Introduction: “What is Ecofeminism?” by Alicia H. Puleo
“What is Ecofeminism?” by Alicia H. Puleo first appeared in 2017 as part of the Quaderns de la Mediterrània, a collection focused on interdisciplinary dialogue between ecology and gender studies. Puleo, a philosopher, uses this essay to lay the foundation for her concept of “critical ecofeminism,” which merges feminist and ecological concerns as a critique of capitalist patriarchy. Central to Puleo’s thesis is the notion that modern capitalist and patriarchal structures prioritize economic gain over ecological stability, driving a model unsustainable for the environment and inequitable for women and marginalized communities. Unlike essentialist ecofeminist theories that associate women with nature based on perceived innate qualities, Puleo’s critical ecofeminism asserts that women’s environmental engagement stems more from socialization and historical caretaking roles rather than biological predetermination. She highlights significant global figures like Berta Cáceres, whose activism exemplifies ecofeminism’s call for environmental justice. Puleo emphasizes that ecofeminism should uphold principles of equality, autonomy, and environmental stewardship, advocating for women’s reproductive rights, food sovereignty, and an ecological ethic that respects life and promotes sustainable development. By questioning traditional gender roles and encouraging an ethics of care inclusive of both men and women, Puleo’s critical ecofeminism represents a pivotal addition to literary theory, challenging not only ecological exploitation but also androcentric ideologies that pervade social and economic systems.
Summary of “What is Ecofeminism?” by Alicia H. Puleo
- Intersection of Feminism and Ecology: Ecofeminism, according to Puleo, is a philosophical and activist framework that merges feminism with environmentalism to critique the “capitalist and patriarchal model” that fuels environmental degradation and social inequality. Puleo argues that ecofeminism counters a “techno-economic model” that prioritizes competitiveness and profit over ecological and social welfare.
- Critical Ecofeminism: Puleo introduces her concept of “critical ecofeminism”, a model that builds on feminist principles while rejecting essentialist views that equate women with nature based on biological or spiritual connections. Instead, she promotes a “constructivist perspective”, asserting that women’s environmental engagement often stems from historical social roles related to caregiving, not from any inherent biological inclination.
- Environmental Justice and Reproductive Rights: Puleo’s ecofeminism emphasizes reproductive rights and food sovereignty as fundamental for sustainable development. She draws attention to the precautionary principle, which she explains as a policy that places the burden of proof on those introducing new products or technologies, thus prioritizing “transparency and democratic participation” in environmental matters.
- Global Climate Crisis and Responsibility: Puleo underscores the urgency of addressing global climate change, noting that environmental degradation disproportionately affects women, especially in marginalized communities. She cites “natural catastrophes” as evidence of a “risk society,” a term coined by sociologist Ulrich Beck to describe a world increasingly threatened by human-made environmental risks.
- Rejecting Gender Stereotypes in Ecofeminism: Puleo rejects the notion that ecofeminism should idealize women’s roles as inherently nurturing or caretaking. Instead, she calls for a “post-gender ethics of care” that values “empathy and attentive care” in both men and women. This ethic, she suggests, should extend beyond humans to animals and the Earth as a whole, promoting a “culture of sustainability” that avoids essentialist definitions of gender.
- Sustainability and Equality: Advocating for a “universalisation of ecological and post-gender ethics of care,” Puleo calls for systemic change in education and societal values, challenging “androcentrism” and “the neoliberal development model.” She critiques androcentrism, the belief that male perspectives and values are the default, as a key factor in the domination and exploitation of both women and nature.
- Ecojustice and Global Solidarity: Puleo stresses that the effects of environmental destruction are felt most acutely by women in the Global South. She notes that “poor women of the so-called ‘South'” are primary victims of environmental harm, often for the benefit of consumer goods in wealthier nations. She advocates for ecojustice and “internationalist feminism” that encompasses environmental issues, arguing for food sovereignty and agroecology as solutions that support both women’s empowerment and ecological balance.
Literary Terms/Concepts in “What is Ecofeminism?” by Alicia H. Puleo
| Literary Term/Concept | Description | Relevance in Ecofeminism |
| Ecofeminism | Intersection of feminism and environmentalism, critiquing patriarchal and capitalist exploitation of nature. | Establishes the foundation of Puleo’s argument, calling for sustainable development and gender equality in ecological practices. |
| Critical Ecofeminism | A form of ecofeminism that avoids essentialist ideas and is grounded in feminist principles of equality. | Differentiates Puleo’s approach by focusing on social, not biological, motivations for women’s environmental engagement. |
| Precautionary Principle | Policy placing responsibility on those proposing new technologies to prove they are not harmful. | Advocates for environmental caution and transparency, addressing long-term ecological impacts. |
| Risk Society | Concept by Ulrich Beck referring to societies increasingly threatened by human-made environmental risks. | Highlights how modern capitalist economies create and exacerbate global ecological risks. |
| Constructivist Perspective | The view that gender behaviors are socially constructed rather than biologically determined. | Rejects essentialism by suggesting that women’s roles in environmentalism stem from socialized caregiving, not innate nature connections. |
| Post-Gender Ethics of Care | An ethics that values empathy and caregiving beyond gender stereotypes. | Promotes a sustainable, empathetic ethic for both men and women in environmental and social issues. |
| Androcentrism | A worldview that centers male perspectives as normative, often sidelining female and alternative perspectives. | Critiques traditional power structures, framing male-dominant perspectives as a core issue in environmental degradation and exploitation. |
| Interculturalism | Learning from sustainable practices across different cultures without blindly adopting them. | Supports ecofeminism’s call for a collaborative, global approach to environmentalism without essentializing cultural traditions. |
| Ecojustice | A concept linking social justice and environmental protection, focusing on equity for marginalized groups. | Emphasizes that poor women, particularly in the Global South, bear the brunt of ecological exploitation by wealthier nations. |
| Food Sovereignty | The right of communities to control their own food systems, including sustainable agricultural practices. | Highlights ecofeminism’s alignment with sustainable practices that empower communities, especially women. |
| Technomania | An uncritical faith in technology as a universal solution to problems. | Critiques reliance on technological fixes, promoting instead a balanced approach to ecology and human rights. |
| Liberty, Equality, and Sustainability | Puleo’s proposed values as guiding principles for an ecofeminist future. | Summarizes the ethical foundation of ecofeminism, integrating feminist and environmental ideals into a cohesive worldview. |
Contribution of “What is Ecofeminism?” by Alicia H. Puleo to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Feminist Theory
- Contribution: Puleo’s ecofeminism extends feminist theory by challenging both patriarchal exploitation and essentialist views of gender. She critiques the traditional association of women with nature as a biologically deterministic view, instead proposing a social constructivist perspective. This approach aligns with feminist theory’s focus on dismantling gender stereotypes and advocating for equality.
- Quotation: “From a constructivist perspective of gender subjectivity, we can consider that women’s interest in caring for nature is not an automatic mechanism related to gender.”
2. Environmental Theory (Ecocriticism)
- Contribution: Puleo enriches environmental literary theory by framing ecological issues within gendered power dynamics. Her discussion of the “precautionary principle” and critique of the capitalist development model adds depth to ecocriticism by highlighting the role of socio-political systems in environmental degradation.
- Quotation: “The unsustainability of the techno-economic development model is becoming increasingly clear, as it has a destructive nature that compromises the future of humankind.”
- Contribution: Ecofeminism, as presented by Puleo, intersects with postcolonial studies by addressing the disproportionate impact of environmental degradation on marginalized communities, especially women in the Global South. Her focus on “food sovereignty” and “ecojustice” aligns with postcolonial critiques of exploitation and emphasizes global inequalities in resource access.
- Quotation: “Poor women of the so-called ‘South’ are the first victims of the destruction of the environment aimed at producing sumptuary objects sold in the developed world.”
4. Ethics of Care
- Contribution: Puleo’s concept of “post-gender ethics of care” contributes to the ethics of care by advocating for an empathetic, relational approach to ecological and social issues that transcends gendered stereotypes. Her ecofeminist framework calls for a “culture of sustainability” that values care for all beings, proposing an ethics that is both feminist and ecocentric.
- Quotation: “We must attain the self-awareness of belonging to the fabric of the multiple and multiform life of the planet where we live.”
5. Critical Theory
- Contribution: Puleo’s critique of androcentrism within ecological movements provides a lens for examining how male-centered values and power structures perpetuate both gender inequality and environmental harm. Her call for a “critical approach to gender stereotypes” aligns with the goals of critical theory, which seeks to uncover and challenge societal power imbalances.
- Quotation: “It is time to demand, teach and share attitudes, roles, and virtues because praising the virtues of care without this praise for a critical approach that condemns power relations finally ends in a sweetened and inane discourse.”
6. Utopian Theory
- Contribution: Puleo positions ecofeminism as a vision for a more equitable and sustainable future, contributing to utopian theory by proposing “an ecological culture of equality” that prioritizes liberty, equality, and sustainability. This ecofeminist utopian vision reflects the need for radical social and environmental transformation.
- Quotation: “Liberty, equality, and sustainability… express the core of the conviction that another world is possible.”
7. Anthropocentrism and Posthumanism
- Contribution: Through her rejection of anthropocentrism and emphasis on empathy toward non-human life, Puleo’s ecofeminism contributes to posthumanist discourse. By advocating for “extended moral feeling” and a redefined relationship with the natural world, her work challenges human-centered ethics.
- Quotation: “We must understand that [nature’s] destruction is, in the mid or long term, ours.”
Examples of Critiques Through “What is Ecofeminism?” by Alicia H. Puleo
| Literary Work | Ecofeminist Critique through Puleo’s Lens |
| “The Secret Garden” by Frances Hodgson Burnett | This novel’s transformation of a neglected garden into a space of renewal can be analyzed through Puleo’s concept of ecofeminism as a return to empathy and care for nature. However, Puleo might critique the book’s limited perspective, which fails to address broader systemic ecological issues tied to capitalist exploitation. |
| “The Overstory” by Richard Powers | Through Puleo’s lens, The Overstory would be praised for its portrayal of interconnectedness between humans and nature, aligning with her “post-gender ethics of care”. However, Puleo might argue that the novel could deepen its critique of capitalist exploitation by explicitly connecting environmental degradation to patriarchal structures. |
| “Wide Sargasso Sea” by Jean Rhys | Puleo’s ecofeminism could be applied to critique the exploitation of both land and women in colonial contexts, as seen in Wide Sargasso Sea. She would likely emphasize the concept of “ecojustice” for women in marginalized communities, illustrating how the colonial and patriarchal oppression of women parallels ecological destruction. |
| “Silent Spring” by Rachel Carson | Carson’s foundational environmental text aligns closely with Puleo’s ecofeminist ideas, especially her critique of “technomania” and unchecked industrialization. Puleo would commend Carson’s advocacy for the “precautionary principle” but might also advocate for more explicit inclusion of gender perspectives in the text. |
Criticism Against “What is Ecofeminism?” by Alicia H. Puleo
- Limited Engagement with Indigenous Perspectives: Critics might argue that Puleo’s framework does not sufficiently incorporate Indigenous ecofeminist perspectives, which offer alternative understandings of the relationship between gender, nature, and sustainability.
- Potential Overemphasis on European Policies: Puleo’s focus on the European Union’s precautionary principle and other EU-centric policies may be seen as narrow, potentially neglecting other cultural and geopolitical approaches to ecofeminism and environmental justice.
- Ambiguity Around Practical Implementation: While Puleo’s theories are intellectually rigorous, some critics could contend that they lack concrete, actionable steps for applying ecofeminism in real-world ecological and feminist activism, leaving readers with idealistic rather than pragmatic insights.
- Tension with Essentialist Ecofeminism: Some ecofeminist scholars support a more spiritual or essentialist view that women are inherently closer to nature. Puleo’s rejection of these views may alienate those who see essentialist ecofeminism as a valuable and empowering approach.
- Risk of Diminishing Intersectionality: Puleo’s focus on patriarchal and capitalist structures may inadvertently overlook other intersectional factors, such as race and class, that significantly shape women’s experiences with environmental issues.
- Over-reliance on Western Philosophical Frameworks: Puleo’s critical ecofeminism leans heavily on Enlightenment principles of liberty, equality, and autonomy. Critics might argue that this reliance could exclude or undervalue non-Western ecological philosophies and feminist frameworks.
- Potential Overemphasis on Gender: Some environmental theorists may critique Puleo’s focus on gender dynamics as potentially detracting from broader ecological concerns, risking the reduction of environmentalism to a gendered issue rather than a global, interdisciplinary challenge.
Representative Quotations from “What is Ecofeminism?” by Alicia H. Puleo with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Ecofeminism is the thought and praxis that addresses this double-sided issue.” | This quotation encapsulates ecofeminism as both a theory and practice, aiming to address interconnected environmental and social justice issues, especially concerning women and marginalized groups. |
| “Critical ecofeminism… eludes the dangers that renouncing the legacy of Modernity entails for women.” | Puleo emphasizes a form of ecofeminism grounded in Enlightenment values of equality and autonomy, aiming to avoid essentialist or regressive approaches that could undermine feminist gains in modern society. |
| “From a constructivist perspective of gender subjectivity, we can consider that women’s interest in caring for nature is not an automatic mechanism.” | She argues against essentialist views of ecofeminism, asserting that women’s connection to nature is socially constructed rather than inherent, thereby challenging gender stereotypes within the environmental movement. |
| “It is time to demand, teach and share attitudes, roles, and virtues… [to] condemn power relations.” | This call for a critical ethics of care underscores the need to recognize and transform power imbalances that harm both the environment and women, proposing a shift in societal attitudes toward empathy and sustainability. |
| “Liberty, equality, and sustainability… express the core of the conviction that another world is possible.” | Puleo identifies these principles as foundational to ecofeminism, envisioning an ideal society where environmental and social justice coexist in harmony, building a hopeful vision for future feminist and ecological activism. |
| “The burden of proof falls on those who seek to introduce the new product or activity, not those potentially affected.” | By advocating for the precautionary principle, Puleo emphasizes the responsibility of innovators to prove their products are safe, protecting society from harmful technological advances driven by capitalist profit motives. |
| “Poor women of the so-called ‘South’ are the first victims of the destruction of the environment.” | This statement highlights ecofeminism’s focus on environmental justice, showing how ecological degradation disproportionately affects marginalized women in developing regions, linking environmental issues with global inequalities. |
| “We must attain the self-awareness of belonging to the fabric of the multiple and multiform life of the planet.” | Here, Puleo calls for a broader awareness of interconnectedness with nature, a shift from anthropocentrism to an ecological consciousness that respects and protects all life forms, not just human interests. |
| “Technology cannot be a new idol before which we prostrate ourselves, renouncing critical thought.” | Critiquing technomania, Puleo cautions against blind faith in technological solutions, advocating for a balanced approach that integrates critical thinking and ethical considerations in technological and environmental decisions. |
| “We need a reconceptualization of the human being that integrates reason and emotion, an extended moral feeling.” | Puleo advocates for a shift from patriarchal dualism, which separates reason from emotion, to a balanced humanism that respects both logical and empathetic responses to the ecological crisis, suggesting a foundation for sustainable ethics. |
Suggested Readings: “What is Ecofeminism?” by Alicia H. Puleo
- Leone, Maryanne L., and Shanna Lino. “Spanish Ecofeminism.” A Companion to Spanish Environmental Cultural Studies, edited by Luis I. Prádanos, Boydell & Brewer, 2023, pp. 169–76. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2p40rnm.22. Accessed 1 Nov. 2024.
- Puleo, Alicia H. “What is ecofeminism.” Quaderns de la Mediterrània 25 (2017): 27-34.
- Puleo, Alicia H., and Verónica Perales Blanco. Claves ecofeministas: Para rebeldes que aman a la Tierra ya los animales. Madrid: Plaza y Valdés, 2019.