Theories of Reading in Language and Literature

Theories of Reading: Term and Concept

Theories of Reading: Term

Theories of reading refer to a diverse set of scholarly frameworks and approaches that seek to understand how individuals interpret and derive meaning from written texts. These theories encompass various perspectives, ranging from linguistic and cognitive theories to socio-cultural and critical approaches. They aim to uncover the cognitive, linguistic, cultural, and social factors that influence the reading process and shape readers’ interpretations of texts.

Theories of Reading: Concept

The concept of theories of reading emphasizes the dynamic and multifaceted nature of the reading process. It recognizes that reading involves complex interactions between readers, texts, and contexts, and that meaning-making is influenced by factors such as language proficiency, prior knowledge, cultural background, and social context. Theories of reading encompass diverse perspectives, including bottom-up processes such as decoding and comprehension, as well as top-down processes such as schema activation and critical interpretation. By exploring these various dimensions, theories of reading provide insights into how readers engage with texts and construct meaning through interaction and interpretation.

Types of  Theories of Reading

1. Bottom-Up Processing Theory: This theory suggests that reading starts with decoding individual letters and sounds and then builds up to understanding words, sentences, and ultimately the overall meaning of a text.
2. Top-Down Processing Theory: Contrary to bottom-up processing, this theory proposes that readers use their prior knowledge, context clues, and expectations to comprehend text. Readers start with the overall meaning and then work down to decipher the individual words and letters.
3. Interactive Model of Reading: This model combines elements of both bottom-up and top-down processing, suggesting that reading is an interactive process where readers constantly adjust their understanding based on both the text itself and their prior knowledge.
4. Schema Theory: Schema theory posits that readers interpret text based on their existing mental frameworks or schemas. These schemas are built from past experiences and knowledge and help readers make sense of new information.
5. Transaction Theory: This theory emphasizes the dynamic relationship between the reader and the text, suggesting that meaning is created through the interaction between the reader’s background knowledge, the text, and the reading context.
6. Constructivist Theory of Reading: Grounded in constructivist philosophy, this theory asserts that readers actively construct meaning from text by integrating new information with their existing knowledge and experiences.
7. Cognitive Flexibility Theory: This theory focuses on the reader’s ability to adapt their reading strategies to different texts and reading tasks, emphasizing the importance of cognitive flexibility in effective reading comprehension.
8. Sociocultural Theory of Reading: Drawing from sociocultural perspectives, this theory highlights the influence of social and cultural factors on reading comprehension, including language, community practices, and cultural norms.
9. Dual Coding Theory: According to this theory, information is processed through both verbal and non-verbal (visual) channels, and effective reading comprehension involves the integration of both types of codes.
10. Reader-Response Theory: This theory suggests that meaning is not inherent in the text itself but is instead constructed by the reader in response to the text. Reader responses are influenced by individual experiences, emotions, and interpretations.
11. Whole Language Approach: Advocating for a holistic view of reading, this approach emphasizes the integration of various language skills (such as reading, writing, speaking, and listening) in authentic contexts to promote literacy development.
12. Phonics-Based Approach: Contrasting with the whole language approach, this method focuses on teaching reading by emphasizing the relationship between letters and sounds, helping students decode words systematically.
13. Cognitive Load Theory: This theory explores how the cognitive load of reading tasks impacts reading comprehension, highlighting the importance of managing cognitive resources efficiently to optimize learning.
14. Parallel Distributed Processing Theory: This theory suggests that reading involves the simultaneous activation of multiple neural networks, with meaning derived from the interaction of these networks rather than from discrete processing stages.

Theories of Reading: Theorists, Works and Arguments

This overview summarizes prominent theoretical approaches to reading and literary analysis, highlighting their central figures, seminal works, and core arguments.

Traditional Literary Criticism

• Focus: Prioritizes close examination of the text itself, seeking to illuminate authorial intent and the inherent meaning within literary works.
• Theorists: I.A. Richards, Cleanth Brooks, Robert Penn Warren (New Critics)
• Works:
  • Practical Criticism (Richards): Promotes the value of textual analysis uninfluenced by external context or biographical speculation.
  • Understanding Poetry (Brooks and Warren): Emphasizes the unity of form and content, and the role of figurative language in creating meaning.
• Arguments:
  • Literary texts possess discoverable meanings through careful reading.
  • Ambiguity, paradox, and irony are central to effective literary expression.

Formalism and New Criticism

• Focus: Textual structures and literary devices as the primary site of meaning, downplaying the role of author or historical context.
• Theorists: Russian Formalists (Viktor Shklovsky, Boris Eichenbaum), New Critics
• Works:
  • “Art as Technique” (Shklovsky): Introduces the concept of “defamiliarization” as the key function of literature—disrupting familiar perceptions to create fresh understandings.
• Arguments:
  • Literary meaning resides in the unique use of language within the text itself.
  • Close analysis of form and technique reveals deeper meanings.

Marxism and Critical Theory

• Focus: Examines literature as shaped by and reflective of economic forces and power structures within society.
• Theorists: Karl Marx, Georg Lukács, Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Fredric Jameson
• Works:
  • The Communist Manifesto (Marx and Engels): Outlines the theory of class struggle and historical materialism as critical lenses for cultural analysis.
  • “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” (Benjamin): Explores the impact of mass reproduction on the aura and reception of artworks.
  • The Political Unconscious (Jameson): Argues for the political underpinnings of all narratives.
• Arguments:
  • Literature is shaped by and intervenes in ideological power struggles.
  • Cultural analysis reveals the influence of social and economic systems on consciousness and creative expression.

Structuralism and Poststructuralism

• Focus: Meaning is generated through language systems and cultural codes, challenging notions of stable or inherent meaning.
• Theorists: Ferdinand de Saussure, Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault
• Works:
  • Course in General Linguistics (Saussure): Foundation of structuralism, emphasizing language as a system of signs.
  • Mythologies (Barthes): Exposes hidden ideological meanings in everyday cultural forms and representations.
  • Of Grammatology (Derrida): Introduces deconstruction, challenging assumptions of fixed meaning and the presence of the author.
• Arguments:
  • Meaning is inherently unstable, created through difference and cultural codes rather than a fixed essence within the text.

Reader-Response Criticism

• Focus: The active role of the reader in constructing meaning, emphasizing the dynamic interaction between reader and text.
• Theorists: Louise Rosenblatt, Wolfgang Iser, Stanley Fish
• Works:
  • Literature as Exploration (Rosenblatt): Argues for a ‘transactional’ reading experience shaped by both text and reader.
  • The Act of Reading (Iser): Highlights the gaps and indeterminacies within texts that readers actively fill.
• Arguments:
  • Readers are not passive but co-creators of meaning.
  • Individual background and experiences shape interpretation.

Theories of Reading: Key Principals

• Traditional Literary Criticism
  • Textual Focus: The literary work contains a discoverable meaning.
  • Close Reading: Meaning is derived through precise analysis of the text’s language, form, and structure.
  • Authorial Intent: While not the sole determiner of meaning, the author’s intentions hold importance.
• Formalism and New Criticism
  • Autonomy of the Text: Meaning is primarily found within the text itself, not in external factors like authorial intent or historical context.
  • Literary Devices as Meaning: Figurative language, irony, and ambiguity are central to a work’s significance.
  • Unified Structure: Form and content are inseparable, contributing to a cohesive whole.
• Marxism and Critical Theory
  • Literature as Social Product: Literature both reflects and shapes the power dynamics and ideologies of its time.
  • Unmasking Power Structures: Texts can reveal hidden biases and systems of oppression embedded within a culture.
  • Potential for Transformation: Critical reading empowers readers to challenge dominant ideologies and envision social change.
• Structuralism and Poststructuralism
  • Language as the Source of Meaning: Meaning is not inherent in the text itself but arises from the relationships between signs within a system.
  • Deconstruction: Texts are inherently unstable and can hold contradictory meanings, revealing the limitations of language.
  • Death of the Author: Authorial intent is less important than the reader’s role in constructing meaning from the system of signs.
• Reader-Response Criticism
  • The Active Reader: Readers play a vital role in constructing meaning; their experiences and perspectives shape their interpretations.
  • Transaction with the Text: Reading is a dynamic exchange between the text and the reader, not a passive transfer of information.
  • Subjectivity and Multiplicity: There is no single correct reading; different readers may derive valid but distinct meanings.

Important Notes

• Theories often overlap and influence each other.
• These are simplified summaries—each theory contains further nuances.
• A single text can be read through multiple theoretical lenses, yielding different insights.

Theories of Reading: How to Use in Literary Critiques

1. Choose a Theoretical Lens: Select a theory (or theories) that aligns with your specific critical goals and the nature of the text you’re analyzing. Consider these questions:
   • Do you want to focus on the text’s formal elements? (Consider Formalism/New Criticism)
   • Are you interested in how the work reflects social issues or power dynamics? (Consider Marxist or Critical Theory)
   • Do you want to examine the ambiguity of language or challenge the idea of a single, fixed meaning? (Consider Structuralism/Poststructuralism)
   • Are you interested in your own reading experience or the potential for multiple interpretations? (Consider Reader-Response Criticism)
2. Familiarize Yourself with Key Concepts: Deeply understand the terminology, core arguments, and methodological approaches associated with your chosen theory. This will provide you with the critical tools for analysis.
3. Link Theory to Textual Evidence: Ground your analysis in specific passages and features of the text. Don’t simply impose theoretical concepts; demonstrate how they illuminate aspects of the work itself.
4. Enhance Your Interpretation: Use the theoretical lens to go beyond surface-level observations. Here’s how different theories might influence your critique:
   • Marxism: Analyzing how a novel’s depiction of class struggle reflects the economic conditions of the author’s time.
   • Reader-Response: Investigating your own initial reactions to a complex poem and how they evolved upon multiple readings.
   • Structuralism: Examining the system of binary oppositions (e.g., light vs. darkness, male vs. female) that shape the narrative of a story.
5. Maintain a Balanced Perspective: Avoid letting theory completely dictate your reading. Strike a balance between theoretical analysis and your own thoughtful engagement with the text.

Example: Applying Reader-Response Theory to “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman

• Theoretical Focus: Examining how the narrator’s descent into madness can be interpreted as both a personal experience and a critique of patriarchal oppression.
• Key Concepts: Reader-response theory’s emphasis on the reader’s role in meaning-making, the potential for multiple interpretations, and the influence of social context on reading.
• Textual Evidence: Analyzing the narrator’s unreliable perspective, the restrictive setting, and the symbolism of the wallpaper.
• Argument: The reader participates in the narrator’s deteriorating mental state, mirroring the confining social expectations placed on women in the late 19th century.

Remember:

• You can creatively combine multiple theories, as long as the connections are coherent.
• Be aware of the limitations of each theory.
• Your theoretical approach should ultimately enrich your understanding of the literary work.

Theories of Reading: Criticism Against It

• Overemphasis on theory: Critics argue that some theoretical approaches can overshadow the literary work itself, leading to readings overly focused on abstract concepts rather than genuine engagement with the text.
  • Counterargument: Theories can be valuable tools for deeper analysis, but responsible application emphasizes how the theory illuminates the text, not vice versa.
• Neglect of the Author: Some theories (like Poststructuralism) downplay authorial intent. Critics contend that this discounts the author’s role in shaping their work.
  • Counterargument: While focusing exclusively on the author can be limiting, considering the possibility of meanings beyond conscious authorial intent can open up new interpretive avenues.
• Subjectivity and Relativism: Reader-Response theory is sometimes criticized for promoting the idea that all readings are equally valid, potentially leading to interpretive anarchy.
  • Counterargument: This theory acknowledges the influence of individual experience while still suggesting that some interpretations are better supported by textual evidence than others.
• Political Reductionism: Marxist and some Critical Theory approaches can be accused of reducing complex literary works to mere reflections of ideology, neglecting their formal aspects or aesthetic achievements.
  • Counterargument: Responsible Marxist analysis considers both the social/political dimensions alongside the text’s artistic qualities, revealing a more nuanced understanding.
• Difficulty and Accessibility: Some theories, particularly Poststructuralism, are critiqued for their dense terminology and complex concepts, making them less accessible to non-specialists.
  • Counterargument: Clear explanations and introductory materials can bridge this gap, and the intellectual rigor can be rewarding for those willing to engage with new perspectives.

Key Points

• It’s important to be aware of the strengths and weaknesses of each theory.
• No single theory provides the definitive answer to understanding literature.
• Thoughtful, balanced application of theories is crucial for avoiding the pitfalls of each approach.

Theories of Reading: Key Terms

Term	Definition	Associated Theories
Signifier	The physical form of the sign (written word, image, sound, etc.)	Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Semiotics
Signified	The concept or idea conveyed by the signifier.	Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Semiotics
Denotation	The literal, dictionary definition of a word.	Semiotics, Structuralism
Connotation	The cultural and emotional associations attached to a word.	Semiotics, Structuralism, Reader-Response
Intertextuality	The relationship between a text and other texts it references or alludes to.	Poststructuralism, Reader-Response
Defamiliarization	Literary techniques that make the familiar strange, challenging habitual perceptions.	Russian Formalism, New Criticism
Ambiguity	Language that holds multiple potential meanings or interpretations.	New Criticism, Poststructuralism
Discourse	Systems of language and thought that shape how we perceive and understand the world.	Poststructuralism, Marxism, Critical Theory
Ideology	Underlying systems of belief and values that shape social structures and influence texts.	Marxism, Critical Theory
Subjectivity	The individual reader’s unique experiences and perspectives that shape their interpretation.	Reader-Response Criticism

Theories of Reading: Suggested Readings

1. Bennett, Andrew, ed. Readers and Reading. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2010. A diverse collection of essays exploring reading from various theoretical perspectives.
2. Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 2011. Provides a clear and concise overview of major literary theories, including their application to reading.
3. Davis, Todd F., and Kenneth Womack, eds. Formalist Criticism and Reader-Response Theory. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. Explores the complementary and contrasting perspectives between these two key theoretical approaches.
4. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1983. A classic introduction to literary theory, covering structuralism, poststructuralism, Marxism, and other central movements.
5. Easthope, Antony. Literary into Cultural Studies. Routledge, 1991. Examines the intersection of literary studies with cultural studies, exploring how reading practices are shaped by social and political contexts.
6. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1980. A major work in reader-response theory, arguing for the role of interpretive communities in shaping meaning.
7. Fokkema, Douwe, and Elrud Ibsch. Theories of Literature in the Twentieth Century. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers Ltd, 1978. Offers a comprehensive survey of literary theories throughout the 20th century.
8. Rivkin, Julie, and Michael Ryan, eds. Literary Theory: An Anthology. 2nd ed., Blackwell Publishing, 2004. An excellent collection of primary texts from major theorists, providing context and historical development of key ideas.
9. Selden, Raman, Peter Widdowson, and Peter Brooker. A Reader’s Guide to Contemporary Literary Theory. 5th ed., Pearson Education Limited, 2005. A user-friendly guide to contemporary literary theories and their applications.
10. Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2014. Provides clear explanations and examples of how to apply critical theories to literary analysis.