Introduction: “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
The chapter “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams is a key component of his larger work, Modern Tragedy, published in 1966. This chapter stands out for its in-depth analysis of the tragic figures in the works of T.S. Eliot and Boris Pasternak. Williams explores the concept of resignation to fate and its role in shaping the modern tragic hero. His analysis sheds light on the unique qualities of modern tragedy, such as its focus on individual struggle and existential themes. This chapter has been influential in shaping our understanding of modern literature and has contributed significantly to the field of literary theory.
Summary of “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Rhythm of Sacrifice and its Complexity in Tragedy:
- The rhythm of tragedy in modern works often revolves around sacrifice, but its meaning and significance have evolved from classical contexts.
- Williams suggests that while sacrifice traditionally meant a man’s death would renew life, this notion is now fraught with ambiguity. In modern tragedy, heroes are often perceived as victims rather than agents of renewal.
- Ambiguity in the Concept of Sacrifice:
- The concept of sacrifice in modern culture is layered with ambiguity. Williams notes, “The idea of sacrifice is profoundly ambiguous,” especially when it lacks divine or transcendent significance (Williams, p. 190).
- In the modern world, sacrifice is often reinterpreted as martyrdom, where the victim is mourned more than celebrated, signifying a shift in how sacrifice is perceived (Williams, p. 191).
- Contextual Understanding of Sacrifice:
- For sacrifice to retain its tragic power, the context—whether divine, historical, or social—must be evident in the literary work. Without this, the action may lose its significance, reducing it to an autonomous form of art detached from deeper meaning (Williams, p. 192).
- Sacrifice in Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral:
- Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral portrays the death of Becket as a martyr, aligning the individual’s sacrifice with an eternal divine plan rather than a historical event. This shifts focus from the heroism of Becket’s martyrdom to his submission to a divine, timeless law:
“I give my life / To the Law of God above the Law of Man” (Williams, p. 193).
- Williams highlights that Eliot’s play focuses on the “fertilizing effects of his [Becket’s] blood,” suggesting a continuity between individual sacrifice and the redemption of the larger order (Williams, p. 194).
- Sacrifice and Resignation in Eliot’s The Cocktail Party:
- In The Cocktail Party, the character Celia Coplestone’s death embodies a modern version of sacrifice, but Williams argues it is more a resignation to a meaningless condition rather than a tragic redemption:
“The real tragedy is not in the death but in the life” (Williams, p. 198).
- The play, Williams suggests, blurs the line between sacrifice and resignation, where Celia’s death neither redeems nor revitalizes the world, but rather affirms the hollow lives of the other characters who continue with “the cocktail party” (Williams, p. 199).
- Tragic Resignation vs. Sacrifice in Eliot:
- Eliot’s works, according to Williams, do not fully embrace the Christian notion of redemption through sacrifice but instead offer a form of tragic resignation. In The Cocktail Party, for example, the blood of sacrifice becomes a symbolic gesture that ratifies the world as it is, without bringing true renewal:
“Sacrifice now does not redeem the world… but ratifies the world as it is” (Williams, p. 199).
- Pasternak’s Sacrificial Vision in Doctor Zhivago:
- In contrast to Eliot, Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago portrays life and sacrifice as deeply intertwined with history. The novel centers on the personal and social sacrifices during the Russian Revolution, framed as part of an ongoing process of suffering, loss, and rebirth.
- Williams asserts that Pasternak presents sacrifice as essential to life’s continuity:
“The revolution is fire and redemption, but it is also fire and hardening, fire and destruction” (Williams, p. 204).
- Zhivago’s life and death are part of a larger historical pattern of renewal, blending individual sacrifice with social upheaval.
- Fusion of Christian Redemption and Marxist History in Pasternak:
- Williams highlights the originality of Pasternak’s work in merging Christian themes of redemption with Marxist concepts of history, showing how personal sacrifice can lead to a collective rebirth:
“The extraordinary vitality of Pasternak’s novel makes the essential contrast” (Williams, p. 207).
- In Pasternak’s vision, the tragedy lies not in the individual’s death, but in the broader loss of personality within the destructive force of revolution, ultimately leading to a collective redemption.
- Comparison between Eliot and Pasternak:
- Williams contrasts the two authors, stating that while Eliot’s notion of sacrifice is often tied to resignation and social stagnation, Pasternak’s vision is one of renewal through suffering. Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago offers a deeper, more dynamic portrayal of sacrifice as a force for both personal and societal transformation (Williams, p. 206-207).
Key Quotations:
- “The tragedy is not in the death, but in the life” (The Cocktail Party) (Williams, p. 198).
- “The extraordinary vitality of Pasternak’s novel makes the essential contrast” (Doctor Zhivago) (Williams, p. 207).
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
| Literary Term/Concept | Explanation | Examples/References |
| Tragedy | A dramatic genre characterized by serious themes and the suffering or downfall of a protagonist. Tragedy often explores human limitations and existential questions. | Williams analyzes tragedy in both Eliot and Pasternak’s works, showing how sacrifice and suffering are central to their tragic narratives. |
| Sacrifice | The act of giving up something valuable, often life itself, for a higher purpose or cause. In tragedy, it’s a key element symbolizing loss and potential renewal. | In Murder in the Cathedral, Becket’s martyrdom is framed as an act of sacrifice for divine law (Williams, p. 193). In Doctor Zhivago, sacrifice is intertwined with historical processes, symbolizing both loss and creation (Williams, p. 204). |
| Martyrdom | The death or suffering of an individual for a cause, particularly religious or political. Martyrdom often implies a higher moral or spiritual significance to the sacrifice. | Becket in Murder in the Cathedral is portrayed as a martyr who dies not for personal glory but to fulfill a divine order (Williams, p. 193). Celia Coplestone in The Cocktail Party also becomes a martyr, though with less tragic grandeur (Williams, p. 196). |
| Resignation | A passive acceptance of one’s fate, often linked with a sense of inevitability and lack of power to change the outcome. | Williams describes the resignation in The Cocktail Party, where characters like Celia accept their fate without transformative impact (Williams, p. 199). Eliot’s work shifts from tragic redemption to tragic resignation (Williams, p. 200). |
| Redemption | The idea of salvation or deliverance from sin, error, or evil. Often involves sacrifice or suffering as a necessary path to renewal. | In Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago, redemption is tied to the collective suffering of the revolution. It blends Christian and Marxist ideas, emphasizing personal and societal transformation through sacrifice (Williams, p. 206). |
| Fate and Destiny | Forces believed to predetermine the course of events, often uncontrollable and inescapable, guiding characters toward inevitable outcomes. | In Murder in the Cathedral, Becket’s death is framed as a willed submission to divine fate, not merely personal choice (Williams, p. 194). In contrast, the fates of Zhivago and Lara in Doctor Zhivago are shaped by the broader historical forces of revolution. |
| Heroism | The qualities of a hero, often including courage, self-sacrifice, and the pursuit of noble goals. In modern tragedy, heroism is frequently questioned or redefined. | Williams contrasts the traditional heroism of martyrdom with modern tragedy’s focus on characters like Willy Loman in Death of a Salesman, whose sacrifice is more of an indictment than a heroic act (Williams, p. 192). |
| Scapegoat | A person or entity that is unfairly blamed for the misfortunes of others, often serving as a symbolic sacrifice to alleviate collective guilt. | Williams links the concept of scapegoating to the modern understanding of sacrifice, where the victim’s death often generates guilt rather than renewal (Williams, p. 191). |
| Historical Context | The specific social, political, and cultural environment in which a work of literature is set or created, which influences its themes and significance. | The Russian Revolution provides the historical context in Doctor Zhivago, shaping the narrative’s exploration of personal and societal sacrifice (Williams, p. 203). Murder in the Cathedral’s historical context is downplayed to emphasize eternal themes (p. 194). |
| Ritual and Pattern | Repeated symbolic actions or behaviors, often tied to religious or cultural traditions, which give meaning to sacrifice and tragedy. | In Murder in the Cathedral, the pattern of ritual sacrifice is central to the martyrdom of Becket, symbolizing eternal truths (Williams, p. 193). Pasternak’s use of repeated patterns in Doctor Zhivago reflects the broader cycles of life, death, and renewal (p. 204). |
Contribution of “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Modern Tragedy Theory
Williams’ analysis extends the theory of tragedy by examining how sacrifice and resignation function within modern literature. His key contribution lies in differentiating modern tragedy from classical or Shakespearean tragedy, where the focus has shifted from heroic action to passive resignation.
- Resignation vs. Heroism: Williams contrasts traditional tragic heroes, who act decisively for a cause, with modern tragic figures who resign themselves to fate or sacrifice without achieving meaningful redemption. For example, Williams critiques how Celia Coplestone in The Cocktail Party chooses death, not for personal glory or social transformation, but as an act of resignation:
“Sacrifice now does not redeem the world… but ratifies the world as it is” (Williams, p. 199).
This reflects modern tragedy’s focus on passive suffering over heroic sacrifice, altering the genre’s fundamental dynamic.
- Ambiguity of Sacrifice: Williams reconfigures the traditional rhythm of sacrifice by showing that in modern tragedy, the act of sacrifice often leads not to renewal but to resignation. He contrasts Eliot’s Becket, who sacrifices himself in a Christian context of eternal design, with Zhivago, who embodies a more ambiguous form of sacrifice tied to social and historical processes:
“The tragedy is not in the death, but in the life” (Williams, p. 198).
This nuanced view of tragedy reshapes its relevance in modern literature, offering new interpretations for works where heroism is questioned or undermined.
2. Sacrifice Theory
Williams’ discussion of sacrifice contributes significantly to sacrifice theory by examining the evolution of this concept from religious and mythological frameworks into modern secular and political narratives.
- Christian Sacrifice vs. Modern Secular Sacrifice: Williams argues that the notion of sacrifice in the Christian tradition, as seen in Eliot’s work, transforms from a divine act of redemption to a more personal, resigned act in modern secular contexts. He emphasizes how modern audiences have moved away from understanding sacrifice as a religious or divine ritual:
“We have lost, then, the rhythm of sacrifice, in its simple original form” (Williams, p. 191).
He further elaborates on this idea by explaining that while martyrdom may still exist, it no longer carries the same transformative power it once did, often viewed as a tragic victimization rather than a heroic sacrifice.
- Public vs. Private Sacrifice: Another theoretical insight is Williams’ discussion of how modern tragedies blur the line between public and private sacrifice. In Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago, the protagonist’s personal sacrifices are intimately tied to the broader societal upheavals of the Russian Revolution, reflecting the interconnection between individual suffering and collective historical processes:
“The Revolution… is seen as a sacrifice of life for life” (Williams, p. 205).
This offers a deeper understanding of how modern literature reconceptualizes sacrifice, not just as an individual act but as part of a social and historical pattern of suffering and transformation.
Williams is one of the pioneers of cultural materialism, and his analysis in this essay underscores the importance of historical context in understanding tragedy and sacrifice.
- Historical and Social Forces Shaping Sacrifice: Williams argues that the tragedies of Eliot and Pasternak cannot be fully understood without examining the historical and social forces that shape their characters’ experiences. He frames the Russian Revolution in Doctor Zhivago as not just a backdrop but as a dialectical force driving the characters’ sacrifices:
“The Revolution, that is to say, is seen as a sacrifice of life for life: not simply the killing, to make way for a new order, but the loss of the reality of life while a new life is being made” (Williams, p. 204).
This interpretation aligns with cultural materialism’s focus on how societal structures, historical moments, and economic forces influence literature and the representation of individual experiences.
- Art as Historical Process: Williams connects art and history by suggesting that both are involved in the process of creating life through suffering and sacrifice. In Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago, for example, the revolutionary process is paralleled with the process of art, where creation (in both historical and artistic senses) emerges from the meditation on death:
“To make art is then to participate in the release of spirit which is the movement of history” (Williams, p. 202).
This reflects a cultural materialist view of literature as not just reflective but constitutive of historical consciousness.
4. Reception Theory
Williams also contributes to reception theory by discussing how modern readers and audiences interpret sacrifice and tragedy. He argues that modern audiences often view heroes as victims, and this shift in perception significantly alters the emotional and intellectual responses to tragedy.
- Audience’s Perception of Sacrifice: In modern works like Eliot’s and Pasternak’s, sacrifice is seen not as a redemptive act but as a victimization, which reflects contemporary societal guilt and anxiety rather than communal catharsis:
“Our emotional commitment, in a majority of cases, is to the man who dies, rather than to the action in which he dies” (Williams, p. 191).
This shift challenges traditional reception of tragic heroes, reshaping how audiences engage with sacrifice in literary works.
5. Postcolonial Theory and Historical Materialism
Williams’ examination of the political and social implications of sacrifice in Pasternak’s work can also be linked to postcolonial theory and historical materialism, as it deals with the role of colonial and revolutionary forces in shaping individual and collective identities.
- Sacrifice and Historical Oppression: In Doctor Zhivago, the Russian Revolution is seen as both an oppressive and redemptive force. The novel critiques how political revolutions often claim to offer freedom while simultaneously destroying individual autonomy:
“The tragedy of Yury and Lara… is a progressive loss of personality, as the destructive force of the revolution extends” (Williams, p. 204).
This aligns with postcolonial critiques of how revolutionary movements, while promising liberation, can entrench new forms of oppression and dislocation.
Examples of Critiques Through “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
| Literary Work | Critique through Williams’ Lens | References from the Essay |
| Murder in the Cathedral by T.S. Eliot | Williams critiques Murder in the Cathedral for focusing on martyrdom as a preordained divine sacrifice. The tragedy lies in Becket’s submission to an eternal, timeless law rather than heroic action. The emphasis is on his martyrdom’s ritualistic nature rather than historical reality. | “It is not to the heroic will of the martyr that our response is directed, but to his subjection of himself to his part in the pattern, and then to the fertilizing effects of his blood” (Williams, p. 194). |
| The Cocktail Party by T.S. Eliot | Williams sees The Cocktail Party as a representation of tragic resignation rather than heroic sacrifice. Celia’s death is ratified as necessary but does not redeem or renew the world. Instead, it serves to affirm the shallow, resigned lives of the other characters. | “Sacrifice now does not redeem the world, or bring new life to the waste land. Rather, in an obscure way, it ratifies the world as it is” (Williams, p. 199). |
| Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller | Williams contrasts Willy Loman’s sacrifice in Death of a Salesman with other forms of sacrifice, noting that Loman’s death is more of an indictment of his life and society, rather than an act of tragic heroism. The sacrifice is ultimately meaningless and indicts the surrounding world. | “Willy Loman… ends by deliberately sacrificing his life, but the sacrifice, like the whole life, comes through as an indictment” (Williams, p. 192). |
| Doctor Zhivago by Boris Pasternak | Williams argues that Doctor Zhivago presents a complex relationship between personal and social sacrifice. Zhivago’s individual suffering mirrors the broader historical process of the Russian Revolution, where personal sacrifice leads to societal renewal but also the loss of personality. | “The Revolution… is seen as a sacrifice of life for life: not simply the killing, to make way for a new order, but the loss of the reality of life while a new life is being made” (Williams, p. 205). |
Criticism Against “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Overemphasis on Historical Context:
Williams’ cultural materialist approach heavily emphasizes the historical and social contexts surrounding the works, which some critics might argue detracts from the universal themes of tragedy, reducing the works to socio-political allegories rather than engaging with their broader existential and metaphysical dimensions. - Simplification of Eliot’s Religious Themes:
Williams critiques T.S. Eliot’s work for focusing on resignation rather than redemption, but some may argue that this reading oversimplifies the religious depth in Eliot’s plays. By focusing on the idea of tragic resignation, Williams might overlook the spiritual complexity of Eliot’s Christian symbolism, particularly the transformative potential of sacrifice. - Reductionist View of Sacrifice:
Critics could argue that Williams offers a narrow interpretation of sacrifice, primarily viewing it through the lens of cultural materialism. This might ignore other philosophical, psychological, or theological dimensions of sacrifice, such as its personal, existential, or spiritual significance, particularly in works like Doctor Zhivago, which blends Christian and individual redemption. - Limited Engagement with Aesthetic Elements:
Williams’ analysis focuses predominantly on thematic and ideological aspects of the works, potentially underplaying the aesthetic and formal qualities of Eliot and Pasternak’s tragedies. His approach might be seen as neglecting how the literary form, language, and structure contribute to the tragic impact and the portrayal of sacrifice. - Critique of Modern Tragedy as Pessimistic:
Williams’ view of modern tragedy as primarily resigned and pessimistic might be seen as too negative or reductive. Some might argue that even in modern tragedy, elements of hope, resistance, or transformation exist, which Williams does not fully explore, particularly in his treatment of Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago.
Representative Quotations from “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “The rhythm of tragedy, it is said, is a rhythm of sacrifice. A man is disintegrated by suffering, and is led to his death, but the action is more than personal…” (p. 189) | Williams begins by establishing the central idea of sacrifice in tragedy, suggesting that tragic narratives are not merely personal stories of suffering but involve broader implications for society or a larger order. This framing sets the stage for his analysis of modern tragedy. |
| “We have lost, then, the rhythm of sacrifice, in its simple original form. Our heroes often move us most closely when they are in fact victims…” (p. 191) | Williams argues that modern tragedy shifts the focus from heroic sacrifice to victimhood, reflecting a loss of the classical understanding of sacrifice as a renewal. This introduces the idea of resignation and victimhood as central to contemporary portrayals of tragic figures. |
| “Sacrifice is judged, in fact, by its cause and its effects.” (p. 191) | This quotation highlights how the value and meaning of sacrifice depend on the context, purpose, and consequences of the action. Williams emphasizes that sacrifice, especially in modern tragedy, is often more ambiguous and open to interpretation, reflecting complex social and moral judgments. |
| “The tragedy is not in the death, but in the life.” (p. 198) | Williams critiques the modern shift in tragedy, particularly in works like The Cocktail Party, where the focus of tragedy is not the heroic death but the hollow, resigned life leading to that death. It reflects his view that modern tragedy is more about resignation than heroic struggle. |
| “Sacrifice now does not redeem the world… but ratifies the world as it is.” (p. 199) | Here, Williams critiques Eliot’s treatment of sacrifice in The Cocktail Party, suggesting that sacrifice no longer brings renewal or transformation. Instead, it affirms the world’s existing conditions, making the act of sacrifice one of resignation rather than a force for change. |
| “It is not to the heroic will of the martyr that our response is directed, but to his subjection of himself to his part in the pattern…” (p. 194) | This quotation from Williams’ analysis of Murder in the Cathedral reflects how martyrdom in Eliot’s work is not about personal heroism but about submitting to a divine, eternal plan. The emphasis is on the ritualistic role of the martyr rather than the individual’s heroism. |
| “The Revolution… is seen as a sacrifice of life for life: not simply the killing, to make way for a new order, but the loss of the reality of life while a new life is being made.” (p. 205) | In his analysis of Doctor Zhivago, Williams describes the Russian Revolution as a process of sacrifice, where personal and social losses pave the way for a new order. However, this sacrifice involves not only death but also the erosion of individual identity during the transformation. |
| “Zhivago’s life is given its pattern… as a sacrifice for life in its own right.” (p. 205) | Williams highlights how Yury Zhivago’s life mirrors the revolutionary upheaval around him, framing his personal suffering and sacrifices as part of a broader historical process. Zhivago’s tragedy is tied to both the personal and societal losses of the Russian Revolution. |
| “The extraordinary vitality of Pasternak’s novel makes the essential contrast.” (p. 207) | Williams contrasts the vitality of Pasternak’s vision in Doctor Zhivago with the resignation he finds in Eliot’s work. While Pasternak’s tragedy involves suffering, it also allows for renewal and transformation, providing a deeper, more dynamic vision of sacrifice and life. |
| “It is a very original fusion of the Christian idea of redemption and the Marxist idea of history.” (p. 207) | Williams acknowledges Pasternak’s achievement in blending Christian and Marxist themes, framing the individual’s sacrifice in Doctor Zhivago as part of a larger historical and spiritual process. This reflects his admiration for the novel’s synthesis of personal and societal transformation. |
Suggested Readings: “Tragic Resignation and Sacrifice: Eliot and Pasternak from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Eliot, T. S. Murder in the Cathedral. Faber & Faber, 1935.
- Pasternak, Boris. Doctor Zhivago. Translated by Max Hayward and Manya Harari, Pantheon, 1958.
- Miller, Arthur. Death of a Salesman. Viking Press, 1949.
- Eliot, T. S. The Cocktail Party. Faber & Faber, 1950.
- Williams, Raymond. Modern Tragedy. Stanford University Press, 1966.
- Román, David. “Introduction: Tragedy.” Theatre Journal, vol. 54, no. 1, 2002, pp. 1–17. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25069017. Accessed 3 Oct. 2024.
- Williams, Raymond. “Tolstoy, Lawrence, and Tragedy.” The Kenyon Review, vol. 25, no. 4, 1963, pp. 633–50. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4334372. Accessed 3 Oct. 2024.
- Connor, John. “Raymond Williams, Modern Tragedy and the Affective Life of Politics.” Key Words: A Journal of Cultural Materialism, no. 15, 2017, pp. 72–85. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26920437. Accessed 3 Oct. 2024.