Introduction: “Tragedy and Revolution from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
“Tragedy and Revolution from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams is a pivotal chapter in his book, Modern Tragedy, published in 1966 by Chatto & Windus. This work holds significant importance in literature and literary theory as Williams explores the concept of tragedy, examining its evolution from classical Greek drama to its manifestations in modern society. He delves into the interplay between personal and societal tragedies, particularly those arising from political upheaval and revolution. Williams’ analysis offers a nuanced understanding of tragedy as a reflection of both individual suffering and broader cultural and historical forces.
Summary of “Tragedy and Revolution from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Ideology and Tragic Experience:
Williams argues that powerful ideologies influence our perception of tragedy. Even when we believe we have rejected old ideologies, we tend to reinterpret tragic experiences in terms familiar to past systems, like the loss of belief in fate or divine order. Modern tragedy often overlooks the deep social crises—such as war and revolution—and focuses instead on individual or spiritual crises, separating human tragedy from societal disorder. - Separation of Tragedy from Social Crisis:
The common perspective detaches tragedy from the larger social context of wars, revolutions, and political upheavals, categorizing these events as political or sociological matters rather than tragic experiences. Williams critiques this view, suggesting that reducing tragedy to a personal or spiritual issue ignores the broader societal forces that shape individual suffering. - Tragedy as a Response to Social Disorder:
Since the French Revolution, tragedy has been intertwined with social upheaval, but modern interpretations often overlook this connection. Williams asserts that the tragedies of our time are deeply rooted in the broader social disorder of revolutions, wars, and societal transformations, yet both social and tragic thinking are often separated, leading to a misrepresentation of human suffering. - Revolution as Both Tragedy and Epic:
Williams explores how revolutions are initially seen as tragedies, marked by violence, chaos, and suffering. Over time, however, revolutions are reinterpreted as epic events that create a new social order. The suffering of past revolutions is often justified or celebrated as necessary for the birth of a valued way of life. In contrast, contemporary revolutions are often viewed through the lens of tragedy, highlighting the human cost and ethical complexities involved. - Violence and Disorder in Revolution:
Williams emphasizes that revolutions are not just moments of crisis but are embedded in a larger process of social disorder. The violence and chaos of revolutionary events often stem from pre-existing institutional violence and social inequality. The tragic aspect of revolution arises from the conflict between entrenched social systems and the human drive for liberation and justice. - The Role of Liberalism and Naturalism:
Liberalism initially brought a focus on individual human values but eventually led to a separation between the idea of revolution and the human experience of suffering. The literature of naturalism, emerging from liberal thought, depicted human beings as passive victims of their environments, further alienating the concept of revolution from its humanistic roots. This passive suffering, portrayed in naturalist works, reflects a fatalistic view of human inability to change the world, contrasting with revolutionary ideals of human agency. - Romanticism’s Influence on Revolution:
Williams discusses how Romanticism, while initially liberating, eventually turned inward, emphasizing individual transcendence over social action. This shift led to a separation of revolution from society, with Romantic ideals becoming more abstract and disconnected from practical social change. The Romantic attitude toward revolution, focusing on personal liberation and irrationality, contributed to a broader cultural disengagement from collective action. - Revolution and Alienation:
Williams acknowledges that while revolutions aim to end human alienation, they often create new forms of alienation. The process of revolution, which seeks to liberate, can paradoxically dehumanize both its opponents and its participants, reducing individuals to symbols of oppression or liberation. This internal conflict within revolutionary movements is one of the tragic dimensions of revolution. - The Tragedy of Revolution in Practice:
The tragedy of revolution lies in the inevitable suffering it causes, both to those fighting for change and those resisting it. Williams suggests that revolution is a necessary response to deep social disorder, but it is tragic because it involves a struggle between human beings, not just between ideologies or institutions. This struggle often leads to violence, alienation, and further suffering, even as it seeks to create a more just and humane society.
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Tragedy and Revolution from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
| Literary Term/Concept | Definition | Explanation in the Text |
| Tragedy | A form of drama based on human suffering that invokes an accompanying catharsis or pleasure in audiences. | Williams discusses how modern tragedy is often detached from social crises like war and revolution, instead focusing on individual or spiritual struggles. |
| Epic | A long narrative poem or story celebrating heroic deeds, often foundational for a nation or culture. | Revolution, once seen as tragic due to violence and suffering, can be later reinterpreted as epic, a necessary condition for the creation of a nation’s identity. |
| Revolution | A fundamental and rapid change in political power or organizational structures, often accompanied by social upheaval. | Williams explores the relationship between revolution and tragedy, arguing that revolution is often viewed tragically due to its inherent violence and suffering. |
| Ideology | A system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy. | The text critiques how ideologies influence our perception of tragedy and revolution, often leading to distorted views of social crises and human suffering. |
| Naturalism | A literary movement that suggests humans are shaped by their environment and social conditions, often leading to a deterministic view of existence. | Williams critiques naturalism for reducing human suffering to passive endurance, stripping individuals of agency within a vast, impersonal social and natural process. |
| Romanticism | A literary and artistic movement emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual. | Romanticism is examined as an idealistic and often irrational approach to revolution, which eventually turns inward and detaches from practical social change. |
| Alienation | The experience of being isolated from a group or activity to which one should belong, or feeling estranged from one’s environment. | Williams links alienation to both revolution and tragedy, noting that revolutions intended to end alienation often create new forms of it, particularly in social roles. |
| Catharsis | The emotional release experienced by an audience, especially in tragedy, through feelings of pity and fear. | Williams suggests that modern tragedy often fails to elicit true catharsis, as it overlooks the broader social contexts that give rise to human suffering. |
| Order and Disorder | Concepts referring to the stability (order) or instability (disorder) of society, often depicted as central themes in tragedy and revolution. | Williams argues that both tragedy and revolution are rooted in social disorder, and that attempts to restore order often create new forms of conflict and alienation. |
| Liberalism | A political and social philosophy advocating for individual freedoms, democracy, and social progress. | The text critiques liberalism for its role in separating individual values from social structures, leading to a disconnect between revolution and personal experience. |
| Feudalism | A social system existing in medieval Europe in which people worked and fought for nobles in return for protection and land. | Williams discusses how feudal ideas of lawful authority and rebellion shaped early conceptions of tragedy, with rebellion often depicted as disorder in classical drama. |
| Social Evolution | The gradual development of society and institutions over time, often seen as a natural process. | Williams criticizes the concept of social evolution for reducing revolution to a mechanical and impersonal process, disconnected from human agency and social change. |
| Humanism | An outlook emphasizing human values and the importance of human agency in shaping destiny, often in contrast to religious or authoritarian systems. | Williams argues for a humanist perspective in revolution, where the focus is on human experience and suffering rather than abstract ideologies or historical inevitabilities. |
| Determinism | The philosophical concept that all events, including human actions, are determined by previously existing causes. | In the discussion of naturalism, Williams critiques determinism for portraying humans as passive beings controlled by external forces, rather than as active agents of change. |
Contribution of “Tragedy and Revolution from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams to Literary Theory/Theories
- Reintegration of Social Context in Tragedy: Williams argues that modern tragedy often disconnects from the social crises it emerges from, such as war, revolution, and political turmoil. He calls for a reintegration of these societal dimensions into tragic theory, emphasizing that true tragedy must engage with the larger social disorder rather than limiting itself to personal or spiritual crises (Williams, p. 88-89).
- Critique of the Separation between Tragedy and Revolution: Williams critiques the separation between tragedy and revolution in literary theory. He points out that revolution, often marked by violence and suffering, shares deep structural similarities with tragic narratives. This calls for a recognition of tragedy as not only a personal downfall but also a reflection of societal collapse during times of revolution (Williams, p. 90-91).
- Challenge to Liberal Humanism: The text critiques the liberal tradition for detaching individual human values from larger social systems, suggesting that this disconnection weakens the understanding of both tragedy and revolution. Williams urges a more holistic view of literature and society, where individual suffering is seen as part of a broader social reality, particularly in revolutionary contexts (Williams, p. 92-93).
- Revolution as a Tragic Process: Williams contributes to literary theory by framing revolution itself as a tragic process. He highlights the inherent contradictions in revolutionary movements, where the goal of human liberation often creates new forms of alienation and suffering, echoing tragic themes of downfall and loss (Williams, p. 99-101).
- Criticism of Mechanical Materialism in Literature: In his discussion of naturalism, Williams critiques the deterministic portrayal of humans as passive victims of their environment. He argues that this mechanical view strips away human agency, which is essential for both tragedy and revolutionary theory, reducing individuals to mere objects in a larger social process (Williams, p. 94-95).
- Romanticism’s Role in Revolutionary Ideology: Williams examines Romanticism’s influence on revolutionary language, pointing out how its idealized vision of human liberation contributed to the separation of revolution from practical social change. This critique adds to the understanding of how literary movements can shape and sometimes distort political ideologies (Williams, p. 96-97).
- Critique of Social Evolutionary Models: Williams critiques theories of social evolution that remove human agency from historical development, aligning them with a mechanical materialism that denies the active role of individuals in shaping history. This challenges existing models of social change in literary theory, calling for a more active, human-centered approach (Williams, p. 95-96).
- Interconnection of Humanism and Tragic Theory: Williams redefines tragic theory by emphasizing human agency and the ongoing struggle for human liberation. He critiques both the nihilistic and deterministic tendencies in modern thought, advocating for a humanistic view of revolution and tragedy that acknowledges the potential for both suffering and transformation (Williams, p. 99-100).
Examples of Critiques Through “Tragedy and Revolution from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
| Literary Work | Critique Through Williams’ Perspective | Relevant Concepts from “Tragedy and Revolution” |
| Shakespeare’s Macbeth | Macbeth is often viewed as a personal tragedy, but through Williams’ framework, the play can also be seen as a reflection of social disorder. Macbeth’s individual ambition and downfall represent not just personal moral failure, but also the breakdown of a feudal order and the violence of social upheaval. | Tragedy and Social Disorder: Williams argues that tragedy often masks deeper societal crises, as seen in Macbeth’s struggle for power (p. 89). |
| Sophocles’ Antigone | Traditionally read as a personal conflict between Antigone and Creon, Williams’ theory would highlight the broader context of political rebellion. Antigone’s defiance of Creon is symbolic of a revolutionary act against an unjust social system, reflecting the tension between personal duty and societal law. | Revolution as Tragic Process: Antigone’s defiance is a microcosm of revolutionary resistance, where individual acts reflect larger social struggles (p. 99-101). |
| Albert Camus’ The Plague | The Plague is often interpreted as an existential commentary on human suffering, but Williams’ critique would emphasize how the novel also reflects social disorder. The plague symbolizes revolutionary disruption, and the characters’ responses represent a mix of heroic action and passive suffering under crisis. | Naturalism and Passive Suffering: Williams critiques how literature, like Camus’ work, often depicts human suffering as passive, removing agency (p. 94-95). |
| George Orwell’s 1984 | 1984 presents a dystopian world where individuals are oppressed by a totalitarian regime. Through Williams’ lens, this can be seen not only as a critique of political systems but also as a tragic reflection of how revolution, when abstracted and detached from human values, can lead to new forms of alienation. | Alienation in Revolution: Williams argues that revolutions can create new forms of alienation, a central theme in Orwell’s dystopia (p. 102-104). |
Criticism Against “Tragedy and Revolution from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Overemphasis on Social Context at the Expense of Individual Experience: Critics may argue that Williams overemphasizes the social and political context of tragedy, thereby downplaying the importance of individual experience, personal moral dilemmas, and emotional depth, which are essential elements of classical tragedy.
- Reduction of Tragedy to Sociopolitical Forces: Williams’ attempt to integrate tragedy with revolution and societal disorder could be seen as reducing tragedy to a mere reflection of sociopolitical forces, rather than acknowledging its broader existential or universal themes, such as fate, free will, or the human condition.
- Neglect of Aesthetic and Formal Aspects of Tragedy: Some critics may argue that Williams’ focus on the ideological and historical dimensions of tragedy neglects the aesthetic, formal, and structural aspects of the genre. Tragedy as a literary form also requires analysis of its language, dramatic structure, and cathartic effects, which Williams gives less attention to.
- Romanticization of Revolution: Williams’ connection between revolution and tragedy might be seen as overly romanticizing revolutionary movements by framing them as tragic necessities. This approach could overlook the complexity and often morally ambiguous nature of revolutionary violence and its outcomes.
- Simplification of Literary and Historical Evolution: Williams’ broad historical and ideological narratives, such as the evolution from feudalism to liberalism or naturalism, could be critiqued for oversimplifying literary history and the relationship between literature and society. Literary movements and their social contexts are more varied and cannot always be neatly categorized.
- Ambiguity in the Relationship Between Tragedy and Revolution: Critics might find that Williams’ argument lacks clarity in defining the precise nature of the relationship between tragedy and revolution. While he emphasizes their connection, the theoretical boundaries between the two concepts remain somewhat ambiguous, especially when applied to specific works.
Representative Quotations from “Tragedy and Revolution from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “The most complex effect of any really powerful ideology is that it directs us, even when we think we have rejected it, to the same kind of fact.” | Williams is emphasizing how deeply ingrained ideologies shape our understanding of the world, even when we believe we have moved beyond them. In tragedy, we often reinterpret modern experiences through the lens of past beliefs. |
| “Tragedy, we say, belongs to deeper and closer experience, to man not to society.” | This highlights Williams’ critique of the conventional separation between personal tragedy and social conditions. He argues that this division is artificial and that modern tragedies should be connected to larger societal contexts like war and revolution. |
| “We are not looking for a new universal meaning of tragedy. We are looking for the structure of tragedy in our own culture.” | Williams argues that tragedy needs to be understood within the specific cultural and historical circumstances of its time, rather than searching for a timeless, universal meaning. |
| “In our own time, especially, it is the connections between revolution and tragedy—connections lived and known but not acknowledged as ideas—which seem most clear and significant.” | Here, Williams is stressing the overlooked but critical relationship between revolution and tragedy, where both are responses to social upheaval and suffering. |
| “The idea of tragedy, in its ordinary form, excludes especially that tragic experience which is social.” | Williams critiques the limited scope of traditional tragic theory, which focuses on individual or spiritual suffering while excluding social suffering, such as that experienced during war or revolution. |
| “A time of revolution is so evidently a time of violence, dislocation and extended suffering that it is natural to feel it as tragedy.” | This quote emphasizes Williams’ point that revolutions, due to their inherent violence and suffering, are naturally experienced and perceived as tragic events. |
| “Yet the break comes, in some minds. In experience, suddenly, the new connections are made, and the familiar world shifts, as the new relations are seen.” | Williams describes how revolutionary experiences can shift perspectives, leading individuals to see previously hidden connections between social upheaval and personal suffering. |
| “The violence and disorder are in the whole action, of which what we commonly call revolution is the crisis.” | Williams is stating that revolution is not just a single event of crisis and violence, but part of an ongoing, larger process of social disorder and change. |
| “The tragic action is rooted in a disorder, which indeed, at a particular stage, can seem to have its own stability.” | Williams explains that tragedy emerges from a sense of underlying disorder, which can appear stable until a crisis reveals the full extent of that disorder, echoing the revolutionary process. |
| “We have to recognise this suffering in a close and immediate experience, and not cover it with names.” | Williams argues against abstracting human suffering into ideological or theoretical terms. Instead, he advocates for recognizing the real, lived experience of suffering, especially in the context of revolution and social upheaval. |
Suggested Readings: “Tragedy and Revolution from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Eagleton, Terry. Sweet Violence: The Idea of the Tragic. Blackwell Publishing, 2003.
- Williams, Raymond. Modern Tragedy. Chatto & Windus, 1966.
- Steiner, George. The Death of Tragedy. Yale University Press, 1996.
https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300069167/the-death-of-tragedy - Barker, Howard. Arguments for a Theatre. Manchester University Press, 1989.
- Segal, Charles. Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sophocles. Harvard University Press, 1981.
- Kott, Jan. The Eating of the Gods: An Interpretation of Greek Tragedy. Northwestern University Press, 1987.
- Elsom, John. Post-War British Theatre Criticism. Routledge, 2013.