Introduction: “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
“Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams first appeared in 1962 in the book Modern Tragedy. This essay is considered a significant contribution to both literature and literary theory. Williams examines the works of Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre, two prominent figures in the existentialist movement. He analyzes their depictions of tragedy in modern times, emphasizing the themes of despair, revolt, and the individual’s struggle against the absurdity of existence. Williams’ essay provides valuable insights into the nature of tragedy in the 20th century and its relevance to contemporary society.
Summary of “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Camus’ Aspiration for a New Tragic Form: Camus believed that a modern form of tragedy must emerge, distinct from the tragedies of antiquity. “A great modern form of the tragic must and will be born…We must use our limited means to hasten its arrival.” This recognition stems from the incompatibility of contemporary experience with traditional tragic structures.
- Despair and Revolt in Camus’ Philosophy: Camus presents the idea of tragic absurdity, defined by the contradictions between life’s intense vitality and the certainty of death. These tensions create despair. However, Camus rejects suicide as a solution, choosing instead to live within these contradictions. “The essential problem is to live in full recognition of the contradictions and within the tensions they produce.”
- Tragic Humanism as a Central Theme: Camus’ philosophy evolves into what Williams calls “tragic humanism,” where the experience of despair is universal, but the revolt against it is individual. Camus sees revolt as the only response to absurdity. “Real despair means death…A literature of despair is a contradiction in terms.”
- Sartre and Camus’ Diverging Views on Humanism: While Camus focuses on revolt against absurdity, Sartre critiques him for denying the historical dimension of human suffering. Sartre argues that Camus seeks personal satisfaction in metaphysical revolt, neglecting historical revolution. “Sartre accused Camus of ‘a bitter wisdom which seeks to deny time’.”
- Absurdity in Camus’ Works: In works like The Outsider and The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus explores absurdity, where the characters face existential tensions without collapse into despair. “The lucidity that was to constitute his torture at the same time crowns his victory.”
- Revolt vs. Revolution: Camus distinguishes between revolt, which is an individual affirmation of human dignity, and revolution, which he views as nihilistic and violent. “Revolution demands totality…the first starts from a ‘no’ based on a ‘yes’, the second starts from absolute negation.”
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
| Literary Term/Concept | Explanation | Context in the Article |
| Absurdity | The conflict between human attempts to find meaning in life and the universe’s inherent meaninglessness. | Central to Camus’ philosophy, where absurdity results in despair, but also invites revolt. Described in The Myth of Sisyphus. |
| Tragic Humanism | A form of humanism that acknowledges the tragic elements of life, such as despair and suffering, but maintains a commitment to human values and dignity. | Camus embodies this concept by rejecting nihilism and suicide, choosing to live authentically despite the absurdity. |
| Despair | A profound sense of meaninglessness or hopelessness, often linked to existential crises. | Camus views despair as a response to recognizing the absurd, yet insists it can be transcended through revolt. |
| Revolt | The act of rebelling against absurdity and despair by affirming life, despite its contradictions. | Camus champions revolt as the appropriate response to absurdity, distinguishing it from passive despair or nihilism. |
| Existentialism | A philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom, choice, and responsibility in an indifferent or meaningless world. | Both Camus and Sartre engage with existentialist ideas, though Sartre leans toward revolution and historical change, while Camus advocates for revolt against the absurd. |
| Metaphysical Rebellion | The rejection of metaphysical meaning or religious authority in favor of personal authenticity and freedom. | Sartre’s portrayal of Orestes in The Flies reflects metaphysical rebellion, rejecting any order beyond man. |
| Nihilism | The belief that life is meaningless and that all values and beliefs are baseless. | Camus fights against nihilism, suggesting that even in the face of absurdity, humanism and revolt are necessary responses. |
| Tragic Stalemate | A situation where tragic resignation or acceptance of despair becomes the dominant response, often leading to inaction. | Williams contrasts Camus’ commitment to revolt with other thinkers, like Eliot, who embrace tragic resignation. |
| Revolution | A fundamental, often violent, change in societal or political structures, contrasted with individual revolt. | Sartre supports revolution as a necessary step toward changing historical conditions, while Camus views it as nihilistic. |
Contribution of “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Existentialist Literary Criticism
- Contribution: Williams examines the existentialist philosophies of Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre, emphasizing their differing approaches to tragedy, absurdity, and human freedom. The article provides insight into how existential themes such as despair, absurdity, and revolt are represented in literature.
- Key Reference: “The condition of despair, as Camus describes it, occurs at the point of recognition of what is called ‘the absurd’… Camus presents revolt as the proper response to this condition.” Williams highlights existentialism’s focus on human freedom and responsibility in response to life’s inherent meaninglessness.
- Impact: Williams connects existential philosophy to the development of modern tragedy, emphasizing how literature can reflect existentialist concerns with personal authenticity, absurdity, and rebellion.
2. Tragic Humanism
- Contribution: Williams’ concept of tragic humanism is a significant contribution to literary theory. It redefines tragedy in modern terms, blending existentialist and humanist ideas. Tragic humanism acknowledges human suffering and despair but affirms a commitment to human dignity and moral action.
- Key Reference: “Camus, as writer and humanist, put all his strength into going beyond that point at which humanism is supposed to break down into despair.” Williams explores how Camus combines existentialist ideas of absurdity with humanist values, proposing that modern tragedy centers on the tension between despair and revolt.
- Impact: This idea enriches literary theory by expanding the scope of humanism within modern tragedies. It challenges classical notions of tragedy by emphasizing individual responsibility and resistance to despair, offering a more dynamic interpretation of human suffering in modern literature.
3. Modern Tragedy Theory
- Contribution: The article significantly contributes to theories of modern tragedy by contrasting the classical Greek tragic form with contemporary notions of collective and individual suffering. Williams suggests that modern tragedy has shifted from the fate-driven narratives of antiquity to explorations of personal, existential crises and the societal conditions of modernity.
- Key Reference: “Today tragedy is collective… Yet Camus brought to this recognition… his own deeply rooted attitudes to life, which were also, in themselves, tragic.” This highlights how modern tragedy moves beyond individual fates to explore collective human suffering and social alienation.
- Impact: Williams’ discussion of Camus and Sartre redefines modern tragedy as a space where existential despair is countered by personal revolt. This contribution reframes tragic theory by considering the political and philosophical contexts of 20th-century thought.
4. Marxist Literary Criticism
- Contribution: While not a primary focus, Williams engages indirectly with Marxist literary theory by discussing the socio-political contexts in which Sartre and Camus operate. He critiques Sartre’s focus on revolution and historical materialism as a response to existential suffering, contrasting it with Camus’ more individualistic approach to revolt.
- Key Reference: “Sartre, defending revolution, puts his whole stress on its violence, which indeed seems at times to be not merely necessary but actively purifying.” Williams challenges the Marxist notion of historical revolution, suggesting that Sartre’s view of revolution focuses too heavily on violence and totality.
- Impact: Williams critiques the limitations of Marxist revolution in resolving existential despair and introduces a humanist perspective that challenges the notion that political revolution can solve deeper existential crises.
5. Absurdist Criticism
- Contribution: The article contributes to absurdist criticism by analyzing the ways Camus represents the absurd in his works and how his characters respond to it. Williams positions Camus’ work within a framework where the absurd is not just a philosophical idea but a literary theme central to modern tragedy.
- Key Reference: “The Outsider cannot be read as autobiography; it is essentially an objective presentation… The loss of connection with others, which is also a loss of connection with reality, is in that sense fatal.” Williams shows how Camus portrays the absurd as a disconnection from meaning, leading to existential crises in his characters.
- Impact: This analysis enhances absurdist criticism by situating Camus’ work within a broader literary tradition that explores human alienation, despair, and the search for meaning in an absurd universe.
6. Post-War Literary Criticism
- Contribution: Williams’ essay engages with the post-World War II intellectual climate, analyzing how the works of Camus and Sartre reflect the ethical and philosophical dilemmas faced by European writers after the war. It examines how tragedy evolves in response to the horrors of war, fascism, and political tyranny.
- Key Reference: “The facts of absurdity and despair are seen as a common condition… most notably perhaps in Cross Purpose.” Williams emphasizes how modern tragedy, as seen in the works of Camus and Sartre, addresses the collective trauma and alienation felt in the post-war period.
- Impact: The article contributes to post-war literary theory by showing how literature of the time grapples with despair and revolt in the face of societal disintegration and the failure of traditional values.
Examples of Critiques Through “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
| Literary Work and Author | Critique Through “Tragic Despair and Revolt” | Reference from the Article |
| The Myth of Sisyphus by Albert Camus | Williams critiques Camus’ portrayal of the absurd, where Sisyphus’ eternal struggle is a symbol of human existence. Despite the despair in recognizing life’s absurdity, Camus finds meaning in the act of rebellion, symbolized by Sisyphus’ refusal to surrender. | “The lucidity that was to constitute his torture at the same time crowns his victory. There is no fate that cannot be surmounted by scorn.” |
| The Outsider (L’Étranger) by Albert Camus | Williams emphasizes the alienation and disconnection of Meursault from society, highlighting how Camus presents a new form of tragedy. Meursault’s inability to connect with others results in absurd actions, leading to his condemnation by an indifferent society. | “The loss of connection with others, which is also a loss of connection with reality, is in that sense fatal. Meursault kills feeling that he is being attacked.” |
| The Flies (Les Mouches) by Jean-Paul Sartre | Sartre’s interpretation of existential freedom is critiqued through the lens of revolt. Orestes’ rejection of divine guilt and acceptance of personal responsibility parallels Sartre’s emphasis on existential revolt against metaphysical authority. | “Orestes becomes free by assuming the personal consequences of his defiance. By this personal action, he liberates his city from the cloud of flies and blood.” |
| The Plague (La Peste) by Albert Camus | Williams interprets The Plague as a depiction of collective suffering and revolt against arbitrary death. Rieux’s solidarity with the people of Oran represents the humanist struggle against despair, despite the knowledge that the fight is endless. | “The true dimension of the tragic humanism of Camus is now evident… the tragedy lies in the common condition, against which the revolt is made.” |
Criticism Against “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Oversimplification of Philosophical Differences: Some may argue that Williams simplifies the complex philosophical differences between Camus and Sartre, particularly in their approaches to revolt and revolution. Sartre’s emphasis on historical change and Camus’ focus on individual revolt might be more nuanced than Williams presents.
- Limited Engagement with Sartre’s Later Works: Williams primarily discusses Sartre’s earlier works such as The Flies and Men Without Shadows, but he does not extensively address Sartre’s later development in his thinking about revolution and existential freedom, potentially leaving out key evolutions in Sartre’s thought.
- Underrepresentation of Camus’ Ambivalence Toward Revolt: Williams tends to frame Camus’ stance on revolt in a positive light, but Camus himself expressed ambivalence about the efficacy and morality of revolt, particularly in The Rebel. Williams may not fully explore Camus’ nuanced reflections on the limitations of revolt.
- Narrow Focus on Tragic Humanism: Williams heavily emphasizes the concept of tragic humanism, but this might obscure other interpretations of Camus’ and Sartre’s work, such as existential nihilism or political commitment. The focus on tragedy might overlook broader existential or social elements in their philosophies.
- Potential Overemphasis on Literary Analysis Over Philosophy: Some critics might argue that Williams’ literary analysis of works like The Myth of Sisyphus and The Plague downplays the philosophical rigor and broader existential debates in favor of focusing on literary themes of tragedy and despair.
Representative Quotations from “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “A great modern form of the tragic must and will be born.” | This quotation highlights Camus’ desire for a new form of modern tragedy that goes beyond classical traditions. It reflects his belief that the tragedies of the modern world need new expressions, influenced by contemporary existential dilemmas. |
| “The condition of despair, as Camus describes it, occurs at the point of recognition of what is called ‘the absurd’.” | Williams introduces the core of Camus’ philosophy, where despair stems from the recognition of life’s fundamental absurdity. The concept of absurdity is central to Camus’ existential thinking. |
| “The essential problem is to live in full recognition of the contradictions and within the tensions they produce.” | This reflects Camus’ rejection of nihilism and suicide, suggesting that the challenge is to live with the tensions between life’s contradictions, such as reason versus an irrational universe, life versus death. |
| “Real despair means death… A literature of despair is a contradiction in terms.” | Camus argues that true despair results in death, while literature that expresses despair paradoxically affirms life and human connection. Williams uses this to illustrate Camus’ belief in revolt over resignation. |
| “Today tragedy is collective.” | Camus’ view that modern tragedy involves collective suffering, rather than just individual fates, is emphasized by Williams. This reflects the shared human condition in a world of war, oppression, and alienation. |
| “The loss of connection with others, which is also a loss of connection with reality, is in that sense fatal.” | In The Outsider, Williams highlights how Meursault’s disconnection from society and reality leads to his tragic fate. This speaks to the existential theme of alienation in Camus’ work. |
| “I rebel, therefore we exist.” | Williams focuses on Camus’ concept of revolt as the affirmation of collective human existence. This phrase from The Rebel echoes Descartes’ Cogito, reimagined in an existential context where rebellion affirms life. |
| “Sartre accused Camus of ‘a bitter wisdom which seeks to deny time’.” | Williams addresses Sartre’s critique of Camus, suggesting that Camus’ focus on metaphysical revolt and timeless absurdity overlooks the historical, time-bound nature of human suffering and revolution. |
| “Revolution demands totality. The first starts from a ‘no’ based on a ‘yes’, the second starts from absolute negation.” | Williams distinguishes between Camus’ idea of revolt (creative and affirmative) and Sartre’s idea of revolution (nihilistic and violent). This is key to understanding their philosophical divergence. |
| “The tragedy lies in the common condition, against which the revolt is made.” | This summarizes Williams’ interpretation of Camus’ tragic humanism, where tragedy is rooted in the collective human condition of suffering, while revolt becomes an individual response to this shared despair. |
Suggested Readings: “Tragic Despair and Revolt: Camus and Sartre from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Eagleton, Terry. Sweet Violence: The Idea of the Tragic. Blackwell Publishing, 2003.
- Williams, Raymond. Modern Tragedy. Chatto & Windus, 1966.
- Steiner, George. The Death of Tragedy. Yale University Press, 1996.
https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300069167/the-death-of-tragedy - Barker, Howard. Arguments for a Theatre. Manchester University Press, 1989.
- Segal, Charles. Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sophocles. Harvard University Press, 1981.
- Kott, Jan. The Eating of the Gods: An Interpretation of Greek Tragedy. Northwestern University Press, 1987.
- Elsom, John. Post-War British Theatre Criticism. Routledge, 2013.