“The Laugh of the Medusa” by Hélène Cixous: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “The Laugh of the Medusa” by Hélène Cixous

“The Laugh of the Medusa” by Hélène Cixous was first published in 1976 in the French feminist journal Signs. This groundbreaking essay is considered a cornerstone of feminist literary theory. Cixous argues for a radical rethinking of language, literature, and subjectivity, advocating for a feminine writing that resists the patriarchal structures that have historically dominated cultural production. Her essay has had a profound and enduring impact on feminist scholarship, inspiring countless writers and thinkers to explore the possibilities of a more inclusive and empowering literary language.

Summary of “The Laugh of the Medusa” by Hélène Cixous

1. Call for Women’s Writing and Self-Expression: Cixous emphasizes the importance of women writing themselves into history and literature. She argues that women have been historically excluded from writing and from their bodies, and now they must reclaim both by writing their experiences, desires, and bodies into texts. Women’s writing is a form of liberation, a means to break free from patriarchal constraints. “Woman must write herself: must write about women and bring women to writing, from which they have been driven away as violently as from their bodies—for the same reasons, by the same law, with the same fatal goal” (Cixous, 1976, p. 875).
2. Breaking Free from Historical Determinism: The essay argues against the idea that the future should be determined by the past, particularly the patriarchal past that has dictated the roles and identities of women. Cixous encourages a forward-looking approach that anticipates change and transformation, where women’s writing can lead to new futures. “The future must no longer be determined by the past. I do not deny that the effects of the past are still with us. But I refuse to strengthen them by repeating them” (Cixous, 1976, p. 875).
3. Reclaiming the Female Body: Cixous asserts that women must reclaim their bodies, which have been alienated from them by patriarchal culture. Writing is a means to rediscover the female body’s potential, pleasure, and power. The female body, through writing, becomes a site of liberation and creativity. “Write yourself. Your body must be heard. Only then will the immense resources of the unconscious spring forth” (Cixous, 1976, p. 880).
4. Subversion of Phallocentric Writing: Cixous criticizes the male-dominated literary tradition, which she describes as phallocentric, and calls for a new, feminine mode of writing that challenges and subverts this tradition. This new writing would not be confined by traditional, patriarchal structures but would be fluid, dynamic, and inclusive of the feminine experience. “It is impossible to define a feminine practice of writing, and this is an impossibility that will remain, for this practice can never be theorized, enclosed, coded—which doesn’t mean that it doesn’t exist” (Cixous, 1976, p. 884).
5. Liberation through Writing: For Cixous, writing is not just an act of expression but a revolutionary act that can change the way women are perceived and how they perceive themselves. Writing allows women to take control of their identity and narrative, making them active participants in their own lives and in history. “She must write herself, because this is the invention of a new insurgent writing which, when the moment of her liberation has come, will allow her to carry out the indispensable ruptures and transformations in her history” (Cixous, 1976, p. 880).
6. Feminine Writing as a Revolutionary Force: Cixous envisions feminine writing as inherently subversive and transformative. It disrupts established norms and creates new spaces for women to explore and assert their identities. This writing is not just about content but about form and structure, which should reflect the fluid and non-linear nature of women’s experiences. “A feminine text cannot fail to be more than subversive. It is volcanic; as it is written it brings about an upheaval of the old property crust, carrier of masculine investments” (Cixous, 1976, p. 888).
7. Critique of Phallocentrism and Binary Oppositions: The essay challenges the binary oppositions that have traditionally defined gender, such as active/passive, male/female, and presence/absence. Cixous argues that these binaries are limiting and do not reflect the true complexity of human experience, particularly that of women. “It is time for women to start scoring their feats in written and oral language” (Cixous, 1976, p. 880).
8. Women’s Writing as a Collective Endeavor: Cixous highlights the collective nature of women’s writing, where the personal becomes political, and individual experiences are connected to the broader history of all women. This collective approach is essential for the transformation of society and the dismantling of patriarchal power structures. “In woman, personal history blends together with the history of all women, as well as national and world history” (Cixous, 1976, p. 882).
9. Call to Action for Women: The essay is a passionate call to action for women to write, to express themselves, and to engage in the world with their full selves. Cixous encourages women to overcome the fears and shame imposed by patriarchal society and to embrace their creativity and power through writing. “And why don’t you write? Write! Writing is for you, you are for you; your body is yours, take it” (Cixous, 1976, p. 876).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Laugh of the Medusa” by Hélène Cixous

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Explanation in Context
Écriture féminine	A French term meaning “feminine writing” that refers to a style of writing that is characterized by its fluidity, non-linearity, and resistance to traditional narrative structures.	Cixous advocates for a form of writing that expresses the female experience, which is not bound by the linear, logical structures of patriarchal writing. This writing embraces multiplicity, emotion, and the body. “Write yourself. Your body must be heard” (Cixous, 1976, p. 880).
Phallocentrism	The belief that the male perspective, particularly that which centers around the phallus (penis), is the central or most important point of view in literature and culture.	Cixous critiques the male-dominated literary tradition, which she describes as phallocentric. She calls for a departure from this tradition to create a new feminine writing that is not centered around male dominance. “Nearly the entire history of writing is confounded with the history of reason… It is indeed that same self-admiring, self-stimulating, self-congratulatory phallocentrism” (Cixous, 1976, p. 879).
Binary Opposition	A pair of related terms or concepts that are opposite in meaning, often used in Western thought to create a sense of hierarchy, such as male/female, active/passive, etc.	Cixous challenges the use of binary oppositions in defining gender, arguing that these binaries are reductive and do not capture the complexity of human experience, especially that of women. “It is by writing, from and toward women, and by taking up the challenge of speech which has been governed by the phallus, that women will confirm women in a place other than that which is reserved in and by the symbolic, that is, in a place other than silence” (Cixous, 1976, p. 881).
Logocentrism	A term used to describe the tendency in Western thought to privilege speech over writing, and to consider language as having a fixed meaning or truth.	Cixous argues against logocentrism, which she sees as a part of the broader phallocentric structure. She advocates for a form of writing that disrupts fixed meanings and embraces the fluidity of language. “Woman must put herself into the text—as into the world and into history—by her own movement” (Cixous, 1976, p. 875).
Myth of Medusa	The myth of Medusa, a Gorgon whose gaze could turn men to stone, is reinterpreted by Cixous as a symbol of female power and rage that has been vilified by patriarchal society.	Cixous reclaims the Medusa as a figure of female strength rather than a symbol of monstrosity. She argues that women’s anger and power have been demonized, and instead, they should embrace these aspects as sources of strength. “You only have to look at the Medusa straight on to see her. And she’s not deadly. She’s beautiful and she’s laughing” (Cixous, 1976, p. 885).
Body Writing	Writing that is closely connected to the physical body and its experiences, emotions, and desires. This concept opposes the traditional Western notion of mind-body dualism.	Cixous emphasizes that women should write through their bodies, expressing their lived, physical experiences rather than adhering to abstract, disembodied writing styles. “By writing herself, woman will return to the body which has been more than confiscated from her” (Cixous, 1976, p. 880).
Subversion	The act of undermining or challenging established norms, conventions, or structures, especially those related to power.	Cixous’s concept of écriture féminine is inherently subversive, as it seeks to disrupt the established patriarchal norms of literature and society. Her writing calls for a radical transformation of how we think about language, identity, and gender. “A feminine text cannot fail to be more than subversive. It is volcanic; as it is written it brings about an upheaval of the old property crust, carrier of masculine investments” (Cixous, 1976, p. 888).
Heterogeneity	The quality or state of being diverse in character or content, often contrasted with homogeneity.	Cixous values heterogeneity in writing, which reflects the diversity and complexity of female experience. She opposes the homogeneous, standardized narratives imposed by phallocentric traditions. “Her writing can only keep going, without ever inscribing or discerning contours, daring to make these vertiginous crossings of the other(s)” (Cixous, 1976, p. 889).
Maternity as Metaphor	The use of motherhood as a metaphor for creativity, nurturing, and the birth of new ideas or identities.	Cixous frequently uses maternity as a metaphor for the creative process of writing, viewing it as a form of giving birth to new ideas, identities, and possibilities. This metaphor underscores the connection between the female body and the act of creation. “The mother, too, is a metaphor. It is necessary and sufficient that the best of herself be given to woman by another woman for her to be able to love herself and return in love the body that was ‘born’ to her” (Cixous, 1976, p. 881).
Symbolic Order	A concept from psychoanalysis, particularly in the work of Lacan, referring to the structures and rules that govern society and language, often linked to patriarchal authority.	Cixous critiques the symbolic order as it is tied to phallocentric power structures. She advocates for women to break out of this order and create new forms of expression that are not bound by patriarchal rules. “To write and thus to forge for herself the anti-logos weapon. To become at will the taker and initiator, for her own right, in every symbolic system, in every political process” (Cixous, 1976, p. 880).

Contribution of “The Laugh of the Medusa” by Hélène Cixous to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Development of Écriture Féminine: “The Laugh of the Medusa” is foundational to the concept of écriture féminine, a form of writing that is inherently feminine, focusing on the body, fluidity, and non-linear narrative structures. This theory challenges traditional, male-dominated literary forms and opens up new possibilities for expressing women’s experiences. Cixous writes, “Write yourself. Your body must be heard. Only then will the immense resources of the unconscious spring forth” (Cixous, 1976, p. 880), emphasizing the need for a distinctly feminine style of writing that defies patriarchal norms.
2. Critique of Phallocentrism and Logocentrism: Cixous’s essay is a powerful critique of phallocentrism, the idea that the male perspective is central and dominant in culture and literature, and logocentrism, the privileging of speech and rationality over other forms of expression. By advocating for a writing that emerges from the female body and experience, Cixous destabilizes these concepts. She states, “Nearly the entire history of writing is confounded with the history of reason… It is indeed that same self-admiring, self-stimulating, self-congratulatory phallocentrism” (Cixous, 1976, p. 879), positioning her theory as a direct challenge to these dominant frameworks.
3. Influence on Feminist Literary Criticism: “The Laugh of the Medusa” has had a significant impact on feminist literary criticism, particularly in its insistence that women must write their own stories and define their identities outside of patriarchal constraints. Cixous’s call for women to reclaim their bodies and voices through writing has inspired generations of feminist critics and writers. She argues, “Woman must write herself: must write about women and bring women to writing, from which they have been driven away as violently as from their bodies—for the same reasons, by the same law, with the same fatal goal” (Cixous, 1976, p. 875).
4. Reconceptualization of the Female Body in Literature: Cixous reconceptualizes the female body as a source of strength, creativity, and power in literature, rather than as an object of male desire or control. Her essay contributes to body theory within literary studies, which examines how bodies are represented in texts and how they influence identity and subjectivity. She writes, “By writing herself, woman will return to the body which has been more than confiscated from her” (Cixous, 1976, p. 880), thus positioning the body as central to female identity and literary expression.
5. Challenge to Traditional Narrative Structures: Cixous’s advocacy for a non-linear, fragmented form of writing challenges the traditional narrative structures that dominate Western literature. This contribution aligns with poststructuralist theories, which question the fixed meanings and stable structures of texts. Cixous’s work encourages a move away from linearity and toward a more fluid, dynamic way of writing and interpreting texts. “A feminine text cannot fail to be more than subversive. It is volcanic; as it is written it brings about an upheaval of the old property crust, carrier of masculine investments” (Cixous, 1976, p. 888).
6. Impact on Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism: Cixous draws on and critiques psychoanalytic theory, particularly the ideas of Freud and Lacan, regarding female sexuality and identity. Her reinterpretation of these theories has influenced psychoanalytic literary criticism, especially in how it addresses the construction of female subjectivity. She argues against the notion that women are defined by lack (i.e., the absence of the phallus) and instead presents the female body as complete and powerful in its own right. “For, if psychoanalysis was constituted from woman, to repress femininity… its account of masculine sexuality is now hardly refutable” (Cixous, 1976, p. 883).
7. Introduction of the Medusa as a Feminist Symbol: Cixous reclaims the myth of Medusa, traditionally a symbol of fear and monstrosity, as a symbol of female empowerment and liberation. This reinterpretation has contributed to myth criticism and feminist reinterpretations of classical myths, offering new ways to understand and deploy these symbols in literature. She writes, “You only have to look at the Medusa straight on to see her. And she’s not deadly. She’s beautiful and she’s laughing” (Cixous, 1976, p. 885), challenging the patriarchal portrayal of Medusa as a figure of terror.
8. Support for the Multiplicity of Female Identity: Cixous’s essay supports the idea that female identity is not singular or fixed, but multiple and fluid, aligning with postmodern theories of identity. Her work argues for the recognition of this multiplicity in both writing and interpretation, pushing against the notion of a singular, unified self. “In saying ‘bisexual, hence neuter,’ I am referring to the classic conception of bisexuality, which, squashed under the emblem of castration fear… would do away with the difference experienced as an operation incurring loss” (Cixous, 1976, p. 884).
9. Encouragement of a New Ethical Relationship in Literature: Cixous proposes a new ethical relationship between the writer, the text, and the reader, one that is based on generosity, openness, and the refusal to dominate. This has influenced ethical criticism in literary theory, which examines the moral implications of literary texts and practices. She states, “She gives more, with no assurance that she’ll get back even some unexpected profit from what she puts out. She gives that there may be life, thought, transformation” (Cixous, 1976, p. 893).

Examples of Critiques Through “The Laugh of the Medusa” by Hélène Cixous

Literary Work and Author	Critique Through “The Laugh of the Medusa”
The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath	Critique of Phallocentrism: Using Cixous’s ideas, one could critique the portrayal of female mental illness in The Bell Jar as a consequence of phallocentric oppression. Esther’s struggle can be seen as a reflection of the societal constraints imposed on women, which drive them away from self-expression and into madness. “Woman must write herself” (Cixous, 1976, p. 875) could be applied to encourage an interpretation of Esther’s breakdown as a result of the inability to express her true self within a patriarchal framework.
Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys	Reclamation of Female Identity: Cixous’s theory could be used to critique how Antoinette’s identity is constructed and deconstructed in a patriarchal society. The novel can be viewed as a text that embodies écriture féminine by giving voice to a woman who has been silenced and marginalized in Jane Eyre. “Write yourself. Your body must be heard” (Cixous, 1976, p. 880) resonates with Antoinette’s struggle to reclaim her voice and identity against the colonial and patriarchal forces that seek to define her.
The Awakening by Kate Chopin	Challenge to Traditional Narrative Structures: Cixous’s ideas could be applied to critique the traditional narrative structure of The Awakening. The novel’s focus on Edna’s sexual and personal awakening could be seen as an early example of écriture féminine. Cixous’s encouragement for women to reclaim their bodies and desires “by writing herself” (Cixous, 1976, p. 880) aligns with Edna’s journey towards self-discovery and her rejection of societal expectations.
Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf	Fluidity of Female Identity: Cixous’s concept of the multiplicity of female identity could be used to critique the representation of Clarissa Dalloway’s internal experiences. Woolf’s stream-of-consciousness technique can be seen as a precursor to écriture féminine, reflecting the fluid, non-linear nature of women’s thoughts and experiences. “Her writing can only keep going, without ever inscribing or discerning contours” (Cixous, 1976, p. 889) could be applied to Woolf’s narrative style, which resists traditional, linear storytelling.

Criticism Against “The Laugh of the Medusa” by Hélène Cixous

• Essentialism: Critics argue that Cixous’s emphasis on biological differences and the connection between women and their bodies can lead to essentialism, where women are reduced to their physical attributes. This view risks reinforcing stereotypes rather than liberating women from them.
• Exclusivity: Some have criticized Cixous for focusing predominantly on the experiences of white, Western women, potentially marginalizing the voices and experiences of women of color and those from different cultural backgrounds. This critique points to the lack of intersectionality in her work.
• Lack of Practical Application: Cixous’s concept of écriture féminine is seen by some as too abstract and theoretical, lacking clear guidance on how it can be practically implemented in writing or activism. This makes it difficult for writers and feminists to apply her ideas in concrete ways.
• Romanticization of Writing and the Body: Cixous has been criticized for romanticizing the connection between writing and the female body, which some argue may overlook the complexities and challenges women face in expressing themselves in a patriarchal society.
• Obscurity and Accessibility: The dense and poetic style of Cixous’s writing has been critiqued for being difficult to understand, making her ideas less accessible to a broader audience. This could limit the impact of her work, particularly among those who may benefit from it the most.

Suggested Readings: “The Laugh of the Medusa” by Hélène Cixous

1. Cixous, Hélène. “The Laugh of the Medusa.” Signs, vol. 1, no. 4, 1976, pp. 875-893.
   University of Chicago Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3173239
2. Conley, Verena Andermatt. “Hélène Cixous: Writing the Feminine.”
   University of Nebraska Press, 1991.
   https://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/university-of-nebraska-press/9780803291861/.
3. Dick, Susan. “From the Laugh of the Medusa to the Laugh of the Muses: Rewriting Feminist Identity in Margaret Atwood’s Fiction.”
   Canadian Literature, no. 138-139, Autumn 1993, pp. 47-60.
   https://canlit.ca/article/from-the-laugh-of-the-medusa-to-the-laugh-of-the-muses/.
4. Gallop, Jane. “The Daughter’s Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis.”
   Cornell University Press, 1982. https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801491980/the-daughters-seduction/.
5. Jardine, Alice. “Gynesis: Configurations of Woman and Modernity.”
   Cornell University Press, 1985. https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801493250/gynesis.
6. Moi, Toril. “Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist Literary Theory.”
   Routledge, 1985.
   https://www.routledge.com/SexualTextual-Politics-Feminist-Literary-Theory/Moi/p/book/9780415280129
7. Parker, Emma. “The Laugh of the Medusa and Toni Morrison’s Beloved: Rewriting the Language of Slavery and Silence.”
   Feminist Review, vol. 55, no. 1, 1997, pp. 34-56.
   https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/fr.1997.13.
8. Sellers, Susan. “Hélène Cixous: Authorship, Autobiography, and Love.”
   Polity Press, 1996.
   https://www.politybooks.com/bookdetail?book_slug=helene-cixous-authorship-autobiography-and-love–9780745615601
9. Showalter, Elaine. “Feminist Criticism in the Wilderness.”
   The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature, and Theory, edited by Elaine Showalter, Pantheon Books, 1985, pp. 243-270.
   https://archive.org/details/newfeministcriti0000show.
10. Wiegman, Robyn. “The Politics of Feminist Inaction: Critical Feminism, Poststructuralism, and Psychoanalysis.”
    The Yale Journal of Criticism, vol. 7, no. 1, 1994, pp. 1-35.
    https://muse.jhu.edu/article/716984.

Representative Quotations from “The Laugh of the Medusa” by Hélène Cixous with Explanation

Representative Quotation	Explanation
“Woman must write herself: must write about women and bring women to writing, from which they have been driven away as violently as from their bodies—for the same reasons, by the same law, with the same fatal goal.”	Cixous emphasizes that women have been excluded from both writing and their own bodies by patriarchal forces. She calls on women to reclaim these spaces by writing about their experiences and identities, thus resisting and overturning the oppressive structures that have silenced them.
“The future must no longer be determined by the past. I do not deny that the effects of the past are still with us. But I refuse to strengthen them by repeating them.”	Cixous advocates for breaking away from historical patterns that have perpetuated women’s oppression. She urges women to create new futures that are not bound by the injustices of the past, promoting forward-thinking and transformation.
“Write yourself. Your body must be heard. Only then will the immense resources of the unconscious spring forth.”	This quote highlights the importance of writing as a means of expressing the body and accessing the unconscious. Cixous believes that through writing, women can articulate their true selves, which have been suppressed by societal norms. Writing becomes a powerful tool for self-discovery and liberation.
“I write woman: woman must write woman. And man, man.”	Cixous calls for women to take control of their narratives by writing from their own perspectives rather than adhering to male-dominated narratives. This reflects her advocacy for écriture féminine, where women’s writing expresses their unique experiences and identities.
“You only have to look at the Medusa straight on to see her. And she’s not deadly. She’s beautiful and she’s laughing.”	Cixous reinterprets the figure of Medusa, traditionally a symbol of fear and monstrosity, as a positive symbol of female strength and beauty. She challenges patriarchal myths that demonize powerful women, encouraging a new perspective that sees Medusa as a figure of empowerment rather than terror.
“It is time for women to start scoring their feats in written and oral language.”	Cixous emphasizes the need for women to document and celebrate their achievements through writing and speaking. She urges women to claim space in literature and history, areas where their contributions have often been overlooked or erased.
“She must write her self, because this is the invention of a new insurgent writing which, when the moment of her liberation has come, will allow her to carry out the indispensable ruptures and transformations in her history.”	Cixous views writing as a revolutionary act that enables women to disrupt and transform their personal and collective histories. This “insurgent writing” is a tool for liberation, allowing women to redefine themselves outside patriarchal constraints and create new narratives that reflect their true identities.
“The Dark Continent is neither dark nor unexplorable. It is still unexplored only because we’ve been made to believe that it was too dark to be explorable.”	Cixous challenges the patriarchal notion that women (symbolized as the “Dark Continent”) are mysterious and unknowable. She argues that this perception is a construct designed to keep women oppressed and urges women to explore and express their own identities, proving that the “darkness” is a myth perpetuated by those in power.
“By writing herself, woman will return to the body which has been more than confiscated from her, which has been turned into the uncanny stranger on display—the ailing or dead figure, which so often turns out to be the nasty companion, the cause and location of inhibitions.”	Cixous discusses how women’s bodies have been alienated and turned into objects of fear or disgust by patriarchal society. She advocates for women to reclaim their bodies through writing, transforming them from sites of oppression into sources of power and creativity.
“Censor the body and you censor breath and speech at the same time. Write your self. Your body must be heard.”	This quote underscores the connection between the body and expression. Cixous argues that silencing the body leads to the silencing of voice and creativity. Therefore, reclaiming the body through writing is crucial for women to fully express themselves and break free from the constraints of patriarchal society.