Introduction: “The Twilight of Certitudes: Secularism, Hindu Nationalism, and Other Masks of Deculturation” by Ashis Nandy
“The Twilight of Certitudes: Secularism, Hindu Nationalism, and Other Masks of Deculturation” by Ashis Nandy first appeared in Alternatives: Global, Local, Political (Vol. 22, No. 2, Apr.–June 1997, pp. 157–176), published by Sage Publications. This pivotal work critiques the interplay between secularism, Hindu nationalism, and modernist ideologies that reshape traditional cultural frameworks in South Asia, particularly India. Nandy argues that secularism and Hindu nationalism, while seemingly oppositional, are “disowned doubles of each other,” sharing roots in modernity’s project to recast traditional cultural and religious systems into tools of state ideology. The article explores how Hindu nationalism transforms Hinduism into a nationalistic creed, stripping it of its spiritual essence, and how secularism, initially a balancing principle in non-modern societies, degenerates into an exclusionary ideology in modern contexts. Nandy provocatively asserts that both constructs facilitate “deculturation,” alienating individuals from indigenous modes of intercommunal coexistence. He illustrates these dynamics through examples of communal violence, where secularized, instrumentalized religion becomes a political weapon, contrasting sharply with localized traditions of tolerance and coexistence. The work challenges readers to rethink modernity’s role in communal conflict and its implications for democracy and cultural resilience, positioning it as a cornerstone in discussions of postcolonial identity and literary theory.
Summary of “The Twilight of Certitudes: Secularism, Hindu Nationalism, and Other Masks of Deculturation” by Ashis Nandy
Secularism as a Modern Paradox
- Secularism thrives in non-secular societies: Nandy argues that secularism functions effectively only in predominantly non-secular societies. When a society becomes secularized, it triggers existential anxieties among individuals, leading to a search for ideological substitutes for faiths (Nandy, 1997, p. 158).
- Secularism’s role shifts with modernization: In pre-modern Indian public life, secularism balanced traditional religious beliefs. However, as secularization progresses, it is increasingly seen as eroding public morality (Nandy, 1997, p. 159).
Hindu Nationalism as a Modernist Ideology
- Hindu nationalism is not rooted in traditional Hinduism: Nandy posits that Hindutva represents a modernist retooling of Hinduism into a nationalist ideology, catering to the nation-state framework (Nandy, 1997, p. 159).
- Contradiction between Hindutva and Hinduism: Hindutva, championed by urban, modernizing elites, contrasts sharply with everyday Hinduism, which is rooted in decentralized and diverse practices (Nandy, 1997, p. 171).
- The influence of Westernized elites: Hindutva derives much of its appeal from middle-class anxieties, fueled by Westernized ideologies and a desire for cultural and political dominance (Nandy, 1997, p. 172).
Communal Violence as a Secularized Phenomenon
- Organized and instrumental violence: Nandy critiques the modern secular state for its role in facilitating communal violence, which is often orchestrated for political purposes rather than religious zeal (Nandy, 1997, p. 159-160).
- Professionalization of violence: Communal riots are depicted as carefully planned events by political actors to achieve strategic objectives, reflecting the “rationality” of violence in modernity (Nandy, 1997, p. 160).
The Collapse of Secularism
- Erosion of traditional tolerance: The author argues that the secularist project has undermined traditional forms of interfaith coexistence, replacing them with rigid, Western-style ideologies of religion and secularism (Nandy, 1997, p. 163).
- Secularism as a statist tool: Institutionalized secularism aligns with the interests of the state, enabling it to exert control over citizens while marginalizing traditional codes of tolerance (Nandy, 1997, p. 165).
Resistance to Secularism
- Villages as bastions of resilience: Rural communities often resist communal violence and the massification of identities, reflecting the continued vitality of traditional Hindu practices (Nandy, 1997, p. 161).
- The irony of urban secularism: Urban elites uphold secularism to affirm their own modernity, often at the expense of genuine engagement with the realities of religion and communal life (Nandy, 1997, p. 164).
The Fear of Religion
- Secularism’s fear of the masses: Nandy critiques secularism for its inherent elitism and its fear of the democratic empowerment of the religious majority (Nandy, 1997, p. 166).
- Religion as a marker of the dispossessed: The secularist fear of religion stems from its association with the rural poor, whom modern India struggles to integrate into its vision of progress (Nandy, 1997, p. 169).
Hindutva’s Implications for Hinduism
- A threat to Hinduism: Hindutva, according to Nandy, represents a rupture from Hinduism’s pluralistic and fluid traditions, transforming it into a monolithic, mass-cultural ideology (Nandy, 1997, p. 171).
- Potential resilience of Hinduism: Despite Hindutva’s rise, traditional Hinduism retains the capacity to absorb and neutralize such extremist ideologies over time (Nandy, 1997, p. 172).
Concluding Reflections
- Secularism as a contested ideology: Nandy suggests that secularism, in its current statist and ethnocidal form, fails to address the complexities of South Asian society and often exacerbates communal tensions (Nandy, 1997, p. 173).
- Path forward through local traditions: The author advocates a return to indigenous forms of religious tolerance and decentralized cultural practices as alternatives to the failures of both secularism and Hindutva (Nandy, 1997, p. 176).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “The Twilight of Certitudes: Secularism, Hindu Nationalism, and Other Masks of Deculturation” by Ashis Nandy
| Concept/Term | Definition/Explanation | Key Insights from the Article |
| Secularism | A modern ideology advocating the separation of religion from public and political life. | Secularism thrives in non-secular societies but loses relevance in secularized ones, becoming a statist and elitist tool rather than a true force for tolerance (p. 158-159). |
| Hindutva | An ideological construct transforming Hinduism into a monolithic and nationalist identity to serve the modern nation-state. | Hindutva is disconnected from traditional Hinduism and represents a modernist response to anxieties of urban, middle-class elites (p. 171-172). |
| Deculturation | The process through which traditional cultural forms and identities are replaced or diminished by modern, homogenized ideologies. | Modernization and secularization have led to the erosion of traditional religious tolerance and community practices (p. 163). |
| Ethnocide | The systematic destruction of cultural identities and practices. | Secularism’s push for uniformity undermines indigenous practices of tolerance, making it complicit in cultural erasure (p. 165). |
| Massification | The homogenization of individuals into an undifferentiated mass, often driven by modern, urban-industrial ideologies. | Massification fosters conditions for extremist ideologies like Hindutva, eroding localized, community-based identities (p. 161). |
| Religious Tolerance | Traditional South Asian approaches to coexistence, grounded in cultural pluralism and fluidity. | Traditional tolerance is distinct from secularism and remains resilient in rural and semi-urban settings (p. 161-162). |
| Instrumentalization of Religion | The use of religious symbols and identities for political gain, often in ways that detach them from their intrinsic spiritual meanings. | Both Hindutva and secularist ideologies manipulate religion for political purposes, sidelining its sacred and cultural aspects (p. 159-160). |
| Statism | The reliance on the coercive power of the state to enforce ideologies or maintain social order. | Secularism in India is closely tied to the state and often used to control or marginalize non-secular practices (p. 165-166). |
| Pathology of Rationality | The overemphasis on rational, bureaucratic frameworks, often at the expense of emotional and cultural understanding. | Modern communal violence reflects rational, organized planning rather than spontaneous, emotional religious fervor (p. 160). |
| Cultural Dispossession | The alienation experienced by individuals uprooted from traditional cultural frameworks. | Hindutva’s appeal lies in addressing the anxieties of the culturally dispossessed, particularly the urban middle class (p. 172). |
| Pseudo-Secularism | A term used by Hindutva proponents to critique mainstream secularism as biased or opportunistic. | Hindutva critiques secularism as hypocritical, but it mirrors its instrumental and statist characteristics (p. 165-166). |
| Ethnic Nationalism | The creation of a national identity centered on a single ethnic or religious group, often at the expense of diversity. | Hindutva represents an ethnic nationalism that marginalizes religious and cultural minorities (p. 171). |
| Crisis of Modernity | The inability of modern ideologies and systems to provide meaning and coherence in increasingly secularized and industrialized societies. | The rise of Hindutva and communal violence reflects a broader crisis of identity and alienation in modern India (p. 158). |
| Religious Syncretism | The blending of different religious traditions and practices into a shared cultural framework. | Nandy highlights that traditional Indian society was built on syncretism, which secularism has disrupted by enforcing rigid ideological categories (p. 169). |
Contribution of “The Twilight of Certitudes: Secularism, Hindu Nationalism, and Other Masks of Deculturation” by Ashis Nandy to Literary Theory/Theories
- Critique of Modernity’s Colonial Legacy:
Nandy critiques secularism and nationalism as modernist ideologies rooted in colonial frameworks, revealing their role in deculturation and cultural erasure (p. 162).
“Secularism was introduced to subvert and discredit traditional interreligious understanding and tolerance,” showcasing its ethnocidal tendencies (p. 163). - Resistance to Cultural Homogenization:
The text challenges the homogenizing tendencies of colonial and modern ideologies, advocating for indigenous pluralistic frameworks (p. 169).
- Analysis of Cultural Deculturation:
Nandy’s concept of deculturation aligns with cultural studies by exposing how global modernity marginalizes traditional cultural forms and pluralistic practices (p. 158).
“Mass politics demands accessible political idioms,” but modern secularism alienates the masses by dismissing traditional, localized idioms (p. 170). - Critique of Massification:
Massification erodes diverse cultural expressions, creating the conditions for extremist ideologies like Hindutva (p. 161).
3. Political Literary Theory
- Intersection of Ideology and Cultural Representation:
Nandy identifies secularism and Hindutva as ideological constructs instrumentalized for political purposes, emphasizing their cultural and narrative framing (p. 159).
“Religious and ethnic violence reflects not irrationality but the pathology of rationality,” critiquing their organized, bureaucratic nature (p. 160). - State Power and Literary Imaginaries:
The text critiques the statist nature of modern secularism and its impact on cultural narratives, linking state authority to the construction of dominant ideologies (p. 165).
4. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory
- Pathology of Rationality:
Nandy explores the psychological underpinnings of modern ideologies, identifying Hindutva as a product of cultural displacement and deculturation (p. 171).
“Hindutva is rooted in the rage of Indians who have decultured themselves, seduced by the promises of modernity” (p. 172). - Projection and Othering:
The demonization of minorities in Hindutva reflects psychological projection, where unacceptable aspects of the self are attributed to the “other” (p. 172).
- Destabilization of Secularism as a Universal Truth:
By deconstructing secularism, Nandy reveals its contextual and contingent nature, undermining its claim to universal validity (p. 164).
“Secularism in South Asia is rooted in the fear of religion, itself a modern construct alien to traditional societies” (p. 167). - Critique of Meta-Narratives:
The article critiques the meta-narratives of progress and secularization, exposing their failure to address communal violence and cultural alienation (p. 158).
- Instrumental Rationality and Cultural Violence:
Drawing parallels with Adorno and Horkheimer, Nandy critiques the instrumentalization of religion by secularism and Hindutva, emphasizing their statist and bureaucratic underpinnings (p. 165).
“Religious riots are being secularized, organized like political rallies, reflecting the instrumentalization of violence” (p. 160). - Ethnocide and Cultural Marginalization:
Nandy’s concept of ethnocide highlights the cultural erasure perpetuated by modern ideologies, aligning with critical theory’s critique of systemic domination (p. 163).
- Defense of Traditional Pluralistic Practices:
The article valorizes subaltern traditions of tolerance and syncretism, positioning them as alternatives to hegemonic modern ideologies (p. 161).
“Traditional codes of tolerance matter more at the ground level during communal violence, even as elites enforce secularism” (p. 169). - Subaltern Resistance to Modernity:
Nandy highlights how rural and marginalized communities resist the massification and homogenization imposed by Hindutva and secularism (p. 161).
Examples of Critiques Through “The Twilight of Certitudes: Secularism, Hindu Nationalism, and Other Masks of Deculturation” by Ashis Nandy
| Literary Work | Themes in the Work | Critique Through Nandy’s Framework | Reference to Nandy’s Ideas |
| “The God of Small Things” by Arundhati Roy | Caste, religion, and societal hypocrisy | Using Nandy’s insights, the work’s depiction of caste and religion can be analyzed as reflecting the tension between traditional values and modern secular ideologies that alienate communities. | “Secularism often marginalizes vernacular, local traditions, reducing religion to a political tool” (p. 165). |
| “A Suitable Boy” by Vikram Seth | Interfaith relationships, communal tensions, and societal norms | Nandy’s critique of the massification of modern politics resonates with Seth’s depiction of communal tensions, showing the state’s role in homogenizing religious identities. | “Communal violence is organized and bureaucratized, reflecting the pathology of rationalized politics” (p. 160). |
| “Train to Pakistan” by Khushwant Singh | Partition violence, religious identity, and human resilience | Nandy’s argument that modern ideologies exacerbate communal divisions deepens the analysis of how Partition violence stems from modern constructs rather than precolonial traditions. | “Traditional codes of tolerance were displaced by the colonial classification of communities into rigid categories” (p. 164). |
| “Untouchable” by Mulk Raj Anand | Caste oppression, identity, and societal exclusion | Anand’s portrayal of caste dynamics can be critiqued through Nandy’s view that modernity reshapes caste and religion into rigid structures for political control, losing their organic roots. | “Secular ideologies suppress the organic and fluid interconnections of traditional society” (p. 168). |
Criticism Against “The Twilight of Certitudes: Secularism, Hindu Nationalism, and Other Masks of Deculturation” by Ashis Nandy
- Ambiguity in Conceptual Definitions
Nandy’s critical framework often blends categories such as secularism, nationalism, and religion without providing clearly delineated definitions, which can lead to interpretive ambiguities for readers attempting to apply his theories. - Overgeneralization of Traditional Tolerance
Critics argue that Nandy romanticizes traditional inter-community tolerance in precolonial India, downplaying the instances of historical conflicts and systemic inequalities that existed outside modern secularist frameworks. - Dismissal of Secularism’s Achievements
While critiquing the failures of secularism, Nandy is seen as underestimating its role in promoting minority rights and preventing majoritarian dominance in modern democratic settings, particularly in a complex polity like India. - Idealization of Nonmodern Societies
Nandy’s advocacy for vernacular, informal societal norms is criticized for being overly idealistic, as these traditions often perpetuate regressive practices like caste and gender hierarchies. - Insufficient Engagement with Secularism as a Global Concept
Nandy’s analysis focuses heavily on Indian secularism and communal politics, offering limited engagement with how secularism has evolved and been applied successfully in other global contexts. - Lack of Practical Solutions
While Nandy critiques the ideological constructs of secularism and nationalism, his work provides few actionable insights or frameworks for addressing the communal and ethnic violence he decries. - Selective Interpretation of Hindu Nationalism
Some critics argue that Nandy’s depiction of Hindu nationalism as a modernist creed rooted in Westernized ideology overlooks the grassroots, cultural, and historical dimensions of the movement. - Dismissal of Rationality as Pathology
Nandy’s framing of modern rationality as a “pathology” is seen as polarizing, especially by scholars who advocate for balanced integration of rational modern governance with traditional values. - Neglect of Economic Dimensions
The analysis prioritizes cultural and ideological critique but gives limited attention to economic inequalities and structural factors that exacerbate communal violence and identity politics.
Representative Quotations from “The Twilight of Certitudes: Secularism, Hindu Nationalism, and Other Masks of Deculturation” by Ashis Nandy with Explanation
1. “Secularism as an ideology can thrive only in a society that is predominantly non-secular.”
- Explanation: Nandy critiques the paradoxical dependence of secularism on a largely non-secular social fabric. When secularism becomes institutionalized, it often loses its efficacy, as the sacred and the secular become competing paradigms.
2. “Even many believing citizens described themselves as secular, to keep up with the times and because secularism sounded like something vaguely good.”
- Explanation: This statement reflects how secularism in India often became a superficial label, adopted for modernist credibility, rather than as a deeply rooted ideological commitment.
3. “Hindu nationalism, like other such ethnonationalisms, is not an ‘extreme’ form of Hinduism but a modernist creed that seeks to retool Hinduism.”
- Explanation: Nandy distinguishes Hindu nationalism (Hindutva) from Hinduism as a religious tradition. Hindutva, he argues, is a product of modernity, aimed at transforming Hindu identity into a tool for state and political power.
4. “Communal riots or pogroms are being secularized in South Asia; they are organized the way a rally or a strike is organized in a competitive, democratic polity.”
- Explanation: Nandy highlights the bureaucratic and calculated manner in which communal violence is orchestrated, removing it from the domain of organic, emotive conflicts and placing it in the sphere of political strategy.
5. “The ideology of secularism helps identify and set up the modernized Indian as a principle of rationality in an otherwise irrational society.”
- Explanation: This critique highlights the elitist underpinnings of Indian secularism, where it often serves to delegitimize traditional or religiously rooted worldviews while privileging a Westernized, state-centric rationality.
6. “The opposite of religious and ethnic intolerance is not secularism but religious and ethnic tolerance.”
- Explanation: Nandy challenges the notion that secularism is the only path to tolerance, suggesting instead that traditional, religion-based tolerance can be equally valid and effective in fostering harmony.
7. “It is not easy to convert ordinary citizens into fanatics or killers; they may not be epitomes of virtue, but neither are they given to blood-curdling satanism.”
- Explanation: Nandy argues against the stereotype of inherently violent communities, emphasizing that communal violence requires manipulation, planning, and mobilization by political actors.
8. “Hindutva will be the end of Hinduism.”
- Explanation: This stark prediction suggests that Hindutva, as a political ideology, undermines the pluralistic and inclusive essence of Hinduism, replacing it with a rigid, homogenized construct.
9. “Religious fanaticism mainly contests the tolerance that is part of religious traditions themselves.”
- Explanation: Nandy points out the irony that religious tolerance, deeply embedded in many traditions, often becomes the first casualty of religious nationalism and fundamentalism.
10. “Secularism today is threatening to become a successful conspiracy against the minorities.”
- Explanation: This provocative assertion critiques how institutionalized secularism can marginalize minorities under the guise of neutrality, while serving the interests of dominant political and social groups.
Suggested Readings: “The Twilight of Certitudes: Secularism, Hindu Nationalism, and Other Masks of Deculturation” by Ashis Nandy
- Nandy, Ashis. “The Twilight of Certitudes: Secularism, Hindu Nationalism, and Other Masks of Deculturation.” Alternatives: Global, Local, Political, vol. 22, no. 2, 1997, pp. 157–76. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40644885. Accessed 11 Jan. 2025.
- Desai, Radhika. “Culturalism and Contemporary Right: Indian Bourgeoisie and Political Hindutva.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 34, no. 12, 1999, pp. 695–712. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4407763. Accessed 11 Jan. 2025.
- Patil, Tejaswini. “The Politics of Race, Nationhood and Hindu Nationalism: The Case of Gujarat Riots of 2002.” Asian Journal of Social Science, vol. 45, no. 1/2, 2017, pp. 27–54. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44508276. Accessed 11 Jan. 2025.
- A. Raghuramaraju. “Internal Project of Modernity and Post-Colonialism.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 40, no. 39, 2005, pp. 4182–218. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4417193. Accessed 11 Jan. 2025.