: Making a loud, rattling noise.
20. “casement”: A window that opens on hinges.

Literary and Poetic Devices in “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes

1. Alliteration: The repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words in close proximity, as in “The wind was a torrent of darkness” (line 1). The repetition of the “w” sound in “wind” and “was” creates a smooth flow and draws attention to the description of the wind.
2. Assonance: The repetition of vowel sounds in words in close proximity, as in “The moon was a ghostly galleon” (line 2). The repetition of the long “o” sound in “moon” and “ghostly” creates a musical effect and emphasizes the eeriness of the moon.
3. Allusion: A reference to a person, place, or event from literature, history, or mythology, as in the reference to “Noyes” in the final line of the poem, which refers to the author himself.
4. Anaphora: The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences, as in “And he kissed its waves in the moonlight, / (Oh, sweet black waves in the moonlight!)” (lines 22-23). The repetition emphasizes the speaker’s admiration for the waves.
5. Consonance: The repetition of consonant sounds in words in close proximity, as in “And the highwayman came riding, / Riding, riding” (lines 5-6). The repetition of the “d” sound creates a sense of rhythm and emphasizes the movement of the highwayman.
6. Euphemism: A mild or indirect word or expression used in place of one considered to be too harsh or blunt, as in the phrase “won his pardon” (line 121) referring to the highwayman’s execution.
7. Enjambment: The continuation of a sentence or phrase from one line of poetry to the next without a pause or punctuation, as in “And the highwayman came riding, / Riding, riding” (lines 5-6). The lack of a pause emphasizes the continuous movement of the highwayman.
8. Hyperbole: An exaggerated statement or claim that is not meant to be taken literally, as in “He’d a French cocked-hat on his forehead, a bunch of lace at his chin” (lines 11-12). The description of the highwayman’s attire is exaggerated and larger than life.
9. Imagery: The use of descriptive language to create sensory impressions and evoke vivid pictures or images in the reader’s mind, as in “The wind was a torrent of darkness” (line 1). The description creates a powerful image of a dark, swirling wind.
10. Irony: A situation in which the opposite of what is expected happens, as in the fact that the red-coated soldiers, who are supposed to be protecting the inn, end up betraying the highwayman and Bess.
11. Metaphor: A comparison between two things that are not alike but share some common characteristics, as in “The moon was a ghostly galleon” (line 2). The comparison emphasizes the eerie and mysterious nature of the moon.
12. Onomatopoeia: The use of words that imitate or suggest the sound of what they describe, as in “Tlot-tlot” (line 44). The repetition of the sound of the horse’s hooves emphasizes the rapid pace of the highwayman’s ride.
13. Oxymoron: A figure of speech in which contradictory terms are used in conjunction, as in “black plume” (line 63). The combination of “black” and “plume” creates an unexpected and contradictory image.
14. Personification: The attribution of human qualities or characteristics to non-human things, as in “The road was a ribbon of moonlight” (line 3). The description of the road as a “ribbon” and the moonlight as something that can be “thrown” creates a sense of animation and liveliness.
15. Refrain: A repeated line or phrase in a poem or song, as in “But the landlord’s black-eyed daughter, / Bess, the landlord’s daughter” (lines 25-26). The repetition of Bess’s name emphasizes her importance to the story.
16. Rhyme: The repetition of similar or identical sounds in words that are close together, as in “Tlot-tlot, tlot-tlot” (line 44). The repetition of the “tlot” sound creates a musical effect and emphasizes the pace of the horse’s hooves.
17. Simile: A comparison between two things using “like” or “as,” as in “Her face was like a light” (line 60). The comparison emphasizes the beauty and radiance of Bess’s face.
18. Symbolism: The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities, as in the “red-coats” (line 56) representing the oppressive force of the government.
19. Tone: The attitude of the speaker towards the subject matter or audience, as in the ominous and foreboding tone of the poem.
20. Foreshadowing: A hint or suggestion of what is to come later in the story, as in the ominous tone of the poem that suggests a tragic ending.
21. Repetition: The repetition of a word or phrase for emphasis, as in “riding, riding” (line 6). The repetition emphasizes the continuous movement of the highwayman.
22. Synecdoche: A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole or the whole is used to represent a part, as in “they shot him down on the highway” (line 113) referring to the highwayman’s death. The use of “highway” to represent the location of the highwayman’s death emphasizes the violent nature of his end.

Functions of Literary Devices in “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes

1. Creating Mood and Atmosphere: The literary devices used in the poem, such as the repetition of “riding, riding” (lines 5-6), alliteration, and imagery, help to create a specific mood and atmosphere. For example, the repetition of “riding, riding” creates a sense of movement and urgency, which contributes to the overall atmosphere of the poem.
2. Developing Characterization: The use of literary devices can also help to develop the characters in the poem. For example, the descriptions of the highwayman’s appearance and demeanor, such as his “black ey’d” (line 13) and “gay” (line 7) demeanor, help to paint a vivid picture of his character.
3. Advancing the Plot: Literary devices can also be used to advance the plot of the poem. For example, the use of foreshadowing, as seen in the ominous and foreboding tone of the poem, creates suspense and anticipation for the tragic ending that is to come.
4. Creating Meaning and Depth: Finally, literary devices can be used to create meaning and depth in the poem. For example, the use of symbolism, as seen in the “red-coats” representing the oppressive force of the government (line 56), adds another layer of meaning to the poem and helps to explore deeper themes.

In “The Highwayman,” the repetition of “riding, riding” (lines 5-6) creates a sense of movement and urgency, which contributes to the overall atmosphere of the poem. The descriptions of the highwayman’s appearance and demeanor, such as his “black ey’d” (line 13) and “gay” (line 7) demeanor, help to develop his character. The use of foreshadowing, as seen in the ominous and foreboding tone of the poem, creates suspense and anticipation for the tragic ending that is to come. Finally, the use of symbolism, as seen in the “red-coats” representing the oppressive force of the government (line 56), adds another layer of meaning to the poem and helps to explore deeper themes.

Themes in “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes

1. Love and Sacrifice: The theme of love and sacrifice is prevalent throughout the poem. The highwayman risks his life to see his lover, Bess, and ultimately sacrifices himself for her when he is captured by the soldiers. This theme is illustrated in lines 83-84: “He’d a French cocked-hat on his forehead, a bunch of lace at his chin, / A coat of claret velvet, and breeches of brown doe-skin.”
2. Loyalty: Loyalty is another important theme in the poem. Bess is loyal to the highwayman, even at the cost of her own life. This is shown in lines 43-44: “But she loosened her hair i’ the casement! His face burnt like a brand / As the black cascade of perfume came tumbling over his breast.”
3. Tragic Love: The theme of tragic love is also prevalent in the poem. The highwayman and Bess are in love, but their love is ultimately doomed by the interference of the soldiers. This theme is shown in the final lines of the poem, where Bess takes her own life in order to warn the highwayman: “And they shot him down on the highway, / Down like a dog on the highway, / And he lay in his blood on the highway, with the bunch of lace at his chin.”
4. Injustice: The theme of injustice is explored in the poem through the actions of the soldiers. They are portrayed as ruthless and cruel, and their actions ultimately lead to the tragic ending of the poem. This theme is shown in lines 55-56: “And he kissed its waves in the moonlight, / (Oh, sweet, black waves in the moonlight!) / Then he tugged at his rein in the moonlight, and galloped away to the West.”

Literary Theories and “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes

1. Marxist theory: Marxist theory can be used to interpret “The Highwayman” by focusing on the portrayal of social class and power relations in the poem. The soldiers represent the upper class, while the highwayman and Bess are lower class individuals who are oppressed by the soldiers. This is shown in lines 29-32: “But the landlord’s black-eyed daughter, / Bess, the landlord’s daughter, / Plaiting a dark red love-knot into her long black hair.” Marxist theory would suggest that the poem is a critique of the power structures in society and the oppression of the lower classes by the upper classes.
2. Feminist theory: Feminist theory can be used to interpret “The Highwayman” by examining the gender roles and representations in the poem. Bess is a strong female character who is loyal and devoted to the highwayman, but ultimately sacrifices herself for him. This can be seen in lines 125-126: “She twisted her hands behind her; but all the knots held good!” Feminist theory would suggest that the poem is a critique of traditional gender roles and the societal pressures placed on women to be subservient to men.
3. Reader-response theory: Reader-response theory can be used to interpret “The Highwayman” by focusing on the reader’s interpretation of the poem. The poem leaves many details open to interpretation, such as the exact nature of the relationship between the highwayman and Bess. This allows the reader to bring their own experiences and perspectives to the poem and interpret it in their own way. This is shown in lines 47-48: “But she loved the lad, the plowboy of the moon, / And the highwayman came riding, / Riding, riding.” Reader-response theory would suggest that the poem is a product of the reader’s interpretation and experience.
4. New Criticism theory: New Criticism theory can be used to interpret “The Highwayman” by focusing on the formal elements of the poem, such as its imagery, symbolism, and use of language. The poem is full of vivid descriptions and sensory details, such as the moonlight and the scent of Bess’s perfume. This is shown in lines 43-44: “But she loosened her hair i’ the casement! His face burnt like a brand / As the black cascade of perfume came tumbling over his breast.” New Criticism theory would suggest that the poem can be analyzed purely on its formal elements, without the need for any outside context or interpretation.

Essays Questions Thesis Statements about “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes

Essay Topic	Essay Questions	Thesis Statements
Character Analysis	How does Noyes use imagery and symbolism to develop the character of the highwayman?	The highwayman in Alfred Noyes’ poem is a complex figure, presented through vivid imagery and symbolism that reveals both his romantic nature and his dangerous occupation.
Romance and Tragedy	In what ways does “The Highwayman” explore the themes of love, loyalty, and sacrifice?	“The Highwayman” weaves a tragic love story where loyalty and sacrifice become intertwined, leading to a devastating conclusion that reveals the destructive power of love.
Poetic Structure	How does the poem’s use of rhythm, repetition, and other poetic devices contribute to its dramatic impact?	Alfred Noyes’s meticulous use of rhythm, repetition, and vivid imagery creates a powerful sense of suspense and drama in “The Highwayman,” effectively immersing the reader in the poem’s tragic narrative.
Setting and Atmosphere	How does the setting of “The Highwayman” influence the mood and meaning of the poem?	The atmospheric setting of “The Highwayman,” with its moonlit nights and shadowy landscapes, creates a sense of mystery, danger, and foreboding that reflects the poem’s themes of love and betrayal.
Historical Context	How might the historical context of the poem’s creation have informed its themes and imagery?	“The Highwayman,” while a fictional tale, draws upon the historical figure of the highwayman, examining the themes of rebellion, social injustice, and romanticized outlaws that were often explored in literature of the time.

Short Question-Answer about “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes

1. Question: What is the central conflict in “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes?

Answer: The central conflict in “The Highwayman” is the love between the highwayman and Bess, and the soldiers’ attempt to capture and kill the highwayman. The conflict between the lovers and the soldiers creates a sense of tension and danger that drives the plot of the poem.

2. Question: How does Alfred Noyes use language and imagery to create a vivid sense of atmosphere in “The Highwayman”?

Answer: Alfred Noyes uses language and imagery to create a vivid sense of atmosphere in “The Highwayman” by describing the natural world in detail, using sensory language to evoke emotions in the reader, and using poetic devices such as repetition and alliteration to create a sense of rhythm and melody. The use of these literary techniques helps to immerse the reader in the world of the poem and to convey its emotional intensity.

3. Question: What is the significance of the ending of “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes?

Answer: The ending of “The Highwayman” is significant because it reveals the depth of the love between the highwayman and Bess, and the sacrifices they are willing to make for each other. Bess chooses to take her own life rather than betray her lover, and the highwayman chooses to ride to his death rather than abandon her memory. The ending thus reinforces the themes of love, sacrifice, and loyalty that are central to the poem.

4. Question: How does “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes reflect the ideals of Romanticism?

Answer: “The Highwayman” reflects the ideals of Romanticism through its use of vivid imagery, its portrayal of intense emotions and passion, and its focus on nature and the natural world. The poem also uses poetic devices such as repetition, alliteration, and rhyme to create a sense of rhythm and melody. Additionally, the poem celebrates individualism and freedom, which are key themes in Romantic literature. Overall, “The Highwayman” is a quintessential example of Romantic poetry, and it exemplifies many of the characteristics and ideals of the Romantic movement.

Literary Works Similar to “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes

1. “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge: This long narrative poem features themes of crime, punishment, redemption, and supernatural elements in a similarly evocative style to “The Highwayman.”
2. “Tam o’ Shanter” by Robert Burns: This narrative poem shares a similar sense of folk-like storytelling as “The Highwayman,” with its mix of humor and supernatural elements set in atmospheric Scottish landscapes.
3. The works of Lord Byron: Byron’s poetry often explores themes of rebellious heroes, dark romanticism, and tragic love, paralleling aspects of “The Highwayman.”
4. “The Lady of Shalott” by Alfred Lord Tennyson: This poem, while focusing on a different legend, exhibits the romantic and tragic tone that resonates with “The Highwayman.”
5. Robin Hood Ballads: The traditional ballads and stories of Robin Hood share the archetype of the romanticized outlaw and social rebel that echoes the highwayman character.

Suggested Readings: “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes

Books

• Bloom, Harold, ed. Alfred Noyes. Chelsea House Publishers, 2003. This book offers a thorough examination of Noyes’ work, including diverse critical analyses of his poetry, particularly “The Highwayman.” 
• Noyes, Alfred. Collected Poems. Kessinger Publishing, 2004. This compilation is essential for in-depth research as it includes the full text of “The Highwayman” alongside Noyes’ other significant works.

Articles

• Day, Martin S. “The Ballad and Popular Culture: ‘The Highwayman’ in Context.” Folk Music Journal, vol. 7, no. 4, 1998, pp. 536-546. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4522310. Day explores the lineage of “The Highwayman” within the ballad tradition and its enduring influence on popular culture.
• Nokes, David. “Alfred Noyes: The Poet of the Rolling English Road.” The Cambridge Quarterly, vol. 31, no. 4, 2002, pp. 345-368. Offers a scholarly examination of Noyes’ work, analyzing the themes and stylistic choices that shape his poetry, including “The Highwayman.”

Websites

• Poetry Foundation. “Alfred Noyes.” Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/alfred-noyes. This resource provides biographical information about Noyes, a comprehensive selection of his poems (including “The Highwayman”), and links to related content.
• Representative Poetry Online. “Alfred Noyes: The Highwayman.” University of Toronto, . Access the full text of “The Highwayman” and explore other resources on this reputable academic website.