Introduction: “Women’s Time” by Julia Kristeva
“Women’s Time” by Julia Kristeva first appeared in Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society translated by Alice Jardine and Harry Blake. This seminal article introduced the concept of “women’s time,” a radical departure from the linear, patriarchal conception of temporality. Kristeva’s exploration of maternity, language, and the symbolic order challenged traditional feminist frameworks, offering a complex and nuanced understanding of women’s experiences. Her work significantly contributed to the development of feminist theory and literary criticism by foregrounding the body, desire, and the unconscious, thus expanding the scope of critical inquiry and paving the way for subsequent feminist thinkers.
Summary of “Women’s Time” by Julia Kristeva
- Cyclical vs. Linear Time:
Kristeva contrasts the traditional association of women with cyclical time, rooted in nature and biological rhythms, against the male-dominated linear historical timeline. She describes cyclical time as “the eternal return of biological rhythm” which is “linked to female subjectivity,” whereas linear time is associated with “time as project, teleology, linear and prospective unfolding” (Kristeva, 1981, p. 16). This distinction reflects the tension between the repetitive, nurturing roles traditionally assigned to women and the forward-moving historical roles often associated with men. - Generations of Feminism:
Kristeva identifies two distinct generations of feminism. The first generation focused on achieving equality within the framework of linear time, striving for “equal pay for equal work” and “political demands of women” (Kristeva, 1981, p. 18). This generation was rooted in the sociopolitical life of nations and sought inclusion in history and societal progress. In contrast, the second generation, emerging post-1968, rejected this linearity, instead emphasizing “the specificity of female psychology and its symbolic realizations” and exploring female identity outside traditional historical narratives (Kristeva, 1981, p. 19). - The Role of Symbolic Order:
Kristeva discusses the exclusion of women from the symbolic order, which encompasses language, social norms, and identity formation. She argues that “women have been left out of the sociosymbolic contract” and have historically struggled to find a place within it (Kristeva, 1981, p. 24). This exclusion has led women to develop a unique relationship with language, where they often find themselves at odds with the structures that define identity and meaning in society. Kristeva notes, “women are attempting a revolt which they see as liberation but which society as a whole understands as murder” (Kristeva, 1981, p. 25). - Motherhood and Maternity:
Kristeva highlights the dual nature of motherhood, viewing it as both a source of identity and a challenge to self-identity. She describes pregnancy as “the radical ordeal of the splitting of the subject,” where a woman experiences “separation and coexistence of the self and of another” (Kristeva, 1981, p. 31). Motherhood, therefore, becomes a complex experience that challenges traditional notions of identity, involving both a fantasy of “narcissistic completeness” and the reality of “love for another” (Kristeva, 1981, p. 31). This experience, she argues, complicates the role of women within the symbolic order. - Terrorism and Power:
Kristeva explores the radicalization of women, particularly their involvement in terrorist activities, as a response to their exclusion from traditional power structures. She argues that “women are more vulnerable within the symbolic order, more fragile when they suffer within it, more virulent when they protect themselves from it” (Kristeva, 1981, p. 29). This vulnerability, combined with a deep-seated frustration, can lead to extreme actions, reflecting the intense psychological and social pressures faced by women who feel alienated from the symbolic order. - Creation and Writing:
Kristeva emphasizes the importance of artistic and literary creation as a means for women to express their unique experiences and challenge societal norms. She suggests that women’s writing offers a way to articulate “the unsaid, the uncanny” aspects of their lives, providing “a space of fantasy and pleasure” outside the constraints of everyday language (Kristeva, 1981, p. 32). This creative expression is seen as a critical tool for exploring and asserting female subjectivity, breaking away from the traditional symbolic order that has historically marginalized women’s voices. - The Future of Feminism:
Kristeva envisions a third generation of feminism that transcends the binary opposition of male and female and embraces a more fluid understanding of identity. She argues for “the demassification of the problematic of difference,” advocating for a perspective that de-dramatizes the conflict between the sexes (Kristeva, 1981, p. 34). This new feminism, she suggests, should focus on “the interiorization of the founding separation of the sociosymbolic contract,” allowing for a deeper exploration of individual identities and the dissolution of rigid gender distinctions (Kristeva, 1981, p. 34). This approach, she believes, could lead to a more flexible and inclusive understanding of identity and difference.
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Women’s Time” by Julia Kristeva
| Term | Definition | Example |
| Symbolic Denominator | Cultural and religious memory forged by the interweaving of history and geography | The shared historical and religious experiences that define a particular social group, like European countries. |
| Supranational Socio-Cultural Ensemble | A social grouping that transcends national borders and is defined by shared cultural and historical experiences | Europe as a social group with a shared history and cultural memory. |
| Cursive Time (Nietzsche) | Linear time, time as a progression | The historical timeline of events. |
| Monumental Time (Nietzsche) | Cyclical or eternal time | The time associated with nature and repetition, like the seasons. |
| Diagonal Relationship | Connection between social categories across national borders | The connection between “young people in Europe” and “young people in North America” based on their shared age group. |
| Maternal Space (Plato) | A formless, pre-symbolic space associated with the feminine | The experience of being nurtured and cared for by a mother. |
| Jouissance | Unnameable pleasure | The ecstatic experience beyond language. |
| Cyclical Time | Time as a repeating cycle | The menstrual cycle or the cycle of seasons. |
| Linear Time | Time as a progression | Historical time. |
| Obsessional Time (Psychoanalysis) | Time as mastery and control | The idea of rigidly controlling one’s time. |
| Trans-European Temporality | A concept of time that is not limited to a specific European context | A feminist approach to time that considers experiences beyond European history. |
Contribution of “Women’s Time” by Julia Kristeva to Literary Theory/Theories
- Introduction of the Concept of Female Time:
Kristeva introduces the idea of “female time,” contrasting it with the traditionally masculine concept of linear, historical time. This distinction between cyclical (associated with natural and biological rhythms) and linear time challenges conventional narratives and highlights the unique temporality of female subjectivity, influencing feminist literary theory’s approach to time and narrative structures (Kristeva, 1981, p. 16). - Exploration of the Symbolic Order and Women’s Exclusion:
Kristeva’s discussion of the symbolic order—language, social norms, and structures that define identity—highlights the exclusion of women from these foundational aspects of culture. She emphasizes the struggle of women to find their place within this order, contributing to theories that explore the intersection of language, gender, and power, particularly within psychoanalytic and feminist literary theory (Kristeva, 1981, p. 24). - Development of the Semiotic and Symbolic Distinction:
Kristeva builds on her earlier work by further distinguishing between the “semiotic” (associated with the pre-Oedipal, bodily drives, and rhythms) and the “symbolic” (associated with language, social norms, and law). This distinction has been crucial in literary theory, particularly in feminist and psychoanalytic approaches that analyze texts through the lens of how these two modalities interact and conflict within language and narrative (Kristeva, 1981, p. 16-17). - Critique of Linear Historical Narratives:
By challenging the linear, teleological narratives that dominate Western thought, Kristeva’s work contributes to poststructuralist literary theory. Her critique aligns with broader poststructuralist challenges to grand narratives and stable identities, offering a framework for reading literature that accounts for fragmented, cyclical, and non-linear experiences of time and identity (Kristeva, 1981, p. 18). - Influence on Feminist Literary Criticism:
Kristeva’s emphasis on the specificity of female subjectivity and her exploration of how women have been marginalized within the symbolic order have had a significant impact on feminist literary criticism. Her work has encouraged a deeper exploration of women’s experiences, identities, and voices within literature, advocating for a rethinking of how gender shapes narrative and language (Kristeva, 1981, p. 19-20). - Introduction of the Concept of “Women’s Writing” (Écriture Féminine):
Although Kristeva herself does not fully align with the concept, her exploration of the unique ways women engage with language and the symbolic order contributes to the broader theoretical development of “écriture féminine.” This concept, which emphasizes writing from the female body and experience, has become a key aspect of feminist literary theory (Kristeva, 1981, p. 32). - Interrogation of Identity and Difference:
Kristeva’s exploration of identity, particularly the fluid and fragmented nature of female identity, contributes to theories of subjectivity in literary studies. Her work challenges fixed notions of identity, advocating for a view of the self as dynamic and constituted through difference, which has influenced both feminist and poststructuralist theories of the subject (Kristeva, 1981, p. 34).
Examples of Critiques Through “Women’s Time” by Julia Kristeva
| Literary Work | Critique | Kristeva Concept |
| Their Eyes Were Watching God (Zora Neale Hurston) | Janie’s journey of self-discovery is a complex interplay between cyclical time and linear time. She marries multiple times, and each marriage teaches her something new about herself and what she desires. This cyclical pattern reflects Janie’s search for personal growth and fulfillment. However, it also contrasts with the linear time expectations of society, which pressures women to settle down with one man and prioritize domesticity. Ultimately, Janie rejects these constraints and finds fulfillment on her own terms, defying the societal norm of linear time. | Cyclical Time |
| Jane Eyre (Charlotte Brontë) | Jane Eyre’s life is a constant negotiation between linear time and her own desires. She is constantly pushed towards marriage and domesticity, which represent the societal expectations of her time. However, Jane also has strong desires for independence and intellectual fulfillment, which are not aligned with these linear expectations. The novel explores how Jane grapples with these conflicting forces throughout her life. For instance, she rebels against the harsh conditions at Lowood Institution and seeks educational opportunities at Thornfield Hall. Even when she finds love with Mr. Rochester, she refuses to be his mistress and prioritizes her own sense of self-worth. Through her choices, Jane asserts her agency and challenges the linear expectations placed upon her. | Linear Time |
| One Hundred Years of Solitude (Gabriel Garcia Marquez) | One Hundred Years of Solitude depicts two contrasting temporalities. The village of Macondo exists in a cyclical and mythical time, where magical realism and repetitive events blur the lines of conventional time. This cyclical time is reflected in the repetitive naming schemes used throughout the generations of the Buendía family, as well as the recurring episodes of insomnia and plague that strike the village. This cyclical existence is disrupted by the arrival of external forces, such as colonialism and modernization, which represent linear time. These external forces disrupt the established way of life in Macondo and introduce a sense of progress and change. The novel explores the tension between these two contrasting temporalities and the impact of modernization on traditional ways of life. | Maternal Space (subverted) |
| Beloved (Toni Morrison) | Sethe’s experience in Beloved disrupts both linear time and conventional motherhood. The embodied memory of slavery haunts her present, constantly pulling her back into the past. Sethe is haunted by the ghost of her deceased daughter, Beloved, who represents the physical and emotional trauma of slavery. These memories disrupt Sethe’s sense of linear time and prevent her from moving forward. Furthermore, Sethe’s act of infanticide subverts the traditional role of motherhood. She kills her daughter, Beloved, in an attempt to protect her from the horrors of slavery. This act is a complex and controversial one, but it highlights the devastating impact of slavery on maternal bonds. Through these elements, the novel explores the lasting impact of trauma and the complexities of mothering in the face of violence. | Jouissance |
Criticism Against “Women’s Time” by Julia Kristeva
- Ambiguity in the Concept of Female Time:
Kristeva’s distinction between cyclical and linear time has been criticized for being overly ambiguous and essentialist. Critics argue that by associating women primarily with cyclical time, Kristeva risks reinforcing traditional gender stereotypes that tie women to nature and biology, potentially undermining feminist efforts to break free from these constraints. - Complexity and Accessibility:
The essay’s theoretical density and complex language have been critiqued for making it inaccessible to a broader audience, including some feminist scholars and activists. Kristeva’s use of psychoanalytic and philosophical terminology can be seen as alienating, limiting the impact of her ideas on feminist theory and practice. - Essentialism in Linking Women to the Semiotic:
Kristeva’s association of women with the semiotic (pre-Oedipal, bodily drives) has been criticized for being essentialist, suggesting an inherent connection between women and certain modes of expression. Critics argue that this risks biologizing female identity and reducing women to their bodies and reproductive roles, which contradicts feminist efforts to challenge such reductive views. - Lack of Practical Application:
Some critics argue that Kristeva’s theories in “Women’s Time” are overly abstract and lack clear practical applications for feminist activism. While her ideas are influential in academic circles, they may not provide concrete strategies for addressing real-world issues faced by women, limiting their relevance to the broader feminist movement. - Detachment from Political Feminism:
Kristeva’s emphasis on the symbolic and psychoanalytic dimensions of gender has been seen by some as a detachment from the political struggles central to feminism. Critics argue that her focus on theoretical explorations of subjectivity and language may divert attention from pressing social and political issues like inequality, discrimination, and violence against women. - Inconsistent Stance on Feminism:
Kristeva’s relationship with feminism has been perceived as ambivalent, leading to criticism from within the feminist community. While she addresses feminist issues, her critique of certain feminist movements and her alignment with psychoanalytic frameworks that have been critiqued as patriarchal create tension with more politically engaged forms of feminism. - Potential for Reinforcing Binary Oppositions:
Despite Kristeva’s intention to critique and move beyond binary oppositions (such as male/female, linear/cyclical), some critics argue that her work may inadvertently reinforce these binaries. By framing women in opposition to men in terms of time and symbolic order, Kristeva’s analysis may perpetuate the very dichotomies she seeks to deconstruct.
Suggested Readings: “Women’s Time” by Julia Kristeva
- Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
- Grosz, Elizabeth. Sexual Subversions: Three French Feminists. Allen & Unwin, 1989.
- Jardine, Alice. Gynesis: Configurations of Woman and Modernity. Cornell University Press, 1985.
- Kristeva, Julia. Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art. Edited by Leon S. Roudiez, translated by Thomas Gora, Alice Jardine, and Leon S. Roudiez, Columbia University Press, 1980.
- Kristeva, Julia. Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection. Translated by Leon S. Roudiez, Columbia University Press, 1982.
- Moi, Toril. Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist Literary Theory. Methuen, 1985.
- Oliver, Kelly. Reading Kristeva: Unraveling the Double-bind. Indiana University Press, 1993.
- Rose, Jacqueline. Sexuality in the Field of Vision. Verso, 1986.
- Whitford, Margaret, editor. The Irigaray Reader. Basil Blackwell, 1991.
Representative Quotations from “Women’s Time” by Julia Kristeva with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation | Context |
| “As for time, female subjectivity would seem to provide a specific measure that essentially retains repetition and eternity from among the multiple modalities of time known through the history of civilizations.” | Kristeva suggests that women’s experience of time is distinct, characterized by cyclical repetition and a sense of eternity, in contrast to the linear progression of time associated with male-dominated history and culture. | Kristeva discusses the concept of “female time” as part of her broader argument about the unique temporal experience associated with women, which challenges traditional notions of historical time. |
| “One is reminded of the various myths of resurrection which, in all religious beliefs, perpetuate the vestiges of an anterior or concomitant maternal cult.” | Kristeva connects the concept of cyclical time to myths of resurrection, highlighting how these narratives often have roots in maternal or female-centered religious traditions. | This quotation reflects Kristeva’s argument about the symbolic and cultural significance of women’s cyclical experience of time, linking it to religious and mythological traditions. |
| “If it is true that a female sensibility emerged a century ago, the chances are great that by introducing its own notion of time, this sensibility is not in agreement with the idea of an ‘eternal Europe’ and perhaps not even with that of a ‘modern Europe.'” | Kristeva argues that the emergence of a distinctly female sensibility challenges traditional European concepts of time and history, suggesting that women’s experiences introduce a new temporal framework. | This statement is part of Kristeva’s critique of European modernity and its linear, historical narratives, proposing that female experiences offer an alternative temporality. |
| “What I mean is the demassification of the problematic of difference, which would permit, in a first phase, an apparent de-dramatization of the ‘fight to the death’ between rival groups and thus between the sexes.” | Kristeva advocates for a move beyond rigid binary oppositions, such as male versus female, proposing a more nuanced understanding of identity and difference that reduces conflict. | This reflects Kristeva’s vision for a future feminism that transcends the traditional gender binaries, contributing to a more fluid and complex understanding of identity. |
| “Pregnancy seems to be experienced as the radical ordeal of the splitting of the subject: redoubling up of the body, separation and coexistence of the self and of an other.” | Kristeva describes pregnancy as a profound experience that disrupts traditional notions of identity, as the self is split and must coexist with another being. | This quotation is from Kristeva’s exploration of motherhood and how it challenges conventional understandings of selfhood, emphasizing the unique psychological and physical experience of pregnancy. |
| “The analytic situation indeed shows that it is the penis which ends up becoming the major referent in this operation of separation and of the assignment of meaning to the lack or to the desire which constitutes the subject.” | Kristeva critiques the psychoanalytic focus on the phallus as central to identity formation, highlighting how this symbolic structure marginalizes women. | This reflects Kristeva’s engagement with psychoanalytic theory, particularly in challenging the dominance of the phallus in the symbolic order and its implications for gender identity. |
| “Women are attempting a revolt which they see as liberation but which society as a whole understands as murder.” | Kristeva discusses how women’s efforts to challenge the symbolic order are often perceived as dangerous or destructive, reflecting societal fears of change. | This quotation captures the tension between women’s attempts to assert their identities and the societal backlash that interprets these efforts as a threat to the established order. |
| “The new generation of women sees that its major social concern has become the sociosymbolic contract, this sacrificial contract.” | Kristeva identifies the symbolic order, or “sociosymbolic contract,” as the central issue for contemporary women, suggesting that this contract is based on exclusion and sacrifice. | This is part of Kristeva’s analysis of how women relate to the symbolic structures that define society, focusing on the challenges women face in navigating and potentially transforming these structures. |