Introduction: “To Look Feelingly-the Affinities of Medicine and Literature” by Edmund D. Pellegrino
“To Look Feelingly—the Affinities of Medicine and Literature” by Edmund D. Pellegrino first appeared in Literature and Medicine in 1982 (Volume 1, pp. 19-23), published by Johns Hopkins University Press. Pellegrino explores the profound connection between medicine and literature, emphasizing their shared moral enterprise. Both fields, he argues, require practitioners to engage deeply with human experience, seeing not just the facts but the emotions and struggles that underpin them. Medicine, without compassion, becomes mere technology, and literature, without feeling, becomes a detached recounting of events. Pellegrino highlights how both disciplines serve as ways of looking at human life, necessitating both detachment and involvement. He draws on the perspectives of thinkers like George Santayana and Owsei Temkin, who argue that medicine and literature share a moral dimension and both help us understand the human condition. The article underscores the value of literature in medical education, noting its power to evoke empathy and deepen understanding of the complexities of illness. Pellegrino’s work is significant because it provides a philosophical and practical framework for integrating literature into medical practice, enhancing physicians’ empathy, and enriching their ability to see their patients more fully as human beings. This article is important not only for its contribution to medical humanities but also for its insights into how literature can cultivate a deeper moral awareness within medicine.
Summary of “To Look Feelingly-the Affinities of Medicine and Literature” by Edmund D. Pellegrino
The Moral Foundations of Medicine and Literature
- Both medicine and literature are fundamentally moral enterprises, rooted in compassion and engagement with human suffering (Pellegrino, 1982).
- Medicine must go beyond mere technology, requiring compassion for true healing, while literature needs to look with feeling to avoid detachment (Pellegrino, 1982).
- Both disciplines require practitioners to engage deeply with human experiences, standing back yet fully involved in the struggles of life (Pellegrino, 1982).
Medicine and Literature as Narrative Forms
- The physician’s clinical history and the writer’s narrative both tell the story of human suffering and resilience (Pellegrino, 1982).
- While clinical records focus on diagnosis and prognosis, literature infuses illness with emotional and moral depth, encouraging a compassionate look at human suffering (Pellegrino, 1982).
- The narrative power of literature makes readers confront the realities of illness and mortality in a deeply emotional way (Pellegrino, 1982).
Empathy and the Role of Literature in Medical Education
- Literature plays a critical role in teaching empathy, allowing medical students to vicariously experience illness, pain, and death (Pellegrino, 1982).
- Incorporating literary works into medical education helps students relate to patients and understand their moral and existential struggles (Pellegrino, 1982).
- Literature enhances students’ ability to treat patients with greater sensitivity, which is difficult to teach through clinical training alone (Pellegrino, 1982).
The Symbolic Power of Language in Medicine
- Language in both medicine and literature is crucial for understanding and conveying human experiences (Pellegrino, 1982).
- In medicine, language facilitates diagnosis, treatment, and communication, while in literature, it evokes deeper meanings and emotions (Pellegrino, 1982).
- Physicians can improve their diagnostic skills and communication by understanding the cultural and symbolic nuances of language (Pellegrino, 1982).
Enhancing the Physician’s Sensibility Through Literature
- Literature enriches the sensibilities of physicians, helping them view patients as human beings rather than just clinical cases (Pellegrino, 1982).
- By exploring literature, physicians can restore a sense of purpose and humanity to their practice, connecting more deeply with patients (Pellegrino, 1982).
- Integrating literary insights enhances both medical practice and the physician’s understanding of the human condition (Pellegrino, 1982).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “To Look Feelingly-the Affinities of Medicine and Literature” by Edmund D. Pellegrino
| Term/Concept | Explanation | Reference from Article |
| Moral Enterprise | The concept that both medicine and literature are grounded in moral engagement, focusing on human suffering and compassion. | “Both are ways of looking at man and both are, at heart, moral enterprises.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
| Compassionate Objectivity | The idea that medicine is not just science and art but involves looking at the human condition with a compassionate lens. | “Medicine is not only science and art but also a mode of looking with compassionate objectivity.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
| Seeing Life Bare | The necessity for both medicine and literature to confront human life without avoidance, facing suffering directly. | “Both must start by seeing life bare, without averting their gaze.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
| Authentic Compassion | The authentic engagement with suffering that both physicians and writers must demonstrate, going beyond detached observation. | “To be authentic they must look with compassion.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
| Moral Struggle | The shared paradox in both fields of standing back from human suffering yet being deeply involved in its outcome. | “Medicine and literature are united in an unremitting paradox: the need simultaneously to stand back from, and yet to share in, the struggle of human life.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
| Vicarious Experience | The ability of literature to evoke the emotional depth of human experiences, allowing readers to feel the subject’s struggles. | “The writer of literature can evoke a vicarious experience of illness and suffering.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
| Symbolic Power of Language | The importance of understanding language not only as a tool for communication but as a vehicle for evoking deeper meanings in both medicine and literature. | “Language is the instrument of diagnosis and therapy, the vehicle through which the patient’s needs are expressed and the doctor’s advice conveyed.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
| Empathy through Literature | The concept that literature can teach empathy by allowing physicians to experience illness, pain, and suffering vicariously, thereby enhancing their compassion. | “Literature offers an alternative because it has such power to evoke vicarious experiences.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
| Healing through Art | The idea that both medicine and literature serve to heal—medicine physically and literature emotionally—through the compassionate engagement of the practitioner. | “Medicine without compassion is mere technology, curing without healing; literature without feeling is mere reporting, experience without meaning.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
| Narrative in Medicine | The idea that medical histories and narratives provide a story of human suffering and illness, and that the clinical history is a story of a person’s journey through disease. | “The patient’s history that a physician writes is really a tale, the narrative of the patient’s Odyssey in the dismal realms of disease.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
Contribution of “To Look Feelingly-the Affinities of Medicine and Literature” by Edmund D. Pellegrino to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Moral Criticism
- Contribution to Theory: Pellegrino’s article aligns with moral criticism by asserting that both medicine and literature serve as moral enterprises. The focus is on understanding and engaging with human suffering and moral dilemmas, which are central concerns of moral criticism in literary theory.
- Reference from Article: “Both are ways of looking at man and both are, at heart, moral enterprises.” (Pellegrino, 1982)
2. Narratology
- Contribution to Theory: The article emphasizes the narrative structure in both medicine and literature, particularly the way stories are told in both disciplines. It suggests that a physician’s clinical history and a writer’s narrative both recount a journey of human suffering, making narrative theory an essential bridge between medicine and literature.
- Reference from Article: “The patient’s history that a physician writes is really a tale, the narrative of the patient’s Odyssey in the dismal realms of disease.” (Pellegrino, 1982)
- Contribution to Theory: Pellegrino underscores the emotional engagement that literature evokes, highlighting the role of the reader (or the medical student) in experiencing the text or the patient’s illness vicariously. This aligns with reader-response theory, which stresses the active role of the reader in deriving meaning and emotional resonance from a text.
- Reference from Article: “The writer of literature can evoke a vicarious experience of illness and suffering.” (Pellegrino, 1982)
- Contribution to Theory: The article’s exploration of the emotional depth and psychological dimensions of both medicine and literature can be tied to psychoanalytic theory, which often explores human suffering, moral conflicts, and the subconscious. Pellegrino reflects on the emotional and empathetic role of the physician, echoing psychoanalytic concerns with human emotions and unconscious struggles.
- Reference from Article: “To look with compassion is the summit of artistry for both medicine and literature.” (Pellegrino, 1982)
5. Humanism in Literary Theory
- Contribution to Theory: Pellegrino’s emphasis on the humane qualities of both medicine and literature connects deeply with the humanist tradition in literary theory. He argues that both fields are driven by a desire to alleviate suffering and to understand the moral and existential struggles of individuals.
- Reference from Article: “Medicine and literature are linked because they both tell the story of what they see, telling the human tale of suffering and healing.” (Pellegrino, 1982)
- Contribution to Theory: By linking literature and medicine as historical and contextual narratives, Pellegrino indirectly supports New Historicism, which examines texts within the socio-cultural contexts in which they are created. His discussion of literary works that portray physicians and the medical experience sheds light on how literature historically reflects societal views on health and illness.
- Reference from Article: “Writers have inquired into the doctor’s life because they could not be indifferent to it. The physician is too intimately bound to hopes and fears of the ill.” (Pellegrino, 1982)
7. Empathy and Emotional Engagement in Literature
- Contribution to Theory: The article significantly contributes to the theory of empathy in literature. By stressing that literature helps medical practitioners develop empathy through emotional engagement, Pellegrino supports the idea that literature has a profound role in fostering emotional awareness, a key concern in literary studies and the humanities.
- Reference from Article: “Literature has such power to evoke vicarious experiences… to help students learn to see with compassion.” (Pellegrino, 1982)
8. The Theory of Healing through Art
- Contribution to Theory: Pellegrino touches upon the idea that both literature and medicine act as forms of healing. This concept aligns with literary theory’s interest in the therapeutic potential of literature, particularly how literature can offer emotional release and understanding of human suffering, similar to the healing process in medicine.
- Reference from Article: “Literature gives meaning to what physicians see, and it makes them see it feelingly.” (Pellegrino, 1982)
Examples of Critiques Through “To Look Feelingly-the Affinities of Medicine and Literature” by Edmund D. Pellegrino
| Literary Work | Critique through Pellegrino’s Concepts | Reference from Article |
| Homer’s The Iliad | Pellegrino’s concept of vicarious experience is applied here, as The Iliad vividly evokes the physical and emotional pain of war, similar to the suffering witnessed by physicians. The narrative forces readers to experience the agony of battle and the moral consequences of war. | “No medical lecturer could evoke the experience of illness with the intensity achieved, for example, in Homer’s depictions of the lacerating and flesh-tearing assault of spear and arrow.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
| Thomas Mann’s Doctor Faustus | Doctor Faustus reflects the moral paradox discussed by Pellegrino—standing back from human suffering while deeply engaged in it. The psychological and moral struggles of the protagonist mirror the complexity of the medical and literary disciplines as they both confront human frailty. | “The confusion of madness and genius in the sick brain of Mann’s Adrian Leverkühn.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
| Virginia Woolf’s On Being Ill | Woolf’s reflection on the experience of illness aligns with Pellegrino’s exploration of compassionate objectivity. Woolf’s personal account of illness allows readers to understand the subjective experience of pain and suffering, which is central to both medical practice and literature. | “The pleasurable malaise of a mild illness in Virginia Woolf’s ‘On Being 111.'” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
| Leo Tolstoy’s The Death of Ivan Ilyich | Tolstoy’s exploration of mortality and the inhumane treatment of the dying mirrors Pellegrino’s idea that medicine without compassion is mere technology. The lack of empathy in the physicians in the story contrasts sharply with the emotional depth of the narrative, illustrating the importance of compassionate objectivity. | “The indignities suffered by Tolstoy’s dying barrister at the hands of his paternalistic doctors.” (Pellegrino, 1982) |
Criticism Against “To Look Feelingly-the Affinities of Medicine and Literature” by Edmund D. Pellegrino
1. Oversimplification of the Connection Between Medicine and Literature
- Some critics may argue that Pellegrino oversimplifies the complex relationship between medicine and literature, attempting to fit them too neatly into a moral framework. The connection may be more nuanced than he presents, and the distinctions between clinical objectivity and literary compassion may not always align as easily as suggested.
2. Overemphasis on Compassion and Empathy
- While Pellegrino emphasizes the importance of compassion and empathy, some critics may argue that these qualities alone do not define the entirety of either discipline. Both fields have a broader scope that includes other factors, such as intellectual rigor in medicine and aesthetic complexity in literature, which are not adequately addressed in the article.
3. Lack of Critical Engagement with Medical Practice
- Pellegrino’s focus on the philosophical and moral aspects of medicine may overlook critical issues within actual medical practice, such as the socio-economic and structural challenges that physicians face. Critics might argue that this idealized view of medicine detracts from addressing systemic problems like healthcare inequality, mental health care, or the over-medicalization of society.
4. Exclusion of Other Literary Theories
- Pellegrino’s analysis tends to focus on moral and humanistic themes, which may limit the scope of literary theory. Critics may argue that a more comprehensive critique would have integrated other literary theories, such as postmodernism, deconstruction, or Marxist theory, to provide a more diverse and multi-faceted perspective.
5. Romanticizing the Role of the Physician-Writer
- The article idealizes the physician who writes, associating them with a heightened sense of moral and emotional insight. Some critics may argue that this romanticizes the role of physician-writers, neglecting the complexities and limitations of their dual careers. Not all physician-writers contribute positively to both fields, and some may fail to merge medical insight with literary creativity.
6. Limited Scope of Literary Examples
- Pellegrino’s article focuses on a narrow set of literary examples (e.g., The Iliad, Doctor Faustus, and works by Virginia Woolf and Tolstoy). Critics may argue that this limited selection overlooks many other works that could provide a more diverse and comprehensive exploration of the intersection between medicine and literature.
7. Potential Overlap with Other Disciplines
- Critics might argue that Pellegrino’s conclusions about the affinity between medicine and literature overlap with other fields, such as psychology, philosophy, and ethics. By focusing on just these two disciplines, the article may overlook broader interdisciplinary connections and fail to incorporate insights from other relevant academic areas.
Representative Quotations from “To Look Feelingly-the Affinities of Medicine and Literature” by Edmund D. Pellegrino with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Both are ways of looking at man and both are, at heart, moral enterprises.” (Pellegrino, 1982) | This quote highlights the central argument that both medicine and literature are fundamentally moral endeavors, concerned with understanding and engaging with human suffering. |
| “Medicine without compassion is mere technology, curing without healing; literature without feeling is mere reporting, experience without meaning.” (Pellegrino, 1982) | Pellegrino emphasizes the necessity of compassion in both fields, asserting that without it, medicine becomes sterile and literature becomes a mere description. |
| “To look compassionately is the summit of artistry for both medicine and literature; to take part in the struggle is the morality they share.” (Pellegrino, 1982) | This explains that true compassion in both disciplines goes beyond observing suffering, engaging with it on a deeply moral level. |
| “The patient’s history that a physician writes is really a tale, the narrative of the patient’s Odyssey in the dismal realms of disease.” (Pellegrino, 1982) | Pellegrino draws a parallel between the physician’s clinical history and a literary narrative, suggesting that both are storytelling forms. |
| “The writer’s tale transcends the clinician’s history because his or her language is charged with meanings.” (Pellegrino, 1982) | This quotation shows how literature, unlike clinical records, imbues human experiences with deep emotional and symbolic meaning. |
| “Clinical language itself can be a thing of beauty in those rare instances in which the artist is also a practicing physician.” (Pellegrino, 1982) | Pellegrino refers to the ability of physician-writers to elevate clinical language, showing that it can be artistic and poetic, reflecting the human body and experience. |
| “Through the eyes of the sensitive creative writer, the student physician can experience something of what it is to be ill, in pain, in anguish, or dying.” (Pellegrino, 1982) | This speaks to the power of literature in medical education, enabling students to develop empathy by vicariously experiencing illness through literature. |
| “No medical lecturer could evoke the experience of illness with the intensity achieved, for example, in Homer’s depictions of the lacerating and flesh-tearing assault of spear and arrow.” (Pellegrino, 1982) | Pellegrino uses The Iliad as an example of how literature can powerfully convey the visceral, emotional experience of pain and suffering, surpassing what a medical lecture might achieve. |
| “Literature, through its power to evoke vicarious experience and develop empathy, places physicians in a concrete human situation.” (Pellegrino, 1982) | This highlights literature’s unique ability to cultivate empathy in physicians, helping them understand the patient’s subjective experience. |
| “Literature gives meaning to what physicians see, and it makes them see it feelingly.” (Pellegrino, 1982) | This quote illustrates how literature enriches the physician’s perspective, allowing them to engage with patients and their experiences with greater emotional depth. |
Suggested Readings: “To Look Feelingly-the Affinities of Medicine and Literature” by Edmund D. Pellegrino
- Pellegrino, Edmund D. “To look feelingly-the Affinities of Medicine and Literature.” Literature and Medicine 1.1 (1982): 19-23.
- Jones, Anne Hudson. Nineteenth-Century French Studies, vol. 10, no. 1/2, 1981, pp. 184–85. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44627582. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
- Spiegel, Maura, and Rita Charon. “Editing and Interdisciplinarity: Literature, Medicine, and Narrative Medicine.” Profession, 2009, pp. 132–37. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25595923. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.