“The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad): A Critical Analysis

Introduction: “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

“The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad) first appeared in print in the late 18th to early 19th century, most notably included in Francis James Child’s The English and Scottish Popular Ballads (1882–1898). The ballad tells the haunting story of a grieving mother who, upon hearing of the death of her three sons, wishes them back from the dead. Her wish is granted, but they return not as living men but as spirits, bound by the laws of the afterlife. The poem is deeply rooted in themes of grief, the supernatural, and the unbreakable bonds between a mother and her children. The spectral return of the sons, wearing hats made of birch that “grew at the gates o’ Paradise,” signifies their otherworldly nature, emphasizing the eerie and tragic beauty of the tale. The ballad’s popularity endures due to its evocative language, supernatural elements, and emotional depth, encapsulated in lines such as: “The cock doth craw, the day doth daw, / The channerin’ worm doth chide; / Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place, / A sair pain we maun bide.” These lines reflect the sorrowful inevitability of fate—the dead cannot remain among the living, no matter the depth of a mother’s love.

Text: “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

There lived a wife at Usher’s Well,
And a wealthy wife was she;
She had three stout and stalwart sons,
And sent them oer the sea.

They hadna been a week from her,
A week but barely ane,
Whan word came to the carline wife
That her three sons were gane.

They hadna been a week from her,
A week but barely three,
Whan word came to the carlin wife
That her sons she’d never see.

‘I wish the wind may never cease,
Nor fashes in the flood,
Till my three sons come hame to me,
In earthly flesh and blood.’

It fell about the Martinmas,
When nights are lang and mirk.
The carline wife’s three sons came hame,
And their hats were o’ the birk.

It neither grew in syke nor ditch,
Nor yet in ony sheugh;
But at the gates o’ Paradise,
That birk grew fair eneugh.

‘Blow up the fire, my maidens,
Bring water from the well;
For a’ my house shall feast this night,
Since my three sons are well.’

And she has made to them a bed,
She’s made it large and wide;
And she’s ta’en her mantle her about,
Sat down at the bed-side.

Up then crew the red, red cock,
And up and crew the gray
The eldest to the youngest said,
‘Tis time we were away.’

The cock he hadna craw’d but once,
And clapp’d his wings at a’,
When the youngest to the eldest said,
‘Brother, we must awa’.

‘The cock doth craw, the day doth daw,
The channerin’ worm doth chide;
Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place,
A sair pain we maun bide.’

‘Lie still, lie still but a little wee while,
Lie still but if we may;
Gin my mother should miss us when she wakes,
She’ll go mad ere it be day.’

‘Fare ye weel, my mother dear!
Fareweel to barn and byre!
And fare ye weel, the bonny lass
That kindles my mother’s fire!’

Annotations: “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

Original Line	Simple English Meaning	Literary, Poetic, & Rhetorical Devices
There lived a wife at Usher’s Well,	There was a woman who lived at Usher’s Well.	Setting (Usher’s Well, a place of mystery)
And a wealthy wife was she;	She was a wealthy woman.	Repetition (wealthy wife emphasizes her status)
She had three stout and stalwart sons,	She had three strong and brave sons.	Alliteration (“stout and stalwart”)
And sent them o’er the sea.	She sent them across the sea.	Symbolism (sea represents the unknown or fate)
They hadna been a week from her,	They had been gone for only a week.	Anaphora (repetition of “They hadna been…”)
A week but barely ane,	Just one week had passed.	Dialect (ane = one, adds regional tone)
Whan word came to the carline wife	Then the old woman heard the news.	Foreshadowing (bad news approaching)
That her three sons were gane.	That her three sons were dead.	Euphemism (“gane” = gone/dead)
They hadna been a week from her,	They had been gone only a week.	Parallelism (repeated phrase builds rhythm)
A week but barely three,	Just barely three weeks had passed.	Suspense (increases tension)
Whan word came to the carlin wife	Then she got the terrible news.	Repetition (emphasizing the grief)
That her sons she’d never see.	That she would never see her sons again.	Irony (later, she sees them as ghosts)
‘I wish the wind may never cease,	She wished that the wind would never stop.	Hyperbole (dramatic intensity)
Nor fashes in the flood,	Or that the floods would never stop flowing.	Symbolism (floods represent overwhelming grief)
Till my three sons come hame to me,	Until her three sons come home.	Supernatural (wishing them back from the dead)
In earthly flesh and blood.’	Alive in their human bodies.	Irony (they do return, but as spirits)
It fell about the Martinmas,	It happened around Martinmas (late autumn).	Foreshadowing (Martinmas is linked to spirits and the afterlife)
When nights are lang and mirk.	When the nights are long and dark.	Imagery (dark, eerie setting)
The carline wife’s three sons came hame,	Her three sons returned home.	Supernatural (ghostly return)
And their hats were o’ the birk.	Their hats were made of birch branches.	Symbolism (birch represents a connection to the afterlife)
It neither grew in syke nor ditch,	The birch did not grow in a ditch or trench.	Contrast (earthly vs. heavenly origins)
Nor yet in ony sheugh;	Nor in any stream.	Personification (the birch “grows beautifully”)
But at the gates o’ Paradise,	But at the gates of Heaven.	Alliteration (“gates o’ Paradise”)
That birk grew fair eneugh.	That birch grew beautifully there.	Symbolism (ties to the supernatural world)
‘Blow up the fire, my maidens,	She told her servants to make a fire.	Imperative (commanding tone)
Bring water from the well;	And to bring water from the well.	Imagery (ritual-like domestic setting)
For a’ my house shall feast this night,	Because she wanted a feast that night.	Irony (celebrating with dead sons)
Since my three sons are well.’	Since her three sons had returned.	Dramatic irony (we know they are not truly alive)
And she has made to them a bed,	She made a large bed for them.	Parallelism (ritualistic preparation)
She’s made it large and wide;	A very big and comfortable bed.	Imagery (sense of comfort and belonging)
And she’s ta’en her mantle her about,	She wrapped herself in a mantle.	Symbolism (protectiveness, warmth)
Sat down at the bed-side.	And sat beside them.	Foreshadowing (she will lose them again)
Up then crew the red, red cock,	Then the red rooster crowed.	Repetition (“red, red cock” emphasizes the moment)
And up and crew the gray	And the gray rooster also crowed.	Symbolism (rooster signifies departure)
The eldest to the youngest said,	The oldest son told the youngest,	Dialogue (gives the dead a voice)
‘Tis time we were away.’	‘It’s time for us to leave.’	Supernatural (spirits must leave at dawn)
The cock he hadna craw’d but once,	The rooster had only crowed once,	Foreshadowing (sign that time is running out)
And clapp’d his wings at a’,	And flapped his wings,	Alliteration (“cock clapped”)
When the youngest to the eldest said,	When the youngest told the oldest,	Contrast (young vs. old, past vs. present)
‘Brother, we must awa’.	‘Brother, we must go.’	Symbolism (return to the afterlife)
‘The cock doth craw, the day doth daw,	‘The rooster crows, and the day is dawning,	Metaphor (dawn represents the transition between life and death)
The channerin’ worm doth chide;	And the spirits of the dead are calling us.	Personification (“worm chiding”)
Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place,	If we are missing from our place,	Foreshadowing (spirits must not linger)
A sair pain we maun bide.’	We will suffer great punishment.’	Supernatural (rules of the afterlife)
‘Lie still, lie still but a little wee while,	‘Stay a little while longer,	Repetition (plea for delay)
Lie still but if we may;	If only for a short time.	Dramatic irony (they cannot stay)
Gin my mother should miss us when she wakes,	If our mother wakes and sees us gone,	Contrast (dream vs. reality)
She’ll go mad ere it be day.’	She will lose her mind.	Foreshadowing (mother’s heartbreak)
‘Fare ye weel, my mother dear!	‘Goodbye, dear mother!	Farewell motif (common in ballads)
Fareweel to barn and byre!	Goodbye to our farm and fields!	Imagery (home and past life)
And fare ye weel, the bonny lass	Goodbye to the beautiful girl,	Contrast (love left behind)
That kindles my mother’s fire!’	Who lights my mother’s fire!’	Symbolism (life going on without them)

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from the Ballad	Explanation
Alliteration	“stout and stalwart sons”	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words to create rhythm and musicality.
Anaphora	“They hadna been a week from her, / A week but barely ane”	The repetition of the same phrase at the beginning of multiple lines for emphasis.
Contrast	“It neither grew in syke nor ditch, / Nor yet in ony sheugh”	A contrast between earthly and heavenly elements, or life and death.
Dramatic Irony	The mother believes her sons are alive, but the audience knows they are spirits.	When the audience knows something the characters do not, increasing tension.
Euphemism	“That her three sons were gane” (gane = dead)	A mild or indirect word is used to soften a harsh reality.
Farewell Motif	“Fare ye weel, my mother dear!”	A recurring farewell theme, emphasizing parting and loss.
Foreshadowing	“Up then crew the red, red cock”	Hints about future events, as the rooster signals the spirits must leave.
Hyperbole	“I wish the wind may never cease, / Nor fashes in the flood”	Extreme exaggeration to emphasize deep grief and longing.
Imagery	“When nights are lang and mirk”	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses, creating a dark, eerie atmosphere.
Imperative	“Blow up the fire, my maidens, / Bring water from the well”	A direct command given by a character.
Irony	She wishes her sons to return, but they do so as ghosts.	A contrast between expectation and reality.
Metaphor	“The cock doth craw, the day doth daw”	A comparison without “like” or “as”; daybreak symbolizes the transition between life and death.
Parallelism	“They hadna been a week from her, / A week but barely ane”	Repeating similar sentence structures for rhythm and emphasis.
Personification	“The channerin’ worm doth chide”	Giving human qualities to non-human things (the worm is “chiding”).
Repetition	“Lie still, lie still but a little wee while”	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis.
Rhyme	Internal rhymes throughout the ballad.	A consistent pattern of sounds enhances the musicality of the poem.
Setting	The mysterious Usher’s Well and its surroundings.	The environment and location influence the story’s mood and supernatural elements.
Supernatural Elements	The sons returning as spirits, unable to stay in the living world.	Ghosts and supernatural occurrences play a major role in the plot.
Symbolism	“That birk grew fair eneugh” (birch represents the afterlife)	Objects or elements represent deeper meanings.
Tone	Mournful, tragic, and eerie tone reflecting grief and loss.	The overall mood conveyed by the poem.

Themes: “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

1. Grief and Mourning: The central theme of “The Wife of Usher’s Well” is the overwhelming grief of a mother who has lost her three sons. Her sorrow is so deep that she refuses to accept their deaths, wishing them back in “earthly flesh and blood.” Her inability to move on reflects the deep emotional suffering of a parent mourning a child. The poem highlights how grief can be all-consuming, as seen in the mother’s desperate plea:

“I wish the wind may never cease,
Nor fashes in the flood,
Till my three sons come hame to me,
In earthly flesh and blood.”

This illustrates that her sorrow is so immense that she wishes nature itself to remain unsettled until her sons return. However, her wish is granted in a way she did not expect, reinforcing the idea that grief distorts reality and can even invite supernatural consequences.

2. The Supernatural and the Afterlife: The poem is steeped in supernatural elements, with the mother’s sons returning from the dead. Their ghostly nature is subtly revealed when they arrive wearing birch hats, described as:

“It neither grew in syke nor ditch,
Nor yet in ony sheugh;
But at the gates o’ Paradise,
That birk grew fair eneugh.”

This suggests that the birch came from the afterlife, symbolizing their connection to the other world. The eerie and sorrowful tone is further enhanced by the idea that they can only stay for a short time. Their departure is inevitable, following the natural law of the afterlife:

“The cock doth craw, the day doth daw,
The channerin’ worm doth chide;
Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place,
A sair pain we maun bide.”

The rooster crowing signifies the transition between night and day, symbolizing the boundary between life and death. This theme reflects traditional folklore beliefs in spirits and the inability of the dead to remain among the living.

3. Fate and the Inevitability of Death: Death in “The Wife of Usher’s Well” is portrayed as final and inescapable, no matter how much the mother wishes to reverse it. The poem suggests that the natural order cannot be changed, and any attempt to do so comes with consequences. The sons themselves understand this better than their mother, as they acknowledge that they cannot stay and must return to the afterlife:

“Brother, we must awa’.”

Their reluctance to remain emphasizes the idea that death is an unchangeable fate, and interfering with it only brings pain. The fact that they return not as living men but as spirits reinforces the tragic reality that death is permanent, and no human wish can truly undo it. The poem serves as a reflection on mortality, showing how those who remain behind struggle to accept the loss of loved ones.

4. Love and Loss: At its heart, the poem explores the deep love between a mother and her children, as well as the sorrow that follows their loss. The mother’s love is evident in her desperate desire to have her sons return, but it is also her love that makes it painful when they must leave again. In their farewell, the sons express their love and longing for what they left behind:

“Fare ye weel, my mother dear!
Fareweel to barn and byre!
And fare ye weel, the bonny lass
That kindles my mother’s fire!”

This farewell is poignant because it acknowledges not only the love of their mother but also the other bonds they had in life, such as home and romantic love. However, love does not override the laws of life and death, and their departure is inevitable. The poem ultimately conveys the message that while love is powerful, it does not grant immortality. The pain of loss is a part of love, and those left behind must find a way to live with it.

---

Literary Theories and “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

Literary Theory	Application to “The Wife of Usher’s Well”	Reference from the Poem
Feminist Criticism	The ballad portrays a woman who is both powerful (wealthy and head of her household) yet powerless in the face of fate. Her grief over her sons reveals the deep emotional dependency placed on male heirs in a patriarchal society.	“There lived a wife at Usher’s Well, / And a wealthy wife was she; / She had three stout and stalwart sons, / And sent them o’er the sea.”
Psychoanalytic Criticism	The mother’s inability to accept her sons’ deaths reflects denial and repression. Her wish to bring them back can be seen as an unconscious refusal to process grief, leading to a supernatural hallucination or symbolic dream.	“I wish the wind may never cease, / Nor fashes in the flood, / Till my three sons come hame to me, / In earthly flesh and blood.”
Marxist Criticism	The poem subtly reflects class tensions; the woman is wealthy but still powerless against fate. The idea that no wealth can bring back the dead suggests an inherent critique of materialism and social hierarchies.	“The carline wife’s three sons came hame, / And their hats were o’ the birk.” (Despite her wealth, she cannot prevent their fate.)
Structuralist Criticism	The structure of the ballad relies on binary oppositions: life vs. death, mother vs. sons, reality vs. supernatural. The repetition and parallelism reinforce the idea of fate and cyclical storytelling in folk traditions.	“The cock doth craw, the day doth daw, / The channerin’ worm doth chide; / Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place, / A sair pain we maun bide.” (Clear structural contrast between night and day, life and death.)

Critical Questions about “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

1. How does the ballad depict the theme of grief, and what does it suggest about the mother’s response to loss?

The ballad portrays grief as an all-consuming force that disrupts the natural order. The mother’s response to loss is one of deep denial—rather than accepting her sons’ deaths, she invokes supernatural forces in her desperate wish to bring them back:

“I wish the wind may never cease, / Nor fashes in the flood, / Till my three sons come hame to me, / In earthly flesh and blood.”

This wish reflects her inability to cope with reality, highlighting the psychological weight of grief. Her longing is so intense that it seemingly bends the laws of nature, allowing her sons to return, though not in the way she had hoped. However, the ballad ultimately suggests that grief cannot defy fate; the dead cannot remain with the living. The sons acknowledge this as they prepare to leave again, emphasizing that death is irreversible, and clinging to the past only prolongs suffering. The ballad thus presents grief as a force that can drive people to extremes, yet ultimately, the living must let go.

---

2. What role do supernatural elements play in the ballad, and how do they contribute to its meaning?

The supernatural is central to “The Wife of Usher’s Well,” creating an eerie and tragic atmosphere. The mother’s grief is so powerful that it seems to summon her dead sons back, yet their return is unnatural—they are not truly alive. Their spectral nature is subtly revealed in the imagery of their hats:

“It neither grew in syke nor ditch, / Nor yet in ony sheugh; / But at the gates o’ Paradise, / That birk grew fair eneugh.”

The reference to the birch growing at the gates of Paradise confirms that the sons have not returned as living men, but as spirits. The supernatural serves as both a fulfillment of the mother’s wish and a cruel irony—the sons return, but not as she intended. Furthermore, the ballad adheres to folklore traditions where the dead cannot stay among the living. The rooster crowing at dawn signals their inevitable departure:

“The cock doth craw, the day doth daw, / The channerin’ worm doth chide; / Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place, / A sair pain we maun bide.”

The supernatural elements reinforce the poem’s message about fate and the natural cycle of life and death. No amount of longing or supernatural intervention can alter the ultimate order of the world.

---

3. What is the significance of the farewell scene, and how does it reflect the ballad’s broader themes?

The farewell scene is deeply poignant, as the sons must leave their mother once again, reinforcing the theme of loss and the inevitability of death. Their departure is neither sudden nor violent but follows an inescapable rule of the afterlife. The sons themselves express sorrow, recognizing that they cannot stay and that their absence will cause their mother more grief:

“Lie still, lie still but a little wee while, / Lie still but if we may; / Gin my mother should miss us when she wakes, / She’ll go mad ere it be day.”

This moment underscores the tragedy of the ballad—not only is the mother suffering, but the sons, too, understand the pain their departure will bring. Their farewell also acknowledges the different aspects of their lost lives, including the love and warmth they once knew:

“Fare ye weel, my mother dear! / Fareweel to barn and byre! / And fare ye weel, the bonny lass / That kindles my mother’s fire!”

The mention of home and romantic love highlights how much they have lost in death. This scene encapsulates the broader themes of love, grief, and the passage of time. Though the mother summoned them back, they cannot remain, reinforcing the idea that while love endures, it cannot overcome the laws of life and death.

---

4. How does the ballad use nature and imagery to enhance its themes?

Nature plays a symbolic role throughout the ballad, mirroring the mother’s grief and reinforcing the supernatural elements. The mother’s wish that the wind never cease and the floods continue reflects her desire to suspend time and prevent her loss from becoming permanent:

“I wish the wind may never cease, / Nor fashes in the flood.”

This imagery suggests that she wants the world itself to remain in turmoil until her sons return. However, the natural cycle inevitably resumes—just as the rooster’s crow marks the coming of dawn, signaling that the sons must leave. The birch tree imagery further connects nature with the supernatural:

“It neither grew in syke nor ditch, / Nor yet in ony sheugh; / But at the gates o’ Paradise.”

The fact that the birch did not grow in any earthly place but at the gates of Heaven reinforces the idea that the sons belong to the afterlife. Nature, in this ballad, becomes a reflection of human emotions and cosmic order—while grief can momentarily disrupt it, the natural balance always returns, reminding the living that they must move forward.

---

Literary Works Similar to “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

1. “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad) – This poem, like “The Wife of Usher’s Well,” explores a grieving loved one’s longing for the return of the dead, with supernatural elements as the ghost warns the living that excessive mourning disturbs the peace of the dead.
2. “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Scottish Ballad) – Similar to “The Wife of Usher’s Well,” this ballad features dramatic storytelling and tragic themes, depicting a son’s confession to his mother and the devastating consequences, emphasizing fate and sorrow within a family.
3. “Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe – Like “The Wife of Usher’s Well,” this poem explores undying grief and the supernatural, as the speaker mourns his lost love and believes their souls remain connected beyond death.
4. “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge – This poem resembles “The Wife of Usher’s Well” in its use of supernatural forces and themes of guilt and fate, both showing that disturbing the natural order leads to inevitable consequences.
5. “La Belle Dame sans Merci” by John Keats – Like “The Wife of Usher’s Well,” this poem blurs the line between life and death, using haunting imagery and supernatural elements to explore love, loss, and fate.

Representative Quotations of “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

---

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“There lived a wife at Usher’s Well, / And a wealthy wife was she; / She had three stout and stalwart sons, / And sent them o’er the sea.”	Introduces the mother as wealthy and powerful, yet vulnerable to fate, as she sends her sons away, unknowingly sealing their tragic fate.	Feminist Criticism – Highlights the mother’s role as both powerful and powerless within a patriarchal system, relying on male heirs for stability.
“They hadna been a week from her, / A week but barely ane, / Whan word came to the carline wife / That her three sons were gane.”	The first instance of loss and grief, as the mother learns of her sons’ deaths, setting up the theme of mourning and sorrow.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – The mother’s grief manifests as a supernatural wish fulfillment, showing a refusal to process reality and loss.
“I wish the wind may never cease, / Nor fashes in the flood, / Till my three sons come hame to me, / In earthly flesh and blood.”	The mother’s desperate wish to bring back her sons, showing her inability to accept their deaths and her willingness to disrupt the natural order.	Structuralist Criticism – The repetition and parallel structure reinforce the cyclical nature of fate and the theme of unnatural disturbance.
“It fell about the Martinmas, / When nights are lang and mirk. / The carline wife’s three sons came hame, / And their hats were o’ the birk.”	The sons return as ghosts, with Martinmas marking the seasonal shift towards winter, reinforcing the supernatural and folkloric elements.	Folkloric Analysis – The supernatural return aligns with traditional ghost lore, where spirits visit the living before departing permanently.
“It neither grew in syke nor ditch, / Nor yet in ony sheugh; / But at the gates o’ Paradise, / That birk grew fair eneugh.”	The birch symbolism confirms their otherworldly nature, as their hats come from Paradise, showing that they are not truly alive.	Symbolism – The birch tree represents the transition between life and death, reinforcing the supernatural and religious themes.
“Blow up the fire, my maidens, / Bring water from the well; / For a’ my house shall feast this night, / Since my three sons are well.”	The mother believes her sons are physically alive and celebrates their return, demonstrating her denial and the tragic irony of the situation.	Irony and Tragedy – Dramatic irony as the audience knows the sons are ghosts, while the mother believes them to be alive.
“Up then crew the red, red cock, / And up and crew the gray / The eldest to the youngest said, / ‘Tis time we were away.”	The rooster’s crow signals the inevitable return of the sons to the afterlife, emphasizing the theme of fate and the passage of time.	Fate and the Supernatural – The rooster, a common folklore symbol, signals the boundary between night and day, life and death.
“The cock doth craw, the day doth daw, / The channerin’ worm doth chide; / Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place, / A sair pain we maun bide.”	The sons acknowledge the laws of the supernatural, stating that if they remain, they will suffer, reinforcing the inevitability of death.	Metaphysical Themes – The boundary between worlds is strict, suggesting an unchangeable cosmic order that must be obeyed.
“Lie still, lie still but a little wee while, / Lie still but if we may; / Gin my mother should miss us when she wakes, / She’ll go mad ere it be day.”	The youngest son expresses concern for their mother’s fragile state, showing that grief affects not only the living but also the spirits of the dead.	Psychological Perspective – The youngest son fears his mother’s psychological breakdown, emphasizing the lasting impact of grief.
“Fare ye weel, my mother dear! / Fareweel to barn and byre! / And fare ye weel, the bonny lass / That kindles my mother’s fire!”	The final farewell encapsulates themes of love, loss, and separation, as the sons bid goodbye to their mother, home, and past lives.	Existentialist Perspective – The final goodbye highlights human mortality and the necessity of moving forward despite inevitable loss.

---

Suggested Readings: “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

1. Bowen, Edwin W. “The Old English Ballad.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 9, no. 3, 1901, pp. 286–95. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27530422. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
2. BRONSON, BERTRAND HARRIS. “The Wife of Usher’s Well.” The Traditional Tunes of the Child Ballads, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, 1962, pp. 246–66. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183pr9s.28. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
3. Bailey, J. O. “What Happens in ‘The Fall of the House of Usher’?” American Literature, vol. 35, no. 4, 1964, pp. 445–66. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2923583. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.