Introduction: “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher Marlowe
“The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher Marlowe first appeared in 1599 in a posthumous collection of his poems, although it was likely written several years earlier, during the 1580s or 1590s. This pastoral lyric, one of Marlowe’s most famous works, is characterized by its idealized depiction of rural life and romantic love. The poem presents the voice of a shepherd inviting his beloved to join him in a simple, idyllic life in the countryside, filled with pleasures drawn from nature. The main qualities of the poem include its lyrical simplicity, vivid natural imagery, and a sense of longing for an idealized, carefree existence. The poem’s central idea revolves around the shepherd’s promises of earthly pleasures and a life free from the complexities of urban or courtly existence, appealing to a romantic vision of love and nature.
Text: “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher Marlowe
Come live with me and be my love,
And we will all the pleasures prove,
That Valleys, groves, hills, and fields,
Woods, or steepy mountain yields.
And we will sit upon the Rocks,
Seeing the Shepherds feed their flocks,
By shallow Rivers to whose falls
Melodious birds sing Madrigals.
And I will make thee beds of Roses
And a thousand fragrant posies,
A cap of flowers, and a kirtle
Embroidered all with leaves of Myrtle;
A gown made of the finest wool
Which from our pretty Lambs we pull;
Fair lined slippers for the cold,
With buckles of the purest gold;
A belt of straw and Ivy buds,
With Coral clasps and Amber studs:
And if these pleasures may thee move,
Come live with me, and be my love.
The Shepherds’ Swains shall dance and sing
For thy delight each May-morning:
If these delights thy mind may move,
Then live with me, and be my love.
Annotations: “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher Marlowe
| Line | Detailed Explanation |
| “Come live with me and be my love,” | – Rhetorical Device: Imperative sentence structure is used as a direct invitation, making it persuasive and personal. – Poetic Device: The simplicity of the sentence makes it immediately engaging. – Theme: Introduces the central theme of the poem—romantic love in a pastoral setting. The shepherd is offering love in exchange for companionship. |
| “And we will all the pleasures prove,” | – Alliteration: Repetition of the “p” sound in “pleasures” and “prove” adds a musical quality. – Verb Choice: “Prove” suggests both experiencing and testing pleasures, implying a sense of discovery. – Theme: The line continues the romantic promise, focusing on the pleasures of life that love can bring. |
| “That Valleys, groves, hills, and fields,” | – Imagery: Evokes a rich, detailed picture of natural beauty. Each landscape feature (valleys, groves, hills, fields) represents a different aspect of the natural world. – Polysyndeton: The repeated use of “and” creates a feeling of abundance and vastness. – Theme: Represents the harmony of nature, tying into the idealized view of rural life. |
| “Woods, or steepy mountain yields.” | – Imagery: The “woods” and “steepy mountain” further develop the pastoral landscape. – Adjective: “Steepy” emphasizes the grandeur and ruggedness of the mountain. – Theme: The shepherd offers the vast and varied beauty of nature as part of his romantic vision. |
| “And we will sit upon the Rocks,” | – Symbolism: The rocks may symbolize stability and constancy, suggesting a solid foundation for their relationship. – Imagery: A peaceful image of relaxation, contributing to the tranquil setting. – Theme: The shepherd presents nature as a calm, inviting space for love. |
| “Seeing the Shepherds feed their flocks,” | – Pastoral Imagery: This is a classic pastoral image that idealizes rural life. – Symbolism: Shepherds feeding their flocks could symbolize care and nurturing, possibly reflecting the shepherd’s care for his love. – Theme: Reinforces the pastoral ideal of simplicity, peace, and natural harmony. |
| “By shallow Rivers to whose falls” | – Imagery: Evokes both visual and auditory imagery of a peaceful river, enhancing the idyllic setting. – Assonance: The “a” sound in “shallow” and “falls” adds to the soft, flowing feel of the line. – Theme: Continuation of the peaceful, harmonious nature surrounding the shepherd’s life. |
| “Melodious birds sing Madrigals.” | – Auditory Imagery: The sound of “melodious birds” adds another sensory dimension to the poem. – Literary Reference: A madrigal is a type of song popular in the Renaissance, linking the poem to cultural ideas of beauty and art. – Theme: Nature is personified as singing, which heightens the idealization of the rural world. |
| “And I will make thee beds of Roses” | – Symbolism: Roses symbolize love and beauty, but also fragility, which may hint at the fleeting nature of the pleasures being offered. – Imagery: Visual imagery of the bed of roses suggests comfort and romance. – Theme: Represents the romantic and sensual side of love, offering beauty and pleasure. |
| “And a thousand fragrant posies,” | – Hyperbole: “A thousand” exaggerates the abundance of what he promises, reflecting his passionate desire. – Imagery: Appeals to the sense of smell with “fragrant posies,” further engaging the reader’s senses. – Theme: Enhances the idea of natural abundance and sensual pleasure. |
| “A cap of flowers, and a kirtle” | – Imagery: Describes clothing made from flowers and leaves, suggesting a closeness to nature. – Symbolism: The cap and kirtle (a type of dress) symbolize the simplicity and purity of a life intertwined with the natural world. – Theme: The natural world provides everything, even clothing, emphasizing self-sufficiency. |
| “Embroidered all with leaves of Myrtle;” | – Symbolism: Myrtle is a traditional symbol of love and marriage, deepening the romantic undertone. – Imagery: Adds a decorative, artistic quality to the natural clothing, blending human creativity with nature’s beauty. – Theme: Further idealizes nature’s ability to provide beauty and romance. |
| “A gown made of the finest wool” | – Material Symbolism: Wool symbolizes warmth, comfort, and domesticity. The shepherd offers these practical and loving comforts. – Theme: Presents love not only as idealistic but also as practical and nurturing. |
| “Which from our pretty Lambs we pull;” | – Pastoral Imagery: Continues the pastoral theme with the image of lambs. – Symbolism: The lambs could symbolize innocence and purity, while the action of pulling the wool suggests self-sufficiency. – Theme: The pastoral setting provides both beauty and sustenance, supporting the ideal life the shepherd envisions. |
| “Fair lined slippers for the cold,” | – Imagery: Practical yet thoughtful image of warmth and care. – Symbolism: Slippers represent protection and comfort, which shows the shepherd’s tender care for his beloved. – Theme: Presents love as caring and protective. |
| “With buckles of the purest gold;” | – Contrast: The luxurious image of “gold” contrasts with the simple rural life, adding a touch of extravagance to the shepherd’s otherwise modest offerings. – Symbolism: Gold often symbolizes wealth and value, suggesting that even in their simple life, there can be richness in love. |
| “A belt of straw and Ivy buds,” | – Natural Imagery: The belt of straw and ivy buds continues the motif of nature providing everything. – Symbolism: Ivy is often associated with fidelity and eternity, suggesting a lasting relationship. – Theme: Highlights the simplicity and beauty found in natural things. |
| “With Coral clasps and Amber studs:” | – Symbolism: Coral and amber are precious natural materials, representing both beauty and rarity. – Contrast: Similar to the gold buckles, this adds an element of luxury within the humble pastoral setting. – Theme: Combines the natural world with a sense of luxury and value. |
| “And if these pleasures may thee move,” | – Conditional Phrase: Sets up a rhetorical question, asking if these offerings are enough to entice the beloved. – Theme: The pleasures of life, both practical and sensual, are offered in hopes of winning love. |
| “Come live with me, and be my love.” | – Repetition: Repeats the opening line to reinforce the shepherd’s proposition. – Rhetorical Device: Persuasive repetition to emphasize the sincerity and simplicity of his request. – Theme: Restates the central theme of love and invitation to share a pastoral life. |
| “The Shepherds’ Swains shall dance and sing” | – Pastoral Tradition: The image of shepherds and swains dancing and singing is a staple of the pastoral tradition, symbolizing joy and community. – Auditory Imagery: Suggests a lively, festive atmosphere. – Theme: Presents an idyllic life where even the laborers celebrate love and nature. |
| “For thy delight each May-morning:” | – Symbolism: May symbolizes spring, youth, and renewal, adding to the idealized romantic imagery. – Temporal Imagery: Suggests that this joy and celebration will be constant, recurring each morning in May. – Theme: Love and delight are tied to the rejuvenating powers of nature. |
| “If these delights thy mind may move,” | – Conditional Phrase: Again, the shepherd leaves the choice to the beloved, suggesting an offer rather than a demand. – Rhetorical Device: Persuasive, attempting to move the beloved by emphasizing emotional and physical pleasures. – Theme: Love is presented as an emotional experience tied to the joys of life and nature. |
| “Then live with me, and be my love.” | – Repetition: Closes the poem by repeating the central invitation, reinforcing the shepherd’s hopeful and sincere offer. – Theme: Love is simple, sincere, and intertwined with |
Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher Marlowe
| Device | Example | Explanation |
| Allusion | “Melodious birds sing Madrigals” | Refers to madrigals, a type of Renaissance song, linking the poem to historical musical traditions and adding cultural depth. |
| Anaphora | “And we will…” (repeated in multiple lines) | The repetition of “And we will” at the beginning of several lines emphasizes the shepherd’s promises, creating a rhythmic and persuasive effect. |
| Assonance | “Melodious birds sing Madrigals” | The repetition of vowel sounds in “melodious” and “madrigals” contributes to the musical quality of the line. |
| Consonance | “Rocks, flocks” | The repetition of the “k” sound in “Rocks” and “flocks” adds a harmonious, pleasing effect to the auditory imagery. |
| Conditional Clause | “If these delights thy mind may move” | This conditional phrase expresses the possibility of the beloved being swayed by the shepherd’s promises, adding a speculative tone. |
| End Rhyme | “fields/yields” and “flocks/falls” | The rhyming at the end of lines gives the poem a musical, rhythmic structure, making it more memorable and lyrical. |
| Hyperbole | “A thousand fragrant posies” | Exaggerates the abundance of flowers to emphasize the shepherd’s overwhelming love and the richness of nature. |
| Imagery | “A gown made of the finest wool / Which from our pretty Lambs we pull” | Vivid descriptions appeal to the reader’s senses, helping them visualize the pastoral, idyllic life the shepherd offers. |
| Imperative Mood | “Come live with me and be my love” | The poem opens with a direct command, setting a persuasive tone as the shepherd invites his beloved to share his life. |
| Internal Rhyme | “Melodious birds sing Madrigals” | The rhyme between “birds” and “madrigals” occurs within the same line, creating a flowing, musical effect. |
| Metaphor | “Beds of Roses” | Roses metaphorically represent romantic love and sensual pleasure, suggesting that the shepherd offers more than just physical comfort. |
| Pastoral Imagery | “Valleys, groves, hills, and fields” | The poem is rich with imagery of the countryside, characteristic of pastoral poetry, which idealizes rural life and nature. |
| Personification | “Melodious birds sing Madrigals” | The birds are given the human ability to sing madrigals, enhancing the idyllic, romantic atmosphere of the poem. |
| Polysyndeton | “Valleys, groves, hills, and fields, Woods, or steepy mountain yields” | The repeated use of “and” emphasizes the abundance and diversity of the natural world, making the landscape seem expansive. |
| Refrain | “Come live with me, and be my love” | This line is repeated several times in the poem, emphasizing the shepherd’s central plea and desire for his beloved’s companionship. |
| Repetition | “If these pleasures may thee move, / Come live with me, and be my love” | Repeating “Come live with me, and be my love” strengthens the emotional appeal and the poem’s persuasive tone. |
| Rhetorical Question | “If these delights thy mind may move” | The shepherd rhetorically asks if these promises are enough to persuade his beloved, engaging the reader to consider the answer. |
| Symbolism | “Roses” | Roses symbolize love, beauty, and passion, which the shepherd uses to offer an idealized version of romantic life. |
| Synecdoche | “The Shepherds’ Swains shall dance and sing” | “Swains” refers to young men or shepherds, but here it symbolizes the entire pastoral community and life, emphasizing the social joys of rural life. |
Themes: “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher Marlowe
- The Idealization of Nature: One of the central themes in Marlowe’s poem is the idealization of nature. The shepherd presents nature as an idyllic and perfect setting for love, free from the complexities and hardships of everyday life. He describes a picturesque rural landscape with “Valleys, groves, hills, and fields” (Line 3), emphasizing the abundance and beauty of the natural world. This idealization continues throughout the poem with sensory imagery like “Melodious birds sing Madrigals” (Line 8), suggesting that nature itself harmonizes with the romantic vision he offers. The pastoral setting is romanticized as a place where all pleasures can be experienced, adding to the charm of his invitation.
- Romantic Love: The promise of romantic love is the core theme of the poem. The shepherd’s invitation, “Come live with me and be my love” (Line 1), serves as the opening line, establishing the poem’s focus on love as a central ideal. Throughout the poem, he promises various pleasures to his beloved, offering both material gifts like “beds of Roses” (Line 9) and symbolic gestures of affection, such as “a thousand fragrant posies” (Line 10). His romantic vision is not just about physical beauty but also emotional fulfillment, as he offers a simple yet passionate life in the countryside, hoping to woo his beloved with this idealized version of love.
- The Fleeting Nature of Pleasure: Underlying the poem’s promises of pleasure and abundance is a subtle awareness of the fleeting nature of such pleasures. The references to “beds of Roses” (Line 9) and “a thousand fragrant posies” (Line 10) suggest not only beauty but also the ephemeral nature of flowers, which bloom briefly and wither. While the shepherd offers an idealized, almost eternal vision of love, the transient quality of the natural imagery hints at the impermanence of the pleasures he promises. The reader might question whether these delights will last or if they are merely momentary, reflecting a deeper theme of the impermanence of earthly pleasures.
- Pastoral Simplicity vs. Material Wealth: Marlowe contrasts the simplicity of pastoral life with the allure of material wealth throughout the poem. The shepherd promises gifts made from nature, such as “A gown made of the finest wool” (Line 13) and “A belt of straw and Ivy buds” (Line 17), which highlight the simplicity and self-sufficiency of rural life. Yet, he also offers luxury items like “buckles of the purest gold” (Line 15) and “Coral clasps and Amber studs” (Line 18), which suggest a desire to mix the simplicity of nature with symbols of wealth. This tension between pastoral simplicity and material wealth raises questions about whether the simple life the shepherd promises can truly satisfy the desires of his beloved, or whether it is embellished with luxury to make the offer more appealing.
Literary Theories and “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher Marlowe
| Literary Theory | Explanation | References from the Poem |
| Pastoral Theory | The poem fits into the pastoral tradition, which idealizes rural life and the simplicity of nature. Pastoral literature often contrasts the peaceful countryside with the complexities of urban or courtly life. Marlowe’s shepherd offers an idealized, almost utopian vision of life in nature, free from hardship and full of pleasure. | The shepherd promises a life surrounded by “Valleys, groves, hills, and fields” (Line 3) and “Melodious birds sing Madrigals” (Line 8), emphasizing the beauty and tranquility of rural life. The simplicity and harmony of nature are central to the shepherd’s appeal. |
| Romanticism | This poem can be viewed through the lens of Romanticism, which emphasizes emotion, nature, and individualism. Marlowe’s shepherd appeals to the senses and emotions, promising romantic pleasures and an idealized connection with nature. The poem’s focus on personal love and beauty, and its rejection of societal constraints, reflect Romantic values. | The shepherd’s invitation, “Come live with me and be my love” (Line 1), is filled with emotional appeal, offering not just companionship but also sensory pleasures like “beds of Roses” (Line 9) and “a thousand fragrant posies” (Line 10). These promises reflect Romantic ideals of personal fulfillment and a deep connection with nature. |
| Marxist Criticism | From a Marxist perspective, the poem can be interpreted as a reflection of class dynamics and materialism. While the shepherd presents a life of pastoral simplicity, he also includes symbols of wealth, like “buckles of the purest gold” (Line 15) and “Coral clasps and Amber studs” (Line 18). These elements suggest that even in an idealized rural setting, material wealth is still used to attract the beloved, reflecting economic structures and the importance of material goods. | The juxtaposition of simple, natural gifts, such as “A gown made of the finest wool” (Line 13), with luxury items like “buckles of the purest gold” (Line 15) highlights the tension between rural simplicity and material wealth. This tension can be viewed as a reflection of the class-based economic systems underlying the pastoral fantasy. |
Critical Questions about “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher Marlowe
· Is the shepherd’s vision of love realistic or idealized?
- The shepherd’s portrayal of love is highly idealized, raising the question of whether this romantic vision is grounded in reality or is merely a fantasy. Throughout the poem, the shepherd promises a life filled with simple yet extravagant pleasures, like “beds of Roses” (Line 9) and a “gown made of the finest wool” (Line 13), but these offerings are inherently tied to nature’s beauty and bounty. While the imagery is lush and appealing, it lacks any mention of the practical or difficult aspects of life, such as labor, survival, or emotional complexities in relationships. The simplicity and ease with which he promises these pleasures suggest that the shepherd’s view of love is more of an idealized fantasy than a sustainable reality. The absence of hardship or responsibility leads us to question the depth and truth of his promises.
· How does the poem represent the relationship between nature and love?
- Nature is depicted as not only the setting but also a reflection of love itself in the poem, suggesting a harmonious relationship between the two. The shepherd uses pastoral imagery to appeal to his beloved, offering her a life where they will “all the pleasures prove / That Valleys, groves, hills, and fields, / Woods, or steepy mountain yields” (Lines 2-4). This vision suggests that nature and love are intertwined, with the natural world providing endless delights that mirror the joys of love. The use of natural elements like “Myrtle” (Line 12), “Coral clasps,” and “Amber studs” (Line 18) to decorate the promises of love reinforces the idea that love is as pure and beautiful as the natural world. However, the question remains: is love truly as easy and abundant as nature, or is this connection an overly idealized one?
· What role does materialism play in the shepherd’s promises of love?
- Although the shepherd initially presents a simple, natural life, there are hints of materialism that complicate his vision of pastoral love. In addition to promising natural pleasures, such as “beds of Roses” (Line 9) and “a thousand fragrant posies” (Line 10), the shepherd also includes luxurious items like “buckles of the purest gold” (Line 15) and “Coral clasps and Amber studs” (Line 18). These material offerings suggest that the shepherd understands that even in an idealized pastoral life, material wealth can be persuasive in winning his beloved’s affection. This raises the question of whether the shepherd’s love is truly based on pure emotion and connection or if he feels the need to sweeten his offer with symbols of wealth, reflecting a materialistic undercurrent in his romantic promises.
· How does the poem address the theme of temporality and the fleeting nature of pleasure?
- The imagery in the poem subtly hints at the fleeting nature of the pleasures the shepherd promises, raising the question of whether such a love can last. While the shepherd speaks of “beds of Roses” (Line 9) and “a thousand fragrant posies” (Line 10), these images of flowers suggest impermanence, as they bloom briefly and quickly fade. The transient beauty of these natural elements mirrors the possibility that the pleasures of love may also be short-lived. Even though the shepherd speaks of delighting his beloved “each May-morning” (Line 21), the reference to May suggests that such pleasures are tied to specific moments of time, rather than being enduring. This raises critical questions about whether the love he offers is sustainable or just a fleeting experience tied to the passing beauty of nature.
Literary Works Similar to “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher Marlowe
- “The Nymph’s Reply to the Shepherd” by Sir Walter Raleigh
A direct response to Marlowe’s poem, it challenges the idealized vision of love and nature, presenting a more realistic and skeptical view of the shepherd’s promises. - “To His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell
Like Marlowe’s poem, this work combines romantic and sensual elements, with the speaker urging his beloved to seize the pleasures of love before time runs out. - “A Passionate Shepherdess” by Aphra Behn
This poem mirrors Marlowe’s pastoral themes, but from a female perspective, offering a similar invitation to live and love in a rural idyll. - “The Bait” by John Donne
Donne’s poem also takes inspiration from Marlowe’s idealized pastoral scene but uses it metaphorically, offering love as a lure in the natural world, mixing sensuality with wit. - “Song: To Celia” by Ben Jonson
Like Marlowe’s poem, this work idealizes love and uses nature as a metaphor for romantic fulfillment, drawing on simple, sensory pleasures to express deep affection.
Representative Quotations of “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher Marlowe
| Quotation | Context | Theoretical Perspective |
| “Come live with me and be my love,” | This is the opening line of the poem, where the shepherd invites his beloved to share a life together in the countryside. | Romanticism: The shepherd’s call reflects the Romantic ideal of love, freedom, and escape into nature, seeking emotional fulfillment outside societal constraints. |
| “And we will all the pleasures prove,” | The shepherd promises that they will explore and enjoy all the pleasures that nature offers. | Pastoral Theory: This reflects the pastoral tradition of idealizing nature and presenting it as a source of infinite pleasure and simplicity. |
| “That Valleys, groves, hills, and fields, Woods, or steepy mountain yields.” | The shepherd describes the variety and beauty of the natural world, which he offers to his beloved. | Ecocriticism: This quotation highlights the poem’s connection to the natural environment, reflecting an idealized harmony between humans and nature. |
| “And I will make thee beds of Roses” | The shepherd promises to provide comfort and beauty through a bed of roses, symbolizing romance. | Romantic Idealization: This line represents the romanticization of love and beauty, offering a perfect, yet unrealistic, vision of life. |
| “A cap of flowers, and a kirtle Embroidered all with leaves of Myrtle;” | He offers his beloved simple, natural attire made from flowers and myrtle, symbolizing purity and love. | Pastoral Idealization: Reflects the pastoral tradition of simplicity, where nature is sufficient to fulfill material and emotional needs. |
| “A gown made of the finest wool Which from our pretty Lambs we pull;” | The shepherd offers clothing made from wool, representing a connection to the rural lifestyle. | Marxist Criticism: This line can be interpreted as showing labor in an idealized way, where even the act of creating clothing is romanticized, ignoring the reality of work. |
| “Fair lined slippers for the cold, With buckles of the purest gold;” | The shepherd promises luxurious items like slippers with gold buckles, adding a materialistic touch to his offerings. | Materialism: This reveals the tension between pastoral simplicity and the allure of material wealth, indicating that love may be tied to possessions. |
| “The Shepherds’ Swains shall dance and sing For thy delight each May-morning:” | He promises joyful entertainment and celebrations from other shepherds, reinforcing the idyllic pastoral life. | Social Utopia: This line reflects the ideal of a utopian society, where nature and community provide endless joy and entertainment. |
| “If these delights thy mind may move, Then live with me, and be my love.” | The shepherd’s final appeal, using the pleasures he has described as a persuasive argument for love. | Rhetorical Persuasion: The line uses conditional phrasing to persuade, appealing to the emotional and sensory delights to move the beloved’s heart. |
| “And a thousand fragrant posies” | He promises an abundance of flowers, symbolizing beauty and fertility, as part of his offer of love. | Symbolism and Sensory Appeal: This reflects the idealization of nature’s beauty and abundance, suggesting that love will be equally abundant and sensory. |
Suggested Readings: “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher Marlowe
- Leiter, Louis H. “Deification through Love: Marlowe’s ‘The Passionate Shepherd to His Love.'” College English, vol. 27, no. 6, 1966, pp. 444–49. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/374017. Accessed 20 Oct. 2024.
- Forsythe, R. S. “The Passionate Shepherd; And English Poetry.” PMLA, vol. 40, no. 3, 1925, pp. 692–742. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/457566. Accessed 20 Oct. 2024.
- Cheney, Patrick. “Career Rivalry and the Writing of Counter-Nationhood: Ovid, Spenser, and Philomela in Marlowe’s ‘The Passionate Shepherd to His Love.'” ELH, vol. 65, no. 3, 1998, pp. 523–55. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30030193. Accessed 20 Oct. 2024.
- Hopkins, Lisa. “The Marlowe Canon.” Christopher Marlowe, Renaissance Dramatist, Edinburgh University Press, 2008, pp. 23–50. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g0b0tg.6. Accessed 20 Oct. 2024.
- Ferry, Anne. “Recent Studies in the English Renaissance.” Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 33, no. 1, 1993, pp. 209–48. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/450852. Accessed 20 Oct. 2024.
- Levin, Harry. “Marlowe Today.” The Tulane Drama Review, vol. 8, no. 4, 1964, pp. 22–31. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1124916. Accessed 20 Oct. 2024.