Introduction: “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton
“Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1975 in the journal New Left Review. This essay is considered a seminal piece in the field of literary theory, particularly in the intersection of literature and sociology. Eagleton’s work is significant for its exploration of the social and historical contexts that shape literary production and reception. It challenges the traditional notion of literature as a purely aesthetic creation and instead positions it as a product of and reflection of broader social forces.
Summary of “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton
The Debate:
- Realist justification: “Literature is in fact deeply conditioned by its social context” (Eagleton, 1988).
- Pragmatist justification: “Highlighting its social determinants is useful and desirable from a particular political standpoint” (Eagleton, 1988).
Problems with Each Approach:
- “Social product” is a broad term: “A problem with the realist case about the sociology of literature, then, is that it is not very clear what exactly is being claimed” (Eagleton, 1988).
- Pragmatist critics might downplay the historical and social reality of issues: “The problem with this summary, however, is that it merely pushes the realist/pragmatist issue one stage back to the interpretation of history and society themselves” (Eagleton, 1988).
The Importance of Truth:
- Dismissing truth is problematic: “There is something odd in hearing certain feminist critics denounce truth in one breath and patriarchy in the next” (Eagleton, 1988).
- Truth is necessary for political criticism: “To abandon epistemology for politics is not undesirable but impossible” (Eagleton, 1988).
The Base/Superstructure Model:
- The model can be more useful if the superstructure is seen as a set of variable functions rather than a fixed category: “I am suggesting, in other words, that the base/superstructure model is most illuminating if the superstructure is regarded as a set of variable functions rather than as a given realm” (Eagleton, 1988).
- Superstructural features are those that actively participate in power struggles: “Superstructural is as superstructural does: some features of a social institution may be superstructural and some not, and these same features may change their status from one situation to another” (Eagleton, 1988).
- The state is both an instrument of ruling class and a site of political struggle: “The state is not only an agency of class rule but a means by which the unity of any social formation is produced and reproduced” (Eagleton, 1988).
Eagleton’s Position:
- He argues for a balance between realist and pragmatist accounts: “Insofar as ‘superstructural’ is a functional term, we cannot simply read off, in the manner of a strong epistemological realism, what is superstructural and what is not” (Eagleton, 1988).
- Superstructural activity exists because of the divided base: “The superstructure is an ‘imaginary’ response to a real contradiction in the mode of production” (Eagleton, 1988).
- Eagleton acknowledges the limitations of a strong, genetic-functional view of the base/superstructure model: “The reason why many social institutions, ‘literature’ among them, behave for much of the time in superstructural fashion can be found in the nature of the base” (Eagleton, 1988).
- The approach is realist but allows for pragmatic focus: “In this sense, then, my case is a realist one; but it is not the strong, inflexible realism of a certain Marxist tradition, and it makes room for the pragmatic position of deciding, for reasons of one’s own particular political interests and desires, to focus on those aspects of social phenomena which are in any given situation supportive of hegemony” (Eagleton, 1988).
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton
| Literary Term/Concept | Explanation |
| Realist Justification | Literature is deeply conditioned by its social context, and any critical analysis that ignores this fact is incomplete. |
| Pragmatist Justification | Literature is shaped by various factors, and while its social context may not be essential, highlighting it serves specific political purposes. |
| Social Product | Literature, like metaphors and line endings, is a product of society, but this broad definition alone does not justify a sociological approach. |
| Epistemological Realism | The belief that social structures (like class and patriarchy) are real forces determining historical events and should be considered in literature. |
| Epistemological Pragmatism | The view that history and social issues are constructed based on present political needs, not necessarily representing absolute truth. |
| Superstructure | A Marxist term that refers to societal institutions (e.g., literature, state) that support dominant ideologies, which act upon the economic base. |
| Base and Superstructure | A functionalist model in Marxist theory where the base (economic system) influences the superstructure (ideological and cultural institutions). |
| Political Hegemony | The dominance of a particular class or ideology in society, often supported and perpetuated by literature and cultural institutions. |
| Functionalist Marxism | A view that focuses on how social institutions (like literature) function to maintain or challenge dominant power structures. |
Contribution of “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories
| Literary Theory | Contribution of Eagleton’s Article | References from the Article |
| Marxist Literary Theory | Eagleton challenges and revises classical Marxist views on literature’s relationship to the socio-economic base. He questions the strict base-superstructure model and argues for a more flexible understanding. | “In its classical forms, Marxism is a strong epistemological realism which claims, for example, that all history actually is the history of class struggle.” (p. 473) |
| Feminist Literary Criticism | Eagleton highlights how pragmatist approaches align with feminist criticism, as feminist scholars may reject objectivism (which is linked with male epistemology) while still holding truth claims about patriarchy. | “Pragmatist positions of one kind or another are at the moment rather popular with some feminist critics, who suspect…that epistemological realism involves male objectivism.” (p. 470) |
| Post-Structuralism/Deconstruction | Eagleton critiques certain post-structuralist and deconstructionist tendencies, particularly their dismissal of “truth” and “reality” in favor of subjective interpretations, which leads to political contradictions. | “There is something odd in hearing certain feminist critics denounce truth in one breath and patriarchy in the next.” (p. 470) |
| Pragmatist Literary Theory | He engages deeply with the pragmatist approach, suggesting that literature can be read through various lenses, depending on the political needs and goals of the critic. Literature may not inherently express social forces, but can be interpreted as such for practical purposes. | “Highlighting its social determinants is useful and desirable from a particular political standpoint.” (p. 469) |
| Epistemological Realism | Eagleton critiques a rigid realist approach that assumes literature always reflects central social forces. He argues that social structures like class may shape literature, but not all literary works are concerned with them. | “One can hold that structures such as class and patriarchy genuinely are vitally determining forces in historical development but see no reason why every literary work should be centrally concerned with them.” (p. 470) |
| Cultural Materialism | Eagleton expands on the idea that literature is embedded within social and historical contexts, but these contexts are not rigidly deterministic. Instead, they can be pragmatically selected to serve political ends. | “It is in this sense, not in some genetic-functional way, that the secret of the superstructure is to be found in the base.” (p. 476) |
| Ideology Critique | Eagleton argues that literature is part of the superstructure and functions as a support for or critique of dominant ideologies, contributing to the maintenance or disruption of political hegemony. | “Superstructural activity is essential because the base is itself divided. If social relations were conducted without oppression…there would be no need for a superstructure.” (p. 476) |
Examples of Critiques Through “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton
| Literary Work | Critique Using Realist Approach | Critique Using Pragmatist Approach |
| The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald | Realist: The novel reflects the social and economic conditions of 1920s America, particularly the rise of capitalism, class distinctions, and the American Dream. These social forces deeply shape the characters’ lives and their outcomes. | Pragmatist: The novel can be critiqued for its portrayal of social class and materialism to highlight issues of wealth disparity and consumerism, which are relevant to contemporary political discourse. |
| Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë | Realist: The novel reflects the patriarchal structures of Victorian society, as Jane’s struggle for independence is deeply conditioned by her gender and social class within that historical context. | Pragmatist: Feminist critics may use the novel to highlight the ongoing struggles of women against patriarchal oppression. Jane’s fight for autonomy can be analyzed through modern feminist lenses. |
| Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad | Realist: The novella illustrates the colonialist attitudes and imperialist ideologies of the late 19th century, shaped by Europe’s economic and political dominance in Africa. | Pragmatist: The novella can be reinterpreted through a post-colonial lens to expose the destructive impact of European imperialism, making it relevant for critiquing modern-day neocolonialism. |
| Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen | Realist: The novel reflects the rigid class structure and gender expectations of Regency England, with marriage depicted as a necessary means for women’s economic security. | Pragmatist: The novel can be used to critique the institution of marriage and women’s economic dependence on men, offering insights into both historical and modern feminist debates. |
Criticism Against “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton
1. Oversimplification of the Theoretical Landscape:
- Reductionism: Critics argue that Eagleton’s division into realist and pragmatist approaches oversimplifies the complex theoretical landscape of the sociology of literature. There are numerous other perspectives, such as cultural materialism, new historicism, and post-structuralism, that offer more nuanced understandings of the relationship between literature and society.
- Neglect of Other Factors: Some argue that Eagleton’s focus on realist and pragmatist approaches neglects other important factors that shape literature, such as authorial intention, aesthetic considerations, and the reader’s interpretation.
2. Ambiguity in the Definition of “Superstructure”:
- Lack of Clarity: Critics have pointed out that Eagleton’s definition of “superstructure” is ambiguous and can be interpreted in different ways. This ambiguity can lead to confusion and disagreement among scholars.
- Overemphasis on Hegemony: Some argue that Eagleton’s focus on the superstructure as a means of maintaining hegemony overlooks the potential for literature to challenge and subvert dominant ideologies.
3. Limited Engagement with Contemporary Theories:
- Outdated Perspectives: While Eagleton’s essay was influential in its time, some critics argue that it fails to adequately engage with more recent developments in literary theory, such as post-colonial studies and queer theory.
- Neglect of Intersectional Analysis: Eagleton’s analysis is often criticized for not fully addressing the intersectionality of social factors, such as race, gender, and class, in shaping literature.
4. Overemphasis on Class Struggle:
- Determinism: Critics argue that Eagleton’s emphasis on class struggle can be overly deterministic, reducing the complexities of literary production and reception to a single factor.
- Neglect of Other Social Factors: Some argue that Eagleton’s focus on class struggle neglects other important social factors, such as gender, race, and sexuality, that shape literature.
5. Limited Attention to the Reader:
- Reader-Oriented Criticism: Critics argue that Eagleton’s approach is primarily author-centered and neglects the role of the reader in shaping the meaning and significance of a literary work.
Representative Quotations from “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Literature is in fact deeply conditioned by its social context, and any critical account of it which omits this fact is therefore automatically deficient.” | Eagleton asserts that ignoring the social conditions in which literature is produced leads to an incomplete analysis, supporting the Realist justification for the sociology of literature. |
| “Highlighting its social determinants is useful and desirable from a particular political standpoint.” | This reflects the Pragmatist approach, where the focus on social aspects of literature is seen as a tool to further political or ideological goals, rather than a claim that literature must always reflect social realities. |
| “A ‘sociological’ critic…can be pragmatist about both history and literature together, realist about history but pragmatist about literature, or realist about them both.” | Eagleton outlines the possible combinations of realist and pragmatist positions in both literature and history, highlighting the flexibility available to critics when approaching sociological readings of literature. |
| “What one cannot be, surely, is a pragmatist about history and a realist about literature.” | This quotation stresses the logical inconsistency of being a pragmatist about history (i.e., viewing it as constructed for political needs) and a realist about literature (i.e., seeing literature as directly reflecting historical truth). |
| “Realists and pragmatists may wrangle over what this means, but any political critic has surely to hold to some notion of truth.” | Eagleton critiques certain forms of relativism in literary theory, especially in political criticism, suggesting that without some adherence to truth, political critique undermines itself. |
| “The superstructure is defined precisely by its action on the base: it is, as Marx himself once commented, a relational term.” | Here, Eagleton engages with Marxist theory, explaining that the superstructure (including literature) is defined by its relationship to the economic base, emphasizing the relational rather than fixed nature of this concept. |
| “The transcendentalist case is a tiresome red herring which is currently driving some people into flagrantly self-contradictory positions.” | Eagleton critiques post-structuralist and transcendental arguments that reject truth or reality, arguing that such positions often lead to contradictions, especially in political theory. |
| “A Marxist should always be wary of swerving from tradition in this way, since ‘tradition’ means those beliefs which many hundreds and thousands of men and women in active struggle… have found it possible and necessary to hold.” | This quotation emphasizes Eagleton’s caution against too much revisionism in Marxist thought, suggesting that some Marxist traditions hold value because they emerged from real historical struggles. |
| “Superstructural activity is essential because the base is itself divided. If social relations were conducted without oppression and exploitation, there would be no need for a superstructure.” | Eagleton provides a Marxist analysis, arguing that the superstructure (including literature) exists because of economic contradictions in the base, specifically due to oppression and exploitation in society. |
| “I give offence to a certain kind of pragmatist; insofar as I also want to argue that there are social phenomena which at particular times are in no very relevant sense so bound up.” | Eagleton suggests that while certain aspects of society may not always be directly linked to political struggles, literature can be analyzed pragmatically to focus on those aspects that are relevant, causing friction with strict pragmatists or realists. |
Suggested Readings: “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton
Books:
- Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 2008. https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/literary-theory
- Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford University Press, 1977.
https://global.oup.com/academic/product/marxism-and-literature-9780198760610 - Eagleton, Terry. Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Literary Theory. Verso, 2006.
https://www.versobooks.com/products/435-criticism-and-ideology - Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801492228/the-political-unconscious/
Academic Articles:
- Althusser, Louis. “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (Notes Towards an Investigation).” Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, translated by Ben Brewster, Monthly Review Press, 1971, pp. 127–186.
https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/1970/ideology.htm - Eagleton, Terry. “Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory.” New Left Review, no. 82, 1973, pp. 3–16. https://newleftreview.org/issues/I82/articles/terry-eagleton-base-and-superstructure-in-marxist-cultural-theory
- Macherey, Pierre. A Theory of Literary Production. Translated by Geoffrey Wall, Routledge, 2006. https://www.routledge.com/A-Theory-of-Literary-Production/Macherey/p/book/9780415378499
Websites:
- Eagleton, Terry. “What Is Literature?” http://www.ricorso.net/rx/az-data/authors/e/Eagleton_T/life.htm
- https://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1139&context=ijls