Day: February 13, 2023

Etymology and Meanings of “Feminism” Literary Theory

The term feminism is of French origin. It seems to have appeared in the late 19^th century as feminisme which means being feminine or like women. The term was used earlier for feminine rights or by the people who advocated the rights of women. The term itself is suggestive of relating to women. Therefore, feminism means a philosophy that outlines women, their rights, figures, persona, identities, etc.

Definition of Feminism Literary Theory

From the etymology and meanings given above, it could be stated that feminism is a literary theory that stresses upon the feminine side of a story, showing how women act in the storyline, how they are presented in the setting, and how they are marginalized or not-marginalized etc.

Origin of “Feminism” Literary Theory

Despite having some freedom during the Grecian and Roman periods, women mostly found themselves in domestic situations, breeding and rearing the next generation. However, the Enlightenment brought a specific focus on inequality in gender, portraying women as subordinate to men. This thinking also penetrated the legal realm. It was as early as 1792 when Mary Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, the real work for feminism started. Since then, there is no looking back as this little effort entered in every other sphere of life, giving rise to social movements, political campaigns, and ideologies based on gender equality and the removal of stereotypes.

With time, different governments gave birth to different feministic movements such as the first liberal feministic wave emerged in the 19^th century, which gave way to Marxist feminism and later radical feminism replaced it. This second wave also highlighted patriarchal supremacy, giving rise to multicultural, black, and even intersectional feminism. With the arrival of literary theory, it also became an integral part of literature and the feminist approach to critique literary pieces also ensued in the literary realm.

Principles of Feminism Literary Theory

1. Feminism literary theory assumes that patriarchy, generally, oppresses women in social, political, economic, and even legal realms.
2. The second assumption is that women are subordinate to men and that they are kept in this subjugation psychologically.
3. Patriarchy marginalizes femininity in every sphere of life.
4. Western as well as eastern civilizations are deeply rooted in patriarchal ideology and hence keep femininity subjugated.
5. Femininity is a cultural production and not biological discrimination.
6. Feministic activity, traits, and features are analyzed through feminist literary theory.
7. Gender plays a significant role in every cultural, political, and economic sphere.

Criticism Against Feminism Literary Theory

1. Feminism is just a single lens to view a literary text. It is not a pervasive theme of every thematic strand.
2. It limits the ability of the readers to view the texts from any other angle such as psychoanalytic, cultural, Freudian, or Marxian, indigenous, colonial or queer.
3. This is a selective perception of some concepts that pervade everyday life.
4. It highlights the debate on social constructions of gender.
5. Feminist theory ignores biological facts that determine social construction.
6. It often marginalizes patriarchy and projects feminism more than required.

Examples of Feminism Literary Theory

Example # 1

From “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman

John laughs at me, of course, but one expects that in marriage. John is practical in the extreme. He has no patience with faith, an intense horror of superstition, and he scoffs openly at any talk of things not to be felt and seen and put down in figures. John is a physician, and perhaps—(I would not say it to a living soul, of course, but this is dead paper and a great relief to my mind)—perhaps that is one reason I do not get well faster. You see he does not believe I am sick!

This passage occurs in Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s representative story, “The Yellow Wallpaper.” The anonymous protagonist of the story is a woman. In this passage, she states it clearly that the patriarchy represented by her husband, John, has the right to have an upper hand over the femininity that she represents. She knows that such things happen in life and patriarchy is always practical, while fanciful thinking goes to femininity. Yet, she highlights that this stereotypical thinking may cause psychological issues to women as she suffers from it and the practicality does not give due advantage to this thinking.

Example # 2

From “Hills like White Elephant” by Ernest Hemingway

The girl stood up and walked to the end of the station. Across, on the other side, were fields of grain and trees along the banks of the Ebro. Faraway, beyond the river, were mountains. The shadow of a cloud moved across the field of grain and she saw the river through the trees.” And we could have all this,” she said. “And we could have everything and every day we make it more impossible.” “What did you say?” “I said we could have everything.” “We can have everything.” “No, we can’t.” “We can have the whole world.”

This conversation occurs between the girl and the American when they are at the railway station in “Hills like White Elephant, a short story of Hemingway. The girl is pregnant and wants to have a child. That is why she is looking beyond the moment, making the young man realize the future and what it holds for them in store. However, the has a terse and curt answer that is no. He wants an abortion. Therefore, this terse shows the patriarchy at work in making final decisions while femininity itself stays in the background by only working on verbal persuasion.

Example # 3

From “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin

It was her sister Josephine who told her, in broken sentences; veiled hints that revealed in half concealing. Her husband’s friend Richards was there, too, near her. It was he who had been in the newspaper office when intelligence of the railroad disaster was received, with Brently Mallard’s name leading the list of “killed.” He had only taken the time to assure himself of its truth by a second telegram, and had hastened to forestall any less careful, less tender friend in bearing the sad message.

This passage occurs in the popular short story of Kate Chopin “The Story of an Hour.” The leanings of the story are clearly toward femininity when it presents the character of Mrs. Mallard who feels freedom and liberty when she receives the news of the death of her husband. However, when the contradictory news arrives, she instantly succumbs to the pressurssue that she has built in her heart about the suppression of patriarchy. This is how the feminism has been projected in literature.

From Literature, Criticism and Theory by Andrew Bennett and Nicholas Royale

One way of understanding this claim would be in relation to the cultural construction of gender and sexuality. Reading Shakespeare can help us to think about ways in which sexuality is an unstable site of conflict and transgression, historically contingent, mobile, a performance. Writing at a time before categories of homo- and heterosexual desire had been institutionalized, medicalized, rigidified and policed, Shakespeare’s writing questions what it means to be a man or a woman, and what it means, as a man and as a woman, to desire men and to desire women.

This passage from the theoretical book of Andrew Bennett and Nicholas Royale shows that feminism has been in vogue since the time of Shakespeare. The only difference is that the language was not evolved enough to encompass its difficult concepts into words. This passage shows how feminism has given birth to myriads of terms necessary to explain this theoretical concept.

Example # 4

From Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen

Mr. Bennet was among the earliest of those who waited on Mr. Bingley. He had always intended to visit him, though to the last always assuring his wife that he should not go; and till the evening after the visit was paid she had no knowledge of it. It was then disclosed in the following manner. Observing his second daughter employed in trimming a hat, he suddenly addressed her with: ‘I hope Mr. Bingley will like it, Lizzy.

This passage occurs in Pride and Prejudice. It shows that both male members are not as much eager to meet Mr. Bingley, the rich young man who is arriving in that area, as the women are. Therefore, it shows that patriarchy is not much concerned about the feminine issues of marriage, partying, and forming relationships during the Victorian period.

Keywords in Feminism Literary Theory

Femininity, feministic, sexuality, gender, sexual identity, gender identity, sexism, sexism, misogyny, misogynistic, patriarchal, patriarchy, hostile sexism, heterosexual and homosexual tendencies

Suggested Readings

1. Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. An Introduction to Literature, Criticism and Theory. Routledge, 2016. Print.
2. Walby, Sylvia. The Future of Feminism. Polity, 2011. Print.
3. Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide. Routledge, 2014. Print.

Etymology and Meanings of “Marxism” Literary Theory

The term “Marxism” is based on the name of Karl Marx, the chief exponent of Marxist political and social philosophy. The term, however, was first used by Karl Kautsky, who considered himself Marx’s staunch follower. That is why the term comprises two words, the name of Karl Marx, and -ism which means philosophy. Therefore, it means the social and political philosophy of Karl Marx though his colleague, Friedrich Engels, too, contributed to the philosophy considerably. The main exponent, though, was Karl Marx. Therefore, this school of thought always refers to Karl Marx.

Definition of “Marxism” Literary Theory

As a literary theory, Marxism could be defined a theoretical perspective that takes political, social, and cultural issues involving class differences, class consciousness, poverty, and issue of wages, or wealth into account when interpreting a text or critiquing a literary piece. This theory seeks to find these topics in fiction, poetry, and other literary works. In other words, it also could be defined as critiquing a literary text through a Marxian approach or approaching a text through a Marxian lens or perspective.

Origin of “Marxism Literary Theory

As Marxist literary theory is a materialistic one, it is clear that Karl Marx and Frederich Engels are its founders. Major teachings of this theoretical perspective have been derived from the main books that underline Marxism such as The German Ideology, The Communist Manifesto, and A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. Almost all the terms by Marx and Engels have contributed to Marxism in one or the other way. The most popular dictum of this literary theory has been summed up in the first line of The Communist Manifesto that “History of all hitherto existing classes is the history of class struggles.”

Principles of Marxism Literary Theory

1. This literary theoretical perspective assumes that society has two classes, or better to say the capitalist society comprises of business class, or the bourgeoisie, and the workers, or the proletariat.
2. The relations between both classes are based on labor, wages, commodities, prices, and production.
3. The literary pieces present means of production and means of consumption, along with laborers and workers as the working class is showing at war with the business class on account of their dominant position on the means of production such as factories or fields.
4. The workers have to work to live while the business class eyes only its profit. This creates a friction point between both classes, making the antagonistic to each other.
5. The workers, having no stakes in the means of production suffer from, alienation, ennui, boredom, and tedium.
6. The upper or business classes exploit the situation through institutional manipulation including media, educational institutions, and religion, creating a superstructure, besides means of production and financial institutions.
7. The issues lead to further conflict that intensifies and lead to revolution such as in Animal Farm by George Orwell or by the end of The Jungle by Upton Sinclair.
8. Marxist literary theory gives aesthetics secondary significance, upgrading the interest of the working class.
9. Marxist paradigm applied to literature finds new ways to define social and cultural relations and issues through class-conflict prism.

Criticism Against Marxism Literary Theory

1. A society or a culture is a holistic entity and not just a division of two classes always at war with each other.
2. There is no clear-cut division of a society into two distinct classes.
3. No superstructure always stays for or in the favor of the upper or business class. There is always social mobility from one class to another.
4. No elements of a text can be analyzed in pure isolation.
5. Not all texts have ideologies. A writer has a different vision of reality other than what the Marxists interpret through their individual lenses.
6. A society comprises a multiplicity of classes, sections, and even races. Therefore, no text can present a coherent picture of the class conflict based on the Marxian concept.

Examples of Marxism Literary Theory

Example # 1

From Animal Farm by George Orwell

“Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength; and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end we are slaughtered with hideous cruelty. No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in England is free. The life of an animal is misery and slavery: that is the plain truth.

This passage occurs in the novel, Animal Farm, by George Orwell. The speech delivered by Old Major seems to be a piece of an oratory delivered by a revolutionary. He is like the Marxian leader, Lenin urging the masses to rise against feudalism in Russia. Therefore, this seems a correct Marxian interpretation of this piece of literature. He even calls animals comrades, a title that every Communist or Marxist gives to his brother in ideology.

Example # 2

From The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald

I lived at West Egg, the—well, the less fashionable of the two, though this is a most superficial tag to express the bizarre and not a little sinister contrast between them. My house was at the very tip of the egg, only fifty yards from the Sound, and squeezed between two huge places that rented for twelve or fifteen thousand a season. The one on my right was a colossal affair by any standard—it was a factual imitation of some Hôtel de Ville in Normandy, with a tower on one side, spanking new under a thin beard of raw ivy, and a marble swimming pool and more than forty acres of lawn and garden. It was Gatsby’s mansion. Or rather, as I didn’t know Mr. Gatsby it was a mansion inhabited by a gentle-man of that name.

This passage occurs in the masterpiece of Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby. It shows that West Egg represents the bourgeoisie class while East Egg represents the proletariat class. The interesting thing is that the house of the narrator lies in the middle of both of these places which shows that although he is aware of both of these classes, he does not seem to live in any of these. He rather longs to join West Egg. His desire to visit the mansion of Gatsby is actually a desire of an individual for social mobility, yet there is no lust for possessing a means of production involved.

Example # 3

From Tess of d’Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy

“It was only my whim,” he said; and, after a moment’s hesitation: “It was on account of a discovery I made some little time ago, whilst I was hunting up pedigrees for the new county history. I am Parson Tringham, the antiquary, of Stagfoot Lane. Don’t you really know, Durbeyfield, that you are the lineal representative of the ancient and knightly family of the d’Urbervilles, who derive their descent from Sir Pagan d’Urberville, that renowned knight who came from Normandy with William the Conqueror, as appears by Battle Abbey Roll?”

This passage occurs in the popular novel of Thomas Hardy, Tess of d’Urbervilles. The father of Tess is rather feeling pride at finding that he belongs to a fine and upper class or bourgeoisie. This is not only his desire for upward social mobility but also his desire to join the upper class of those times, the d’Urbervilles. Therefore, he has tried to join them, sensing that obscurity of the pedigree would lend credence to his expression. This is the class mobility, an aspect of the Marxian approach to literature.

Example # 4

From Hard Times by Charles Dickens

His pride in having at any time of his life achieved such a great social distinction as to be a nuisance, an incumbrance, and a pest, was only to be satisfied by three sonorous repetitions of the boast. ‘I was to pull through it, I suppose, Mrs. Gradgrind. Whether I was to do it or not, ma’am, I did it. I pulled through it, though nobody threw me out a rope. Vagabond, errand-boy, vagabond, labourer, porter, clerk, chief manager, small partner, Josiah Bounderby of Coketown.

This passage from Hard Times shows clear hints about Marxian philosophy at work. Dickens seems to be employing that capitalism has started taking its toll on different characters. Bounderby is feeling the heat, while Mrs. Gradgrind, too, is feeling that she has already joined this bandwagon. The social structure and its division show a perfect case of this theoretical concept of Marxism literary theory.

Example # 5

From The Outsiders by S. E. Hinton

We’re poorer than the Socs and the middle class. I reckon we’re wilder, too. Not like the Socs, who jump greasers and wreck houses and throw beer blasts for kicks, and get editorials in the paper for being a public disgrace one day and an asset to society the next. Greasers are almost like hoods; we steal things and drive old souped-up cars and hold up gas stations and have a gang fight once in a while. I don’t mean I do things like that. Darry would kill me if I got into trouble with the police. Since Mom and Dad were killed in an auto wreck, the three of us get to stay together only as long as we behave.

The mere names of Socs and Greasers show that the real idea behind The Outsiders is to show the class consciousness of Darry and his family. He knows clearly that he can never join the Greasers. However, it is interesting that this situation could be interpreted through the lens of race critical theory as Hinton has put it. The main point is that at that time Marxism or Communism could have invited a witch-hunt against him in the United States.

Keywords in Marxism Literary Theory

Class struggle, class consciousness, class discrimination, poverty, alienation, means of production, profit, marginal utility, capitalism, proletariat, antagonism, dialectical materialism, dialectics, fetishism, feudal society, hegemony, consumerism, commodification

Suggested Readings

1. Eagleton, Terry. Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Literary Theory. Verso, 2006. Print.
2. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious. Cornell University Press, 2015. Print.
3. Williams, Raymond, and Raymond Henry Williams. Marxism and Literature. Vol. 392. Oxford Paperbacks, 1977.