Introduction: “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o
“The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in 2018 in the journal Journal of African Cultural Studies. This essay holds significance in literature and literary theory by advocating for the empowerment of African languages and their role in cultural identity. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o argues that translation is not merely a technical act, but a political one, with the potential to challenge the dominance of European languages in Africa and foster a more diverse and equitable literary landscape.
Summary of “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o
- Language as a Tool of Colonial Domination: Ngũgĩ highlights how colonial powers systematically undermined indigenous African languages by replacing them with European languages. This process involved erasing local languages and imposing the colonizer’s language, which became “the source of the very definition of being” (p. 126). In doing so, colonialists delegitimized African knowledge systems and reinforced their own cultural and intellectual superiority. He draws parallels with other conquests, like the U.S. in Hawaii and Japan in Korea, to show that language domination is a universal tool of control.
- Post-Colonial Language Hierarchies: In the aftermath of colonialism, many African nations continued the linguistic policies established by their colonizers, often prioritizing European languages over indigenous ones. Ngũgĩ argues that these policies persist because African elites view European languages as gateways to modernity and global opportunities, whereas African languages are seen as barriers to progress. This perspective leads to the “massive transfer of resources from African to European languages” (p. 125).
- Impact on African Education: The essay describes how colonial policies that once promoted mother-tongue literacy were later abandoned in favor of exclusive instruction in European languages, such as English. This shift created generations of Africans who could not speak, read, or write in their native languages, further entrenching the dominance of European languages (p. 126). Ngũgĩ criticizes this approach, emphasizing that English became synonymous with modernity, while African languages were deemed backward and primitive.
- Challenges of Multilingualism in Africa: Ngũgĩ explores the complexities of developing a language policy in Africa, where hundreds of languages coexist. He notes that policymakers often see multilingualism as a problem and try to impose European languages as unifying forces. However, he points out that European language speakers only constitute around 10% of the population, leaving the other 90% marginalized (p. 125). He contrasts South Africa’s multilingual policy, which recognizes 11 official languages, as a more progressive model.
- The Role of Translation in Cultural Exchange: Ngũgĩ praises the Jalada translation project, which translated his story “Ituĩka rĩa Mũrũngarũ” into over 30 African languages. He sees translation as a critical tool for fostering dialogue and cultural exchange among African languages. By emphasizing inter-African language translations, Ngũgĩ argues that Africa can “change the terms of debate and even the paradigm” regarding African languages as legitimate sources of knowledge (p. 129).
- Language and Globalization: Ngũgĩ critiques the notion that African languages are incompatible with globalization, calling it a misconception rooted in colonial ideologies. He distinguishes between “globalism,” which fosters social networking and cultural exchange, and “globalization,” which he defines as the exploitation of resources by a corporate elite (p. 126). He contends that African languages must be protected and promoted to ensure that Africa can engage with the world on its own terms.
- Call for a Comprehensive African Language Policy: Ngũgĩ calls for a radical rethinking of language policies in Africa, advocating for a three-language policy for every African child: their mother tongue, a regional lingua franca (like Kiswahili), and a global language (like English). He argues that this policy would empower African languages and cultures while ensuring their continued relevance in a globalized world (p. 130).
- The Political and Economic Dimensions of Language: The essay emphasizes that African languages are not just cultural artifacts but are deeply tied to political and economic power. Ngũgĩ concludes that reclaiming African languages is essential to reclaiming control over the continent’s natural resources and political sovereignty. “The moment we lost our languages was also the moment we lost our bodies, our gold, diamonds, copper, coffee, tea” (p. 130).
Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o
| Term | Definition (in the context of the essay) | Example |
| Language Policy | A set of guidelines or principles established by a government to promote and develop languages within a nation. | Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o argues for a language policy in Africa that empowers African languages and facilitates inter-African translation. |
| Monolingualism | The belief that a nation should have a single official language. | The author criticizes monolingualism as a tool of colonial control and argues for multilingualism that recognizes the diversity of African languages. |
| Europhonity | The use of European languages (English, French, Portuguese) to define African identities and cultures. | Ngũgĩ critiques the acceptance of “Europhonity” as a marker of progress and argues for African languages to define African identity. |
| Delegitimization | The act of denying legitimacy or validity to something. | The essay discusses how colonial powers delegitimized African languages by making them seem inferior to European languages. |
| Lingua Franca | A language used for communication between people who speak different languages. | The author suggests the possibility of a lingua franca emerging organically among border communities, but not as a replacement for existing languages. |
| Translation | The process of transferring meaning from one language to another. | Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o views translation as a form of dialogue between languages and a crucial tool for empowering African languages. |
| Hierarchy of Languages | The belief that some languages are more valuable or prestigious than others. | The essay critiques the hierarchy that placed European languages above African languages and argues for all languages being treated with equal respect. |
| Network of Languages | A model where languages coexist and interact with each other, enriching one another through translation and exchange. | Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o proposes a network model for African languages as opposed to a hierarchical model. |
| Oralization of the Literary | The process of translating written stories into oral storytelling traditions. | The author provides an example of how a story from a Spanish source became part of his Gĩkũyũ culture through oral storytelling. |
Contribution of “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories
· Rejection of Linguistic Hierarchies: Ngũgĩ challenges the hierarchy that places European languages at the top and African languages at the bottom, asserting that all languages have equal value. He critiques the colonial and post-colonial imposition of European languages as the “language of power” in Africa, arguing that this hierarchy is artificial and based on power dynamics rather than inherent linguistic value. This critique aligns with postcolonial literary theory, which seeks to dismantle the cultural and linguistic dominance of the colonizer.
- “The language of power is a dictatorship of the monolingual on a plurality of languages and it negates the human right to one’s language” (p. 126).
· Language as a Site of Power and Resistance: Ngũgĩ emphasizes the role of language in colonial domination and postcolonial resistance, showing how the suppression of African languages was a deliberate strategy to control not only the physical resources but also the cultural and intellectual identity of colonized peoples. This view contributes to postcolonial theory by highlighting language as a key battleground in the fight for cultural sovereignty.
- “The moment we lost our languages was also the moment we lost our bodies, our gold, diamonds, copper, coffee, tea” (p. 130).
· Translation as Decolonization: Ngũgĩ advocates for translation between African languages as a method of resisting the dominance of European languages. He argues that translation should not merely be from European languages into African ones, but rather among African languages, thereby promoting the exchange of ideas within the continent. This approach reframes translation theory by positioning it as a tool for decolonization rather than a method of cultural assimilation.
- “The Jalada translation project… emphasizes inter-African language translations… that African languages have been and still are legitimate sources of knowledge” (p. 129).
· Globalization vs. Globalism in Literature: Ngũgĩ distinguishes between globalization and globalism, arguing that while globalization is driven by corporate interests and the exploitation of resources, globalism represents a more equitable cultural exchange. His work contributes to literary theory by calling for a more inclusive form of globalism, where African languages and literatures can engage with global narratives on equal footing.
- “Globalization is really ‘gobblization’ of other people’s resources by a greedy corporate elite… Globalism is a form of social networking of peoples across race, regions, and religions” (p. 126).
· Multilingualism as a Literary Ideal: Ngũgĩ advocates for a multilingual literary world, where African languages are used alongside European languages in literature and other cultural productions. His vision of multilingualism challenges monolingualism and promotes a literary theory that embraces diversity in linguistic expression, thus contributing to theories of world literature.
- “In reality, there are very few, if any, monolingual nations in the world… A language of power assumes that for it to be, other languages must cease to be” (p. 127).
· Cultural and Intellectual Sovereignty through Language: Ngũgĩ calls for the reclaiming of African languages as a means of achieving cultural and intellectual sovereignty. This aligns with theories of cultural nationalism, which emphasize the importance of indigenous languages and cultures in resisting neocolonial domination. He argues that African languages should not be viewed as inferior but as legitimate vehicles for philosophical and intellectual discourse.
- “Thought can originate in any African language and spread to other African languages and to all the other languages of the world” (p. 129).
· Reimagining African Literary Canons: Ngũgĩ proposes that African languages should be central to the African literary canon, challenging the dominance of European-language literature in Africa. This reimagining of the African literary canon contributes to postcolonial literary theory by advocating for the recognition and valorization of African language literatures.
- “African languages have been and still are legitimate sources of knowledge; that thought can originate in any African language and spread to other African languages and to all the other languages of the world” (p. 129).
· Language as a Foundation for African Identity: Ngũgĩ views language as fundamental to the construction of identity and nationhood. He critiques the way African nations have adopted European languages as national languages, arguing that this weakens the sense of African identity. His work contributes to identity theory by framing language as central to self-definition and cultural belonging.
- “African people now accept Europhonity to define their countries and who they are: Francophone, Anglophone or Lusophone” (p. 125).
· Translation as a Network of Equal Languages: Ngũgĩ’s idea of translation between African languages as a form of networking without a hierarchical structure contributes to translation theory by offering a model where all languages are treated as equals. He contrasts this with the dominant model of translation, where European languages are seen as superior and African languages as inferior.
- “The lingua franca helps facilitate the give and take of a network of languages. It does not replace them” (p. 127).
· Language Policy as Cultural Resistance: Finally, Ngũgĩ calls for the development of language policies that empower African languages and cultures. This contribution to political literary theory emphasizes that language policy is not just a technical issue but a form of cultural resistance against neocolonial structures. He urges African governments to support the use of African languages in education, governance, and literature.
- “There have to be positive government policies with the political will and financial muscle behind the policies” (p. 129).
Examples of Critiques Through “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o
| Literary Work | Critique Based on “The Politics of Translation” |
| Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart | Achebe’s novel, while groundbreaking for its portrayal of Igbo culture, could be critiqued for its use of English as the primary language of narration. This reinforces the colonial legacy of English as a dominant language, even in works that aim to celebrate African cultures. |
| Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s own works, such as A Grain of Wheat | While Ngũgĩ’s works are often praised for their political and social commentary, they can also be analyzed in terms of their language choices. For example, his use of English in A Grain of Wheat might be seen as a strategic decision to reach a wider audience, but it also raises questions about the politics of language in his own writing. |
| Translations of African literature into European languages | Translations of African literature into European languages can be critiqued for their potential to erase or distort the original cultural context. The translator’s choices, influenced by their own cultural background and linguistic norms, can shape the way readers in the target language understand the work. |
| Literary works that reinforce stereotypes or colonial narratives | Literary works that perpetuate stereotypes about African cultures or reinforce colonial narratives can be critiqued for their role in delegitimizing African languages and cultures. These works often rely on European languages and perspectives to tell African stories, reinforcing a sense of cultural inferiority. |
Criticism Against “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o
· Idealism in the Promotion of African Languages: One criticism could be that Ngũgĩ’s advocacy for the promotion of African languages in national policies and education systems is overly idealistic, given the practical challenges of implementing such policies in multilingual nations. While his call for mother-tongue education and translation between African languages is commendable, critics might argue that he underestimates the logistical and financial challenges of promoting hundreds of African languages in formal settings.
- Practicality of implementation: In countries where there are hundreds of languages, managing resources for each one equally can be seen as overwhelming for governments that already struggle with limited budgets for education and infrastructure. As Ngũgĩ himself notes, “Hundreds of languages also mean there are hundreds of communities… [this] confronts policy-makers as a nightmare” (p. 125). Critics might argue that he does not offer a detailed, feasible strategy to address this “nightmare.”
· Overemphasis on Language as the Primary Tool of Liberation: Ngũgĩ emphasizes language as central to cultural and political liberation, but critics might argue that he places too much importance on linguistic decolonization while underplaying other socio-economic and political factors that are crucial for African development. While language is undoubtedly important, other pressing issues like poverty, governance, and infrastructure development might require more immediate attention.
- Single-factor approach: By focusing predominantly on language, Ngũgĩ’s framework could be seen as a “single-factor” approach, where language is portrayed as the ultimate path to liberation, potentially sidelining other critical areas of societal development. As he states, “The moment we lost our languages was also the moment we lost our bodies, our gold, diamonds, copper, coffee, tea” (p. 130), which could be interpreted as oversimplifying the complexities of colonialism and exploitation.
· Insufficient Acknowledgment of the Role of European Languages: Some critics may point out that Ngũgĩ’s critique of European languages is too rigid and does not adequately acknowledge their role in facilitating pan-African communication, intellectual exchange, and global engagement. In many African nations, European languages have become a unifying medium in multilingual societies, and critics might argue that dismissing them entirely could limit opportunities for Africans to participate in global discourse.
- Benefits of European languages: While Ngũgĩ critiques European languages as tools of domination, critics might argue that these languages have also allowed African scholars, writers, and policymakers to engage with global audiences. As he admits, “European languages are seen as coming to the rescue of a cohesive Africa” (p. 126), yet he does not fully acknowledge that these languages have allowed for international advocacy, collaboration, and intellectual exchange.
· Undermining the Role of Bilingualism and Code-Switching: Ngũgĩ advocates for a language policy centered on African languages, but critics might argue that he overlooks the linguistic realities of many Africans, who often practice bilingualism or code-switching. Rather than advocating for the replacement of European languages with African languages, critics might argue for a more nuanced approach that embraces linguistic hybridity, where both African and European languages coexist and complement each other.
- Bilingualism as a strength: Critics might contend that bilingualism is a powerful tool for Africans, allowing them to navigate both local and global contexts. Rather than framing European languages as entirely negative, a more balanced view might recognize the value of multilingualism that includes both African and European languages.
· Romanticizing Pre-Colonial Linguistic Unity: Some critics might accuse Ngũgĩ of romanticizing pre-colonial linguistic unity or cohesion, suggesting that African languages were always in harmony before colonial interference. Critics might argue that even before colonialism, there were linguistic tensions and hierarchies within African societies, and that Ngũgĩ’s vision of a pan-African linguistic network may overlook historical complexities and conflicts between ethnic and linguistic groups.
- Pre-colonial language dynamics: Ngũgĩ suggests that African languages existed in “networking” relationships, but critics may challenge this notion by pointing to pre-colonial examples where certain languages and ethnic groups were dominant or privileged over others, indicating that linguistic hierarchies and conflicts existed long before European colonization.
· Lack of Attention to Technological and Globalization Realities: Ngũgĩ’s essay does not fully address the role of modern technology, the internet, and global media in shaping language use in contemporary Africa. Critics might argue that his focus on traditional language policies does not adequately account for the rapid changes brought about by digital communication, social media, and globalization, which often favor European languages. The globalized world, where English and French are dominant in digital platforms, may pose challenges that his language policy proposals do not fully tackle.
- Global digital landscape: As global communication increasingly takes place online in European languages, critics might question how African languages can compete in these spaces. Ngũgĩ briefly touches on globalization, stating that “African languages seem to stand in the way of the elite receiving their share of ‘global goodies’” (p. 126), but critics might argue that his solutions do not adequately address the dominance of European languages in the global digital economy.
· Over-reliance on Government Intervention: Ngũgĩ places significant emphasis on the role of government policy in reviving and promoting African languages, but critics might argue that relying on state-driven language policies may not be the most effective approach. In many African countries, governments are burdened with political and economic challenges, and expecting them to prioritize language policies might not be realistic.
- Governmental limitations: Ngũgĩ calls for “positive government policies with the political will and financial muscle behind the policies” (p. 129), but critics might point out that in many African nations, governments are often unable to effectively implement such policies due to corruption, political instability, or lack of resources. They might argue that civil society, grassroots organizations, and private initiatives could play a more immediate and impactful role in promoting African languages.
· Limited Recognition of the Role of Popular Culture: Ngũgĩ’s essay focuses on formal language policies and education systems, but critics might argue that he does not give enough attention to the role of popular culture, such as music, film, and social media, in shaping language use in Africa. These cultural spaces often blend African and European languages and are powerful platforms for promoting African languages outside formal structures.
- Popular culture as a force for language preservation: Critics could argue that informal spaces like music and entertainment can play a significant role in revitalizing African languages. The widespread use of African languages in contemporary African music and film industries, for instance, represents an organic way in which languages are kept alive and influential.
· Limited Attention to Regional Lingua Francas: While Ngũgĩ emphasizes the promotion of African languages, critics might argue that he does not give enough attention to the role of regional African lingua francas like Kiswahili or Hausa, which have already facilitated communication across linguistic borders in many parts of Africa. Rather than focusing on promoting every individual African language, critics might argue for the elevation of regional lingua francas to bridge linguistic divides.
- Focus on regional languages: Critics might contend that more emphasis on regional African languages could be more practical and effective than attempting to promote every African language. Kiswahili, for example, already serves as a lingua franca for millions of people in East Africa, providing a model for how African languages can foster unity across diverse linguistic communities.
Representative Quotations from “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “When two armies fight, they protect their own base, while they try to destabilize and even capture their opponent’s.” | This metaphor highlights the importance of preserving one’s cultural and linguistic identity in the face of external pressures. |
| “The idea was to deny them the authority of naming self and the world, to delegitimize the history and the knowledge they already possessed, delegitimize their own language as a credible source of knowledge and definition of the world, so that the conqueror’s language can become the source of the very definition of being.” | This passage describes the colonial strategy of suppressing indigenous languages and cultures to impose European dominance. |
| “It was done with the enslaved. African languages and names were banned in the plantations; and later in the continent as a whole, so much so that that African people now accept Europhonity to define their countries and who they are: Francophone, Anglophone or Lusophone.” | This quote illustrates how colonialism has had a lasting impact on African societies, shaping their linguistic identities and cultural norms. |
| “The security of one’s base, even when two armies are cooperating to achieve a jointly held tactical or strategic end against a third, is necessary.” | This statement emphasizes that cultural and linguistic preservation is essential, even in situations of collaboration or cooperation. |
| “Some of course may want to argue that it is easier to do so as South Africa has only 11 languages to contend with, but what about other African countries where they have many more languages? Hundreds even? But hundreds of languages also mean there are hundreds of communities that use them, and these communities constitute the geographic nation!” | This quote challenges the notion that multilingualism is a hindrance to national unity and argues that it can be a source of strength and diversity. |
| “In an article he recently published in the Jalada of 15 September 2015 under the title ‘Writing in African Languages: A question for our times’, Mũkoma wa Ngũgi tells hilarious stories of African students in Kenya laughing outright at one another for ‘shrubbing’ English.” | This anecdote highlights the internalized linguistic prejudice that exists within African societies, where fluency in English is often seen as a sign of superiority. |
| “The sub-text is that African languages are inherently incapable of relating to each other, but ironically they each can relate to English, especially when Anglophone writing dives into them for a proverb or two to spice their literary offering to a europhone modernity of monolingualism.” | This passage critiques the view that African languages are incompatible with each other, while English is seen as a unifying language, despite its colonial history. |
| “Translation – a kind of dialogue or conversation among languages – is another challenge to the orthodoxy.” | This quote suggests that translation can play a crucial role in challenging the dominance of European languages and fostering dialogue among African languages. |
| “The cruel genius of colonialism was to turn normality into abnormality and then make the colonized accept the abnormality as the real norm … The moment we lost our languages was also the moment we lost our bodies, our gold, diamonds, copper, coffee, tea.” | This powerful statement captures the interconnectedness between language, culture, and economic exploitation under colonialism. |
| “So our language policies and actions should empower Africa by making Africans own their resources from languages – making dreams with our languages – to other natural resources – making things with them, consuming some, exchanging some.” | This concluding statement emphasizes the importance of language policies that empower African languages and enable Africans to reclaim their cultural and economic sovereignty. |
Suggested Readings: “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o
Books:
- Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. James Currey, 1986.
- Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o. Globalectics: Theory and the Politics of Knowing. Columbia University Press, 2012. https://cup.columbia.edu/book/globalectics/9780231159517
- Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o. Something Torn and New: An African Renaissance. Basic Civitas Books, 2009. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/133843/something-torn-and-new-by-ngugi-wa-thiongo/
Websites:
- Jalada Africa. “The Jalada Translation Issue: Featuring Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o.” Jalada Africa, 2016. https://jaladaafrica.org/the-jalada-translation-issue/
- Wa Thiong’o, Ngũgĩ. “Secure the Base: Decolonizing the Language of Africa.” Africa is a Country, 2016. https://africasacountry.com/2016/06/secure-the-base-decolonizing-the-language-of-africa
- Harrow, Kenneth. “Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o’s Globalectics.” Postcolonial Studies at Emory, 2012.
http://postcolonialstudies.emory.edu/ngugi-wa-thiongos-globalectics/