May 2023 - Page 2 of 2 - English Studies

“Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

To fling my arms wide

In some place of the sun,
To whirl and to dance

Till the white day is done.
Then rest at cool evening
Beneath a tall tree

While night comes on gently,
Dark like me
That is my dream!

To fling my arms wide
In the face of the sun,
Dance! Whirl! Whirl!

Till the quick day is done.
Rest at pale evening . . .
A tall, slim tree . . .

Night coming tenderly
Black like me.

Introduction

Written by Langston Hughes, an African American figure of the Harlem Renaissance, the poem “Dream Variations” demonstrates African American experience prevalent in the early 20th century. It appeared in his compilation of poetry, entitled The Weary Blues published in 1926. Soon the poem became a talk of the town and won places in anthologies and textbooks across the world. Known for its eloquent portrayal of the African American culture, the poem demonstrates musicality and tones specifically associated with the community of the poet. Furthermore, its exaltation of liberty and the splendor of nature, coupled with its in-depth examination of the intricate sentiments of the African American community, has made it a wonderful literary piece.

Annotations of “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

“To fling my arms wide” (line 1): This is the opening line of the poem which suggests a sense of liberation and freedom as the speaker wants to “fling” his arms wide, perhaps suggesting his desire to break free from the social constraints.
“In some place of the sun” (line 2): The phrase “some place of the sun” invokes a sense of warmth, light, and hope, suggesting a desire for a better life.
“To whirl and to dance / Till the white day is done” (lines 3-4): The image of whirling and dancing suggests a sense of joy and celebration, while “the white day” may refer to a sense of brightness and clarity.

“Then rest at cool evening / Beneath a tall tree” (lines 5-6): The idea of resting at “cool evening” under a “tall tree” suggests a desire for peace and tranquility after a day of joyful activity.
“While night comes on gently” (line 7): The gentle coming of night may symbolize a sense of comfort and safety, especially in contrast to the harsh realities of the world.
“Dark like me” (line 8): The phrase “dark like me” suggests a sense of identification with others who share the speaker’s skin color, and may allude to the struggles and injustices faced by African Americans.

“That is my dream!” (line 9): The exclamation mark emphasizes the intensity and importance of the speaker’s dream, suggesting that it is a powerful motivating force in their life.
“To fling my arms wide” (line 10): The repetition of this line suggests that the speaker is still focused on the desire for freedom and liberation.
“In the face of the sun” (line 11): The phrase “in the face of the sun” may suggest a desire to confront the world with confidence and strength.

“Dance! Whirl! Whirl!” (line 12): The repetition of “whirl” and the use of exclamation marks suggest a sense of urgency and excitement, as if the speaker is encouraging someone to dance with great enthusiasm.
“Till the quick day is done” (line 13): The phrase “quick day” suggests a sense of fleeting time, and the speaker is urging to dance until the day ends, perhaps implying to live life to the fullest.
“Rest at pale evening” (line 14): The word “pale” creates a sense of peacefulness and calmness, suggesting the end of the day. The speaker encourages the dancers to rest, possibly implying the importance of taking breaks and enjoying downtime.

“A tall, slim tree” (line 15): This line presents a visual image of a tree. The use of “tall” and “slim” creates an image of elegance and gracefulness. It’s possible that the speaker is admiring nature’s beauty and encouraging the dancers to take notice of it.
“Night coming tenderly” (line 16): The use of “tenderly” creates a sense of gentleness and softness, suggesting a peaceful transition from day to night. The speaker may be appreciating the beauty of the natural world and encouraging the dancers to do the same.
“Black like me” (line 17): The use of “black” creates a sense of darkness, which could be interpreted as a metaphor for death or the unknown. The phrase “like me” suggests a personal connection or identification with this darkness. It’s possible that the speaker is reflecting on their own mortality or encouraging the dancers to confront their fears and embrace the unknown.

Literary Devices in “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

First Verse	Second Literary Device	Third Meanings and Functions
In some place of the sun,	Imagery	Conveys the speaker’s aspiration for brightness
To whirl and to dance	Repetition	Reiterates the speaker’s desire for movement
Till the white day is done	Metaphor	Refers to the completion of a fulfilled life
Then rest at cool evening	Imagery	Conveys the speaker’s desire for tranquility
Beneath a tall tree	Imagery	Emphasizes the speaker’s desire for nature and peace
While night comes on gently	Imagery	Conveys the idea of the end of life
Dark like me—	Simile	Compares the speaker’s skin color to darkness
That is my dream!	Repetition	Reiterates the speaker’s desire for their dream
Dance! Whirl! Whirl!	Repetition	Reiterates the speaker’s desire for movement
Till the quick day is done	Metaphor	Refers to the completion of a fulfilled life
Rest at pale evening . . .	Imagery	Conveys the speaker’s desire for tranquility
Black like me.	Simile	Compares the speaker’s skin color to darkness

Sound and Poetic Devices in “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

Literary Device	Examples/Reference	Meanings and Functions
Alliteration	“dance, whirl, whirl” (line 12)	n this poem, alliteration is used to create a musical effect and to emphasize certain words or phrases. For example, the repeated “w” sound in “whirl, whirl” emphasizes the speaker’s desire to dance and move freely.
Assonance	“some place of the sun” (line 2), “tall, slim tree” (line 15)	Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in words that are close to each other. In this poem, assonance is used to create a musical effect and to emphasize certain words or phrases. For example, the repeated “o” sound in “some” and “sun” emphasizes the speaker’s desire to find a warm and bright place.
Consonance	“white day is done” (line 4), “cool evening” (line 5)	Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds in words that are close to each other. In this poem, consonance is used to create a musical effect and to emphasize certain words or phrases. For example, the repeated “d” and “t” sounds in “day” and “done” emphasize the passing of time, while the repeated “n” sound in “evening” emphasizes the speaker’s desire for a peaceful rest.
End Rhyme	“done/sun” (lines 4-5), “tree/me” (lines 6-8), “done/sun” (lines 13-14), “tree/me” (lines 15-17)	End rhyme is the repetition of the same sound at the end of two or more lines of poetry. In this poem, end rhyme is used to create a musical effect and to emphasize the last words of each line. The repeated rhyme scheme of ABAB CDCD emphasizes the speaker’s dream and desire to find peace and rest.
Rhyme Scheme	ABAB CDCD	The rhyme scheme is the pattern of end rhymes in a poem. In this poem, the rhyme scheme is ABAB CDCDE, which creates a musical effect and helps to unify the poem. The repeated rhyme scheme emphasizes the speaker’s dream and desire for rest and peace.
Diction	“whirl”, “dance”, “rest”, “cool”, “tenderly”	Diction is the choice of words and phrases used in a poem. In this poem, the diction is simple and direct, using concrete nouns and active verbs to convey the speaker’s dream and desire. The use of words like “whirl”, “dance”, and “rest” emphasizes the speaker’s desire for movement and rest, while the use of words like “cool” and “tenderly” emphasizes the speaker’s desire for comfort and care.
Stanza Type	Quatrain	The stanza type in this poem is a pair of quatrains. The first quatrain consists of lines 1-4, while the second quatrain consists of lines 10-13. Both quatrains follow a similar structure and use the same rhyme scheme of ABAB CDCDE. The use of quatrains helps to organize the poem and emphasizes the speaker’s desire for movement, rest, and peace.
Tone	Celebratory and Optimistic	The tone of Langston Hughes’ poem “Dream Variations” is celebratory and hopeful. The speaker expresses a desire to break free from the constraints of societal norms and to experience the freedom and joy of life. The use of exclamation marks and the repetition of words such as “whirl” and “dance” convey a sense of excitement and enthusiasm.

Functions of Literary Devices in “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

Imagery: Imagery means using images. Here Hughes uses sensory language to create specific images. Actually, he wants to evoke the same dream that he has dreamed for his specific readers. For example, he has used the image of “fling my arms wide,” along with “whirl and dance” and then the image of “rest at cool evening” to show how African Americans enjoy life. He has also used the image of a tree to show comfort and peace. Some other natural images, too, point to his suggestive use of language. These types of images help his readers to realize dreams that Hughes wants them to enjoy.
Repetition: The repetition of phrases such as “fling my arms wide,” “whirl and dance,” and “black like me” emphasizes the speaker’s desire for freedom and equality in the American society. This repetition also serves his own purpose that is to create a musical quality in his poem to reinforces its central message. This specific message is central to the culture of the African American community.
Symbolism: “Dream Variations” show the use of several symbols specific for the African American culture. For example, the use of the tall tree and the darkness of night are symbols of the speaker’s desire for equality with the white in the American culture. The tall tree also represents growth and the possibility of reaching new heights, while the darkness of night represents the speaker’s identity as an African American individual. This function of symbolism helps the readers to understand the deeper meanings.

Allusion: Hughes uses several allusions to point to his African American heritage. Therefore, they serve the right purpose of their usage. For example, the phrase “black like me” is an allusion to John Howard Griffin’s book of the same name. This allusion is significant in that it seeks to explore the experience of a white man adopting simile color by making himself black to experience life as an individual from African American community. This allusion points to Hughes’ art that lies in contextualizing this experience to highlight the suffering and resultant struggle of the African American community to win equal rights.

Themes in “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

Identity: The theme of identity is central to the poem “Dream Variations” and its main idea of racial inequality. Hughes has used repetitions such as “dark like me” to emphasize his racial identity and the ways in which this identity shapes his experience of the world. He is of the view that our identities are an integral part of our person, and that denying someone the right to fully express and embody their identity is the worst type of oppression. By emphasizing his African American identity, the poet asserts the value and importance of this identity against racist stereotyping and discrimination.
Freedom: The theme of freedom in “Dream Variations” is perhaps the most overtly expressed theme due to the speaker’s constant engagement with ideas related to free movements such as dancing, whirling, and flinging arms wide to express his/her desire for liberation. The poem suggests that freedom is a fundamental human right available to all regardless of race. It also suggests that true freedom involves more than just the absence of physical restraints—it involves the ability to express oneself fully, to move through the world with joy and confidence, and to experience a sense of belonging and connection with others.

Hope: The poem “Dream Variations” show the theme of hope through different images. The images of the sun, pale evening, and the tall tree are suggestive of the good times ahead. It shows that despite systemic oppression, it is possible to harbor a good vision of th better world and to work to turn that vision into a reality. By expressing this hope, Hughes demonstrates inspiration and motivation for readers who share his dream of equality, freedom and equal rights.
Resistance: Truly like African Americans, “Dream Variations” shows the thematic strand of resistance against racial oppression. Articulating the dream of freedom and equality, Hughes asserts the existence of his community, rejecting the dehumanization that comes with inequality and discrimination. The poem suggests that resistance takes many forms, from the act of dreaming to dancing wildly. By refusing to be defined by the limitations imposed upon them by a racist society, Hughes asserts humanity and dignity of his community.

Literary Theories and “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

Formalist Theory: The formalism literary theory emphasizes the form and structure of a literary work instead of its content, author, context or themes. “Dream Variations” shows Hughes using repetitions, rhythm, and rhyme to create musicality. For example, the repetition of the phrase “To fling my arms wide” in lines 1 and 10 emphasizes the speaker’s wish to have full freedom like others around him. The repetition of the words such as “whirl” and “dance” in lines 3 and 12 show the poet enjoying freedom in a free mood. The same is the case of its rhyming pattern such as the use of rhyme in lines 6 and 7 and lines 15 and 16 demonstrate musicality as well as excitement that come with freedom.

Postcolonial Theory: Postcolonial theory focuses on colonialism and its impacts on colonies after its retreat including power structure, power relations and discourse. When it comes to “Dream Variations”, it seems that Hughes demonstrates the desire for freedom and equality among African Americans. He has used phrases such as “To whirl and to dance / Till the white day is done” in lines 3 and 4 to express his desire to free his community from the vicious cycle of power relations under white supremacy and associated oppression. The use of the phrase “Dark like me” in line 8, too, stresses upon his identity as an African American and suggests a connection to the broader struggle for racial justice.
Reader-Response Theory: Reader-response centers on readings in interpreting a literary piece, leaving other aspects. In this connection, it seems that “Dream Variations” invites the readers to have consciousness of Hughes’s dream for freedom. He has demonstrated it through the use of the first-person point of view in lines 1-9 and 10-17، creating a sense of intimacy and personal connection with his readers. The reader feels further attracted to his cause due to the use of sensory language throughout the poem such as “cool evening” in line 5 and “tall, slim tree” in line 15.
Cultural Studies Theory: Cultural studies theoretical concept examines a literary piece through the lens of how culture shapes the society and vice versa. “Dream Variations” shows that the cultural experiences and aspirations of African Americans through Hughes’s eyes. He has used phrases such as “Beneath a tall tree” in lines 6 and 15 to show a connection with African American cultural traditions. Some symbols such as the trees, too, point to African American resilience and strength. Some other phrases such as “Black like me” in line 17 directly emphasizes Hughes’s identity as an African American person and highlights the importance of representation and visibility in African American culture.

Essay Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

Topic: The role of African American vernacular traditions in “Dream Variations”

Question: How does Langston Hughes draw on African American vernacular traditions in “Dream Variations,” and what effect does this have on the poem’s themes and messages?

Thesis Statement: Through his use of colloquial language and rhythmically charged phrases, Langston Hughes evokes the rich traditions of African American music and speech in “Dream Variations,” emphasizing the importance of cultural continuity and resilience in the face of systemic oppression.

Topic: Relationship between form and content in “Dream Variations”

Question: How does the form of “Dream Variations” – particularly its use of repetition and refrain – reinforce its themes and messages?

Thesis Statement: Through its use of a tight, repetitive form, “Dream Variations” emphasizes the speaker’s desire for freedom and self-expression, while also reinforcing the poem’s larger message about the importance of cultural resistance and self-affirmation in the face of systemic racism.

Topic: The influence of jazz and blues on “Dream Variations”

Question: How does Langston Hughes draw on the musical forms of jazz and blues in “Dream Variations,” and what effect does this have on the poem’s themes and messages?

Thesis Statement: Langston Hughes evokes the rich musical traditions of jazz and blues in “Dream Variations,” emphasizing the importance of cultural innovation and creativity as a means of resisting and transcending oppression through his use of syncopated rhythms, improvisational phrasing, and bluesy tonality.

Topic: Gender and race in “Dream Variations”

Question: How does Langston Hughes explore the intersection of gender and race in “Dream Variations,” and what effect does this have on the poem’s themes and messages?

Thesis Statement: “Dream Variations” highlights the ways in which gender and race intersect in the experiences of African American women and men, underscoring the importance of intersectional solidarity and resistance in the face of systemic oppression though gender-neutral language and emphasis on the speaker’s physical movements and bodily sensations.

Short Questions-Answers about “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

What is the central message of “Dream Variations”?

The central message of poem “Dream Variations” is the dream of Hughes for freedom and self-expression against racist and oppressive system. He gives vent to his expression to his dream of flinging arms wide, dancing and whirling in the sun, and then resting beneath a tall tree to show that he wants freedom for his community. The central message from Hughes is that people of color have a right to self-expression and cultural freedom despite the oppressive system suppressing their identities and personas. Emphasizing the beauty of his color and culture, he underscores the importance of cultural resistance and self-affirmation against such systematic oppression.

How does Langston Hughes use repetition and refrain in “Dream Variations”?

Langston Hughes uses repetition and refrain to support his argument that is also the central message of “Dream Variations.” It is the expression of freedom and identity. Repetitions of phrases such as “To fling my arms wide” and “Dance! Whirl! Whirl!” shows how he emphasize his desire for freedom and assertion of the rights of African American community. Similarly, the refrain “Black like me” also emphasizes the importance of cultural identity and resistance against cultural oppression. Repeating these phrases, Hughes supports his idea that people of color also have a right to express themselves and feel the sense of freedom.

How does the form of “Dream Variations” contribute to its themes and messages?

The tight and repetitive form of “Dream Variations” demonstrates assertive expression of the desire of Hughes for freedom and self-expression. This form also underscores the main argument about cultural survival, strength and identity against oppression. The poem’s short and tight lines as well as repetitive structure create a sense of urgency. It seems stressing upon main point of freedom. Whereas the poem’s rhythmic structure is concerned, it seems imitating the movements of Hughes’s dream, creating a sense that body and physical expressions are important for cultural recognition and identity formation. Also, the use of repetition and refrain within the given form of the poem also shows the significance of cultural identity, recognition as well as resilience, highlighting the ways in which people of color seek power, strength and inspiration from their cultural heritage to win freedom and the right to express themselves freely.

What is the significance of the final lines of “Dream Variations,” which compare the night to the speaker’s skin color?

The final lines of “Dream Variations” show the skin color of the poet, emphasizing his experience of the world shaped by his racial identity. They also highlight the importance of his cultural recognition and his heritage. However, their significance in their use of seeking strength from the identity and origin to overcome systemic racism and oppression lies in their direct and concise expression. They show a comparison between Hughes’s skin color and the darkness of night to show his awareness of his racial identity. This is how they underscore the ways in which systemic racism seeks to limit and oppress people of color. By affirming the beauty and worth of their own skin color and cultural identity, the poet highlights the importance of self-affirmation and cultural resistance.

Synecdoche

Etymology and Meanings of Synecdoche

The term “synecdoche” is a derivative of Greek word “synekdoche” meaning “simultaneous understanding.” It is a combination of two words: “syn” meaning “together” and “ekdoche” meaning “interpretation.” The term entered English in the late 16th century to describe a figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole, or the whole is used to represent a part.

Synecdoche means a part of something is used to represent the whole, or doing the opposite. It is a literary device used to add layers of meaning to a text or speech by drawing attention to specific parts or elements of a larger concept or object. By using a synecdoche, writers and speakers can make their language more vivid, memorable, and effective in conveying their message. Examples of synecdoche include using “wheels” to refer to a car or “the Crown” to refer to the monarch of a country.

Synecdoche in Grammar

Grammatically, synecdoche is a singular noun with plural verb agreement. For example, we would say “Synecdoche is a literary device” rather than “Synecdoche are a literary device.” This is because “synecdoche” is a singular noun, even though it represents a figure of speech that involves substituting a part for the whole or vice versa. The verb used to describe “synecdoche” must agree with its singular form, just like any other singular noun.

Definition of Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a literary device that involves using a part of something to represent the whole or using the whole to represent a part. It is a type of metonymy, which is a broader term for the use of one term to stand in for another. In literature, synecdoche is often used to create vivid and memorable imagery, as well as to convey deeper meanings and themes.

Types of Synecdoche

There are several types of synecdoche used in literature and other forms of writing. Here are some examples:

Part-for-whole: This type of synecdoche uses a part of something to refer to the whole thing. For example, “nice wheels” to refer to a car or “he’s got a new set of threads” to refer to a new outfit.

Whole-for-part: This type of synecdoche uses the whole to refer to a part of something. For example, “The White House announced today” to refer to the President or “All hands on deck” to refer to the entire crew of a ship.
Material-for-object: This type of synecdoche uses a material to refer to the object made from it. For example, “silver” to refer to cutlery or “bricks and mortar” to refer to a building.
Object-for-owner: This type of synecdoche uses an object to refer to its owner. For example, “check out his new ride” to refer to someone’s new car or “she’s got a new set of wheels” to refer to someone’s new bike.

Container-for-contents: This type of synecdoche uses a container to refer to its contents. For example, “the pot is boiling” to refer to the contents of the pot or “the bottle is empty” to refer to the liquid that was in the bottle.

Common Examples of Synecdoche

Here are some common examples of synecdoche in everyday language:

“Lend me a hand” – This uses the part “hand” to represent the whole person, who is being asked for help.

“Nice wheels” – This uses the part “wheels” to represent the whole car, which is being complimented.
“The pen is mightier than the sword” – This uses the part “pen” to represent writing or literature, which is being compared to the whole concept of violence and warfare, represented by the word “sword.”
“Cleveland won by six runs” – This uses the city “Cleveland” to represent the baseball team from that city, who won the game.

“The suits on Wall Street” – This uses the clothing item “suits” to represent the entire group of people who work in finance and business in New York City’s financial district, known as “Wall Street.”
“He’s a new face around here” – This uses the part “face” to represent the whole person, who is new to the area or organization.

Literary Examples of Synecdoche

**From To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee:**

Extract: “Maycomb County had recently been told that it had nothing to fear but fear itself.” Explanation: This line uses the synecdoche of “Maycomb County” to refer to the people who live there. The fear that the people are being told they have nothing to fear is not just a fear of the physical place, but a fear of the people and events that occur within it.

From The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

Extract: “I’m going to make a big request of you today,” he said, turning to us. “So I thought you ought to know something about me. I didn’t want you to think I was just some nobody.” Explanation: In this sentence, Gatsby uses the synecdoche of “nobody” to refer to his low social status. By referring to himself as a “nobody,” Gatsby is highlighting his lack of importance in society.

From Hamlet by William Shakespeare:

Extract: “The body is with the king, but the king is not with the body. The king is a thing–” Explanation: In this line, Hamlet is using the synecdoche of “the king” to refer to the physical body of the king, rather than the person himself. By separating the king’s body from his identity, Hamlet emphasizes the idea of mortality and the separation of the physical body from the soul.

From “Song of Myself” by Walt Whitman:

Extract: “I loaf and invite my soul, / I lean and loaf at my ease observing a spear of summer grass.”

Explanation: In this sentence, Whitman uses the synecdoche of “a spear of summer grass” to represent the entire natural world. The image of the grass spear represents the interconnectedness of all things in nature.

From “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot:

Extract: “These fragments I have shored against my ruins.”

Explanation: In this line, Eliot uses the synecdoche of “fragments” to represent the memories and experiences that make up a person’s life. By using this synecdoche, Eliot emphasizes the idea that even when a person’s life seems to be in ruins, they can still cling to their memories and experiences as a way of rebuilding themselves.

How to Create Synecdoche in a Fictional Work

To create and use synecdoche in your writing, follow these steps:

Identify the whole and the part: Choose a whole concept or object that you want to represent, and then identify a smaller part of it that can stand in for the whole.
Use the part to represent the whole: Use the smaller part to represent the whole concept or object throughout your writing. You can use this in various ways, such as in descriptions, dialogue, or metaphors.

Make sure the context is clear: Ensure that the reader understands the context in which you are using the synecdoche. If the context is unclear, your meaning may be lost.
Be creative: Synecdoche can be a powerful tool in creating memorable and vivid writing. Don’t be afraid to experiment with unusual or unexpected ways of using it.

Example: Instead of saying “the entire city was in a state of panic,” you could write “every heart in the city raced with fear.” In this sentence, “heart” represents the whole person, and the fear they are feeling. This creates a more vivid image in the reader’s mind, and makes the emotional impact of the panic more immediate and visceral.

Benefits of Synecdoche

Using synecdoche in your writing can offer several benefits, such as:

Creating vivid images: Synecdoche can help you create more vivid and memorable images in the reader’s mind. By using a smaller part to represent the whole concept or object, you can create a more immediate and visceral impact.
Adding depth to descriptions: Synecdoche can also add depth and nuance to your descriptions. By choosing a specific part to represent the whole, you can highlight certain aspects or qualities of the object or concept you’re describing.

Simplifying complex ideas: Synecdoche can also be used to simplify complex ideas. By using a smaller part to represent the whole, you can distill complex concepts into a more manageable and accessible form.
Enhancing rhetorical devices: Synecdoche can be used to enhance other rhetorical devices, such as metaphor and hyperbole. By using synecdoche within these devices, you can create even more striking and memorable writing.

Overall, using synecdoche in your writing can help you create more engaging and impactful writing, while also simplifying complex ideas and enhancing other rhetorical devices

Synecdoche and Literary Theory

Synecdoche is a common literary device used across various literary theories and approaches. Here are some examples:

New Criticism: In New Criticism, synecdoche is often used to analyze the way language is used to create meaning in a text. By focusing on the use of specific parts to represent the whole, New Critics analyze the nuances and complexities of a text’s language.
Reader-Response Criticism: Reader-Response critics examine the ways in which readers interact with a text, and how the reader’s personal experiences and beliefs shape their interpretation. Synecdoche can be used to help readers engage with a text by connecting the parts they see to the larger whole.

Postmodernism: In postmodern literature, synecdoche can be used to highlight the fragmented and interconnected nature of modern life. By using parts to represent the whole, postmodern authors explore the disorienting and disjointed experience of living in a complex, interconnected world.
Feminist Criticism: Feminist critics may use synecdoche to highlight the way women’s bodies are used to represent the whole of their gender. This can be used to critique the objectification and marginalization of women in literature and society.

In short, synecdoche is a versatile literary device that can be used across a wide range of literary theories and approaches to create meaning and deepen analysis.

Suggested Readings

Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford UP, 2011.

Genette, Gerard. Figures of Literary Discourse. Columbia UP, 1982.

Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., U of California P, 1991.

Lotman, Yuri. “2. From The Structure of the Artistic Text.” Culture and Communication. Academic Studies Press, 2020. 48-60.

Gorlée, Dinda L. “Wittgenstein’s persuasive rhetoric.” Semiotica 2016.208 (2016): 49-77.

Pun

Etymology and Meanings of Pun

Etymology of Pun:

The word “pun” comes from the Old English word “pund” or “pound,” which means “to beat” or “to strike.” The term evolved over time to refer to a play on words or a humorous use of a word with multiple meanings. In fact, the use of puns has been recorded as far back as ancient Egypt and Greece, showing that this type of wordplay has been around for centuries.

Meaning of Pun:

A pun is a form of wordplay that uses a word, or words, that have multiple meanings or sounds that are similar, to create a humorous effect. Puns can be used to add humor to a conversation, to make a joke, or to convey a double meaning in a clever way. Puns can also be used to create wordplay in literature and poetry, adding depth and complexity to the text. While puns may be seen as a type of low-brow humor, they have been used by some of the greatest writers and thinkers in history, including William Shakespeare and James Joyce.

Pun in Grammar

“Pun” is a singular noun, but it can take a plural verb when referring to multiple instances of puns. For example:

“That pun is hilarious!” (singular noun with singular verb)
“Those puns are hilarious!” (singular noun with plural verb)

This is because “pun” is a countable noun, meaning it can be counted and quantified. When referring to multiple puns, we use a plural verb to match the plural noun.

Definition of Pun

It is a term involving the use of a word or phrase having multiple meaning, or sounds like another word with a different meaning, to create a humoros or witty effect. Puns can be used to add complexity to a text, to create wordplay, and to convey a double meaning in a clever way. Puns are often used in literature, poetry, and comedy to add depth, humor, and interest to the text.

Types of Puns

There are several types of puns, including:

Homographic puns: These puns use words that are spelled the same but have different meanings, such as “I used to be a baker, but I couldn’t raise the dough.”

Homophonic puns: These puns use words that sound the same but have different meanings, such as “Why was the math book sad? Because it had too many problems.”
Compound puns: These puns involve combining two or more words to create a new phrase with a humorous effect, such as “I’m studying a tome history of glue. I just can’t seem to put it down.”
Recursive puns: These puns involve repeating a pun within a pun, such as “I’m reading a book on anti-gravity. It’s impossible to put down.”

Visual puns: These puns use visual cues or images to create a humorous effect, such as a cartoon that shows a cat wearing a necktie with the caption “cat-tie.”
Linguistic puns: These puns involve playing with language itself, such as using words with multiple meanings, or creating a new word by combining existing words, such as “I’m reading a book on teleportation. It’s bound to take me places.”
Numerical puns: These puns use numbers or mathematical concepts to create a humorous effect, such as “Why was six afraid of seven? Because seven eight nine.”

Reversal puns: These puns involve reversing the meaning of a common phrase or idiom, such as “Why did the tomato turn red? Because it saw the salad dressing!”
Spoonerism puns: These puns involve swapping the initial sounds of words in a phrase, such as Why did the tomato turn red? Because it saw the salad dressing! (Spoonerism: “saw the salad dressing” instead of “saw the sad lad stressing”)
Synonym puns: These puns use synonyms or similar-sounding words to create a humorous effect, such as “I’m reading a book on the history of velcro. It’s a gripping tale.”

Cultural puns: These puns involve references to cultural or historical events or figures, such as “I told a joke about a roof, but it went over my head.”
Name puns: These puns use a person’s name or a fictional character’s name to create a humorous effect, such as “Why did the scarecrow win an award? Because he was outstanding in his field.”
Onomatopoeic puns: These puns use words that imitate sounds to create a humorous effect, such as “I’m reading a book on anti-gravity. It’s uplifting!”

Celebrity puns: These puns involve references to famous people or their work, such as “I told my wife she was drawing her eyebrows too high. She looked surprised.”
Location puns: These puns involve references to a specific place or location, such as “Why did the bicycle fall over? Because it was two-tired.”

Common Examples of Pun

Puns are often used in everyday conversation, advertisements, and media. Here are some common examples of puns:

“I’m reading a book on anti-gravity. It’s impossible to put down.”
“Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.”
“I’m a big fan of whiteboards. They’re re-markable!”

“I told my wife she was drawing her eyebrows too high. She looked surprised.”
“I used to be a baker, but I couldn’t raise the dough.”
“I’m so punny, I should be punted!”

“I’m reading a book on teleportation. It’s bound to take me places.”

Literary Examples of Pun

Here are six literary examples of puns from various genres, along with an explanation and context:

From Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare:

In Act II, Scene 4, Mercutio is trying to locate Romeo, and makes a pun on the word “blind” when he says, “Why, Romeo, he is already dead; stabbed with a white wench’s black eye; run through the ear with a love song; the very pin of his heart cleft with the blind bow-boy’s butt-shaft.”

Explanation: Mercutio is using the word “blind” in two different senses: as an adjective describing Cupid, the blind god of love, and as a noun referring to an arrow, which is the weapon Cupid uses to shoot people with. The pun adds humor to the scene, while also highlighting the theme of love and its dangerous consequences in the play.

From The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde:

In Act III, Jack Worthing says, “The truth is rarely pure and never simple,” to which Algernon Moncrieff replies, “The truth is rarely pure and never simple. Modern life would be very tedious if it were either, and modern literature a complete impossibility!”

Explanation: Algernon is making a pun on Jack’s words by repeating them and adding a humorous twist to them. By doing so, Algernon is highlighting the theme of artifice and superficiality in the play.

From The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain: In Chapter 8, Huck Finn says, “I don’t want to go fooling around much where there’s snakes. Stick a toad in your hair for fun.”

Explanation: Huck is using the word “toad” in two different senses: as a literal amphibian, and as a slang term for a blemish or pimple. The pun adds humor to the scene, while also highlighting Huck’s naivete and lack of education.

“The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe:

In the famous poem, the narrator says, “Tell me what thy lordly name is on the Night’s Plutonian shore!” The Raven replies, “Nevermore.”

Explanation: The Raven’s response is a pun, as it can be interpreted as a straightforward answer to the narrator’s question, or as a play on the word “name” – the Raven is saying that it has no name, and will never say anything else.

From The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway:

In Chapter 13, Bill Gorton says, “You are all a lost generation,” to which Lady Brett Ashley replies, “Don’t talk like a character in a novel.”

Explanation: Lady Brett is making a pun on the fact that she and her friends are, in fact, characters in a novel. The pun highlights the theme of disillusionment and aimlessness in the Lost Generation.

From The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer:

In “The Miller’s Tale,” Absolon the clerk says, “Alas, my heart is broken right in two! / One half is yours, the other half is too!” when he is rejected by Alison.

Explanation: Absolon is using the word “heart” in two different senses: as a literal organ, and as a metaphor for his love for Alison. The pun adds humor to the scene, while also highlighting the theme of courtly love in medieval literature.

How to Create Pun in a Fictional Work

Creating puns in a fictional work can be a fun and effective way to add humor, depth, and complexity to your writing. Here are some tips for creating puns in a fictional work:

Be aware of your words: Look for words that have multiple meanings or sounds similar to other words. This will allow you to create puns that are both clever and effective.

Use context: Consider the context of your story and use puns that fit the tone and style of your work. This will help your puns feel more natural and less forced.
Keep it subtle: Puns that are too obvious or forced can be distracting and take away from the overall impact of your work. Keep your puns subtle and let your readers discover them on their own.
Be creative: Don’t be afraid to experiment with different types of puns, such as homophones, homonyms, and wordplay. This will help you create puns that are both unique and memorable.

Use puns sparingly: While puns can be effective, using them too often can become tiresome and take away from the overall impact of your work. Use puns sparingly and strategically to make the biggest impact on your readers.

In short, creating puns in a fictional work requires a combination of creativity, awareness, and subtlety. With a little practice and experimentation, you can use puns to enhance the humor, depth, and complexity of your writing.

Benefits of Pun

There are several benefits to using puns in your writing, including:

Humor: Puns are a great way to add humor and wit to your writing. They can lighten the tone of serious subject matter, making it more accessible to readers.
Memorable: Puns are often memorable because they require a moment of mental gymnastics for the reader. This can make them more likely to remember your writing and engage with it on a deeper level.
Wordplay: Puns are a form of wordplay that can add depth and complexity to your writing. They require you to think creatively about language, which can result in more nuanced and interesting writing.

Cultural references: Puns can be used to reference cultural phenomena or current events, making your writing more relevant and relatable to readers.
Versatility: Puns can be used in a variety of genres, from humor to satire to literary fiction. This makes them a versatile tool for any writer looking to add complexity and nuance to their work.

In short, using puns in your writing can help you connect with readers, add humor and depth to your work, and make your writing more memorable and engaging.

Pun and Literary Theory

Puns can be analyzed through various literary theories, including:

Structuralism: Structuralism emphasizes the relationships between elements within a text. Puns can be analyzed as linguistic structures that reveal connections between different meanings and signifiers.
Semiotics: Semiotics focuses on how signs and symbols create meaning. Puns can be analyzed as a form of sign or symbol that communicates multiple meanings simultaneously.

Postmodernism: Postmodernism challenges the idea of fixed, objective meanings and emphasizes the role of language and subjectivity in creating meaning. Puns can be analyzed as a way of destabilizing meaning and calling into question the authority of language.
Feminism: Feminist literary theory emphasizes how gender shapes language and culture. Puns can be analyzed as a way of challenging traditional gender roles and language norms.
Psychoanalytic theory: Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the role of the unconscious in shaping language and meaning. Puns can be analyzed as a form of linguistic play that reveals the unconscious desires and fears of the writer and/or reader.

In short, puns can be analyzed through a variety of literary theories, depending on the particular focus of the analysis. They can reveal the connections between linguistic structures, the ways in which language creates meaning, and the role of language and culture in shaping identity and subjectivity.

Suggested Readings

Adams, Michael. Slayer Slang: A Buffy the Vampire Slayer Lexicon. Oxford University Press, 2003.

Beaton, Kate. Hark! A Vagrant. Drawn and Quarterly, 2011.

Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. Edited by Jill Mann, Penguin Classics, 2005.

Shakespeare, William. Much Ado About Nothing. Edited by F. H. Mares, Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Wilde, Oscar. The Importance of Being Earnest. Edited by Michael Patrick Gillespie, Norton Critical Editions, 2006.

Euphemism

Etymology and Meanings of Euphemism

The word “euphemism” literally means “the use of good words” and is derived from the Greek words “eu,” meaning “good,” and “pheme,” meaning “speaking” or “speech.”

The term refers to the use of mild or indirect words or expressions to avoid offense, embarrassment, or unpleasantness. Euphemisms can be used to convey a more positive or polite tone, to soften the impact of difficult messages, or to show respect and sensitivity towards certain topics or individuals.

While euphemisms are often used in everyday language, they are particularly prevalent in contexts such as politics, religion, and death, where direct language might be considered impolite or offensive. Overall, euphemisms play an important role in shaping how we communicate with others and how we understand and respond to different situations.

Euphemism in Grammar

Grammatically, a euphemism is a noun that can take plural forms, just like any other noun. For example, the singular form of the euphemism “passed away” is “passing away”, and its plural form is “passings away”. Similarly, the singular form of the euphemism “restroom” is “restroom”, and its plural form is “restrooms”.

While euphemisms are primarily used as nouns, they can also be used as verbs in certain contexts. For example, the euphemism “downsizing” is commonly used as a verb to describe the act of reducing the size of a company’s workforce. Similarly, the euphemism “transitioning” is commonly used as a verb to describe the process of changing one’s gender identity. However, it’s important to note that not all euphemisms can be used as verbs, and their use as verbs may be more limited than their use as nouns.

Definition of Euphemism

As a literary device, euphemism is the use of a mild or indirect word or expression in place of one that might be considered harsh, blunt, or offensive. Euphemism is used to convey a particular tone or attitude, and to create a particular effect on the reader or audience.

Common Examples of Euphemism

Here are some common examples of euphemisms:

“Passed away” instead of “died”
“Bathroom” or “restroom” instead of “toilet”

“Let go” or “laid off” instead of “fired”
“Senior citizens” instead of “old people”
“Sanitation engineer” instead of “garbage collector”

“Intimately involved” instead of “having sex”
“Enhanced interrogation” instead of “torture”
“Undocumented immigrants” instead of “illegal immigrants”

“Pre-owned” instead of “used”
“Vertically challenged” instead of “short”
“Revenue enhancement” instead of “tax increase”

“Re-education” instead of “brainwashing”
“Domestic engineer” instead of “housewife”
“Departed” instead of “dead”

“Correctional facility” instead of “prison”
“Economically disadvantaged” instead of “poor”
“Developmentally challenged” instead of “mentally disabled”

“Visitor” instead of “salesperson”
“Collateral damage” instead of “civilian casualties”
“Alternative facts” instead of “lies”

Literary Examples of Euphemism

“I am one, sir, that comes to tell you your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs.” – Iago in Shakespeare’s Othello

Explanation: Iago uses the euphemism “making the beast with two backs” to refer to the sexual activity between Othello and Desdemona.

“And only yesterday, he reflected, it had been announced that the ration was to be reduced to twenty grammes a week. Was it possible that they could swallow that, after only twenty-four hours? Yes, they swallowed it.” – George Orwell, 1984

Explanation: Orwell uses the euphemism “increased” to refer to the reduction in the ration from thirty to twenty grammes a week.

“But the effect of her being on those around her was incalculably diffusive: for the growing good of the world is partly dependent on unhistoric acts; and that things are not so ill with you and me as they might have been, is half owing to the number who lived faithfully a hidden life, and rest in unvisited tombs.” – George Eliot, Middlemarch

Explanation: Eliot uses the euphemism “rest in unvisited tombs” to refer to those who have died without recognition or acknowledgement for their good deeds.

From Brave New World by Aldous Huxley:

“Ending is better than mending. The more stitches, the less riches.”

Explanation: In this excerpt, the phrase “ending is better than mending” is a euphemism for the idea that it is better to replace or dispose of something than to try and repair it. The line reinforces the theme of consumerism and the idea that society values material goods over personal relationships or experiences.

How to Create/Writre a Euphemism

Creating euphemisms involves finding a polite or indirect way to express a potentially sensitive, taboo, or offensive topic. Here are some tips on how to create a euphemism:

Identify the topic: First, identify the topic or word that you want to soften or avoid. This could be a sensitive subject like death or sex, a taboo word like swear words or slang, or a negative term like “fired” or “fat”.

Consider the context: Consider the context in which the euphemism will be used. Is it a formal or informal situation? Who is the audience? What is the tone you want to convey?
Find a suitable replacement: Find a suitable replacement word or phrase that is less offensive or direct. This could involve using a metaphor or analogy, using a more polite or formal term, or using a less specific word.
Test it out: Test the euphemism with others to see how it is received. Make sure it conveys the intended meaning without causing confusion or offense.

Example: For example, instead of saying “he died,” one might say “he passed away” or “he is no longer with us.” Instead of saying “fat,” one might say “overweight” or “full-figured.” The key is to find a way to express the same idea while being sensitive to the context and audience.

Benefits of Using Euphemism

There are several benefits of using euphemisms in language. Here are some of the key advantages:

Politeness: Euphemisms allow people to discuss potentially sensitive or taboo topics in a more polite and indirect way. This can help avoid causing offense or discomfort to others.

Softening harsh language: Euphemisms can soften the impact of harsh or negative language, making it more bearable or less harsh. For example, instead of saying “you’re fired,” one might say “we have to let you go” or “your position has been eliminated.”
Diplomacy: Euphemisms can be useful in diplomatic or political contexts, where it may be necessary to discuss sensitive topics in a more tactful or indirect way.
Cultural sensitivity: Euphemisms can be useful in multicultural or multilingual contexts, where different words or phrases may have different connotations or meanings. Using euphemisms can help avoid misunderstandings or offense.

Creative expression: Euphemisms can be a fun and creative way to express ideas or to play with language. They can add humor, irony, or metaphorical meaning to language.

Overall, euphemisms can be a useful tool in communication, allowing people to express sensitive or negative ideas in a more socially acceptable or less offensive way.

Euphemism in Literary Theory

Euphemism is a literary device that appears in a variety of literary theories. Here are 8 to 10 literary theories that involve euphemism:

Stylistics: Stylistics is the study of language use in literature, and euphemism is often analyzed in this field. Stylistic analysis might focus on the use of euphemism to create tone or to convey a particular theme.
Psychoanalytic theory: Psychoanalytic theory explores the unconscious motivations of characters and the way that they relate to social norms. Euphemism can be used to explore repressed desires or fears in literature.
Feminist theory: Feminist theory examines the ways that gender is constructed and portrayed in literature. Euphemism can be used to subvert traditional gender roles or to explore taboo topics related to gender.

New Criticism: New Criticism is an approach to literary analysis that emphasizes close reading and the text itself, rather than the author or context. Euphemism might be analyzed in terms of its function within the text, rather than its cultural or social context.
Deconstruction: Deconstruction is a literary theory that explores the ways that meaning is created and subverted in literature. Euphemism might be analyzed as a way of hiding or revealing meaning, or as a way of challenging linguistic norms.
Postcolonial theory: Postcolonial theory examines the legacy of colonialism and imperialism in literature. Euphemism might be analyzed as a way of masking or exposing cultural differences, or as a way of subverting colonial power structures.

Cultural studies: Cultural studies is an interdisciplinary field that examines the ways that culture is produced and consumed. Euphemism might be analyzed in terms of its role in constructing cultural norms or challenging cultural expectations.
Reader-response theory: Reader-response theory explores the ways that readers interpret and engage with literature. Euphemism might be analyzed in terms of how it affects the reader’s interpretation of the text or their emotional response to it.
Queer theory: Queer theory is an approach to literary analysis that examines the ways that sexuality and gender identity are portrayed in literature. Euphemism can be used to explore and challenge traditional views of sexuality and gender identity.

Marxism: Marxism is a theoretical framework that examines the relationship between economic and social structures. Euphemism might be analyzed in terms of its role in maintaining or challenging power structures within society.

Fable

Etymology and Meanings of Fable

The word “fable” comes from the Latin word “fabula,” meaning “a story” or “tale.” The term was originally used in ancient Rome to refer to a genre of literature that included stories about mythical or legendary creatures. As Latin spread throughout Europe, the term was adopted into various languages, including Old French, where it became “fable,” and Middle English, where it evolved into “fabel.” The first recorded use of “fable” in English dates back to the 14th century, and since then, the word has been used to describe a variety of stories that typically involve talking animals and teach a moral lesson.

Meanings of Fable

The term “fable” has a few literal meanings, including a short story or tale, often featuring animals or inanimate objects that speak and behave like humans, and that typically ends with a moral lesson or a message. Another meaning of “fable” is a story that is not based on fact but is created to explain something or teach a lesson. It can also refer to a falsehood or a lie, especially one that is deliberately created to deceive or mislead someone. Additionally, “fable” can be used to describe a fictional or imaginary story, especially one that is unlikely to happen in real life.

Fable in Grammar

“Fable” is a singular noun that can take a plural verb, depending on the context. This is because the word “fable” can refer to a single story or to a collection of stories. When referring to a single fable, a singular verb is used, for example: “The fable of the tortoise and the hare teaches us to never give up.” However, when referring to a collection of fables, a plural verb is used, for example: “Aesop’s fables are known for their moral lessons.”

Definition of Fable

As a literary device, a fable is a short story that often features anthropomorphic characters, such as talking animals or inanimate objects, and teaches a moral lesson or a message. The story typically has a simple plot and a clear message that is often stated explicitly at the end. Fables are often used to convey ethical, social, or political ideas in a memorable and entertaining way.

Types of Fable

There are various types of fables, and they can be categorized based on their origin, theme, or format. Here are a few examples:

Aesopian fables: Named after the Greek storyteller Aesop credited with creating many of the most famous fables, these fables have specific features. They often feature animals as their main characters and convey a moral lesson.

Eastern fables: These fables originate from the East, particularly India and the Middle East. They often feature mystical creatures like dragons and unicorns, and they convey moral lessons that are influenced by Eastern philosophy and religion.
Beast fables: These fables feature animals as their main characters, but they are more elaborate and complex than Aesopian fables. They often have a satirical or political theme and are intended to criticize human behavior.
Parables: While not strictly classified as fables, parables are similar in that they are brief stories that convey a moral lesson. However, parables often feature human characters and are more realistic than fables.

Modern fables: Fables continue to be written and adapted in modern times. These fables often use contemporary themes and characters, but they still convey a moral message.

Common Examples of Fable

Fables have been a popular form of storytelling for centuries. There are many famous examples from various cultures and traditions. Here are some common examples of fables:

“The Tortoise and the Hare”: This is one of the most well-known fables, and it tells the story of a slow-moving tortoise who challenges a speedy hare to a race. The hare initially takes the lead, but becomes overconfident and takes a nap, allowing the tortoise to win the race.

“The Boy Who Cried Wolf”: This is another popular fable, and it tells the story of a young boy who repeatedly lies about seeing a wolf, causing his fellow villagers to ignore his warnings. When a wolf actually appears and attacks the flock, the boy is not believed and suffers the consequences.
“The Ant and the Grasshopper”: In this fable, an ant works hard throughout the summer to gather food and prepare for the winter, while a grasshopper spends his time singing and dancing. When winter arrives, the grasshopper is left hungry and cold, while the ant has plenty of food and shelter.
“The Lion and the Mouse”: This fable tells the story of a lion who spares the life of a mouse, and later, when the lion is trapped, the mouse returns the favor by freeing him.

“The Fox and the Grapes”: This fable features a fox who tries to reach a bunch of grapes hanging from a vine, but fails to reach them. In frustration, the fox declares that the grapes were probably sour and not worth eating. This fable teaches the lesson that people often reject things that they cannot have.

Literary Examples of Fable

“The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse” by Aesop (adapted by Robert Henryson): This fable tells the story of a town mouse who invites a country mouse to his home for a visit, but the country mouse is unhappy with the lavish lifestyle and longs to return to his simple life in the country.
“The Ant and the Grasshopper” by Aesop (adapted by William Somerset Maugham): This fable tells the story of a grasshopper who spends the summer singing and dancing instead of preparing for winter, while an ant works diligently to store food. When winter arrives, the grasshopper is left starving while the ant has plenty of food.

“The Bear and the Two Travelers” by Aesop (adapted by Mark Twain): This fable tells the story of two travelers who encounter a bear in the woods. One of the travelers climbs a tree to escape, while the other lies still and pretends to be dead. The bear sniffs at the second traveler, but ultimately leaves him alone. The fable highlights the importance of quick thinking and resourcefulness in dangerous situations.
Jean de La Fontaine’s “The Crow and the Fox”: It is a fable that teaches the dangers of flattery and pride. The story follows a crow who is tricked by a fox into dropping a piece of cheese from her beak by flattery.
Rudyard Kipling’s “The Elephant’s Child” is a fable that highlights the importance of curiosity and questioning. The story follows a young elephant who embarks on a journey to discover what crocodiles eat and how they got their “insatiable appetites.”

How to Create a Fable

To create a fable, you can follow these general steps:

Identify the moral or lesson: A fable typically has a moral or lesson that it seeks to convey. Decide on the moral or lesson you want to teach through your fable.
Choose animal characters: Fables often use animals to represent human behavior and characteristics. Choose animal characters that best convey the message of your fable.

Develop a plot: Create a simple plot that revolves around the actions and behaviors of your animal characters. The plot should be easy to follow and should lead up to the moral or lesson you want to teach.
Use vivid imagery and language: Use descriptive language and imagery to bring your fable to life. Use strong verbs and adjectives to make your characters and their actions more vivid.
Keep it short and simple: Fables are typically short and simple stories, so keep your fable brief and to the point.

Edit and refine: Once you have written your fable, read it over and make any necessary edits or revisions to ensure that it effectively conveys the message you want to teach.

Remember, the key to a successful fable is to have a clear moral or lesson conveyed through the actions and behaviors of animal characters in a simple and easy-to-understand story.

Benefits of Using Fable

Teaching moral values: Fables are often used to teach moral values in a simple and engaging way. They can help readers learn important life lessons and values such as honesty, kindness, and perseverance.

Enhancing critical thinking skills: Fables often have a hidden message or moral that requires readers to think critically and interpret the story’s meaning. This can help enhance critical thinking skills and analytical abilities.
Improving reading comprehension: Fables are typically short and simple stories, making them an ideal tool for improving reading comprehension. They can help readers practice their reading skills and develop their understanding of the English language.
Encouraging creativity: Fables often use animal characters and imaginative settings, which can inspire creativity and imagination in readers. This can be particularly beneficial for children and young adults.

Providing entertainment: Fables can be entertaining and enjoyable to read. They can offer a break from more serious or challenging texts and provide a lighthearted and engaging reading experience.

Fable and Literary Theory

Fables can be analyzed and studied through various literary theories, such as:

Structuralism: Structuralists analyze fables as a system of signs that have a deep structure that can be uncovered through close reading and analysis.

Postcolonialism: Postcolonial scholars study fables in the context of cultural and social power dynamics, exploring how fables have been used to uphold or subvert dominant power structures.
Feminism: Feminist literary theory examines how fables portray gender roles and relationships, and how they reinforce or challenge societal expectations and norms.
Psychoanalytic theory: Psychoanalytic scholars analyze fables in terms of unconscious desires and fears, exploring how the characters and plot elements of fables reflect psychological conflicts and motivations.

Reader-response theory: Reader-response theorists examine how readers interact with fables and how they interpret and make meaning from them, exploring how individual readers’ experiences and perspectives shape their understanding of the text.

Overall, fables offer a rich field for literary analysis and can be studied through a variety of theoretical lenses.

Figurative Language

Etymology and Meanings of Figurative Language

The term “figurative language” comes from the Latin word “figura,” which means “shape” or “form.” In the context of language, “figura” refers to the use of language that creates a visual image or “shape” in the mind of the listener or reader. The concept of figurative language has been recognized and studied for thousands of years, with the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle discussing it in his work on rhetoric. The term “figurative language” has been used in English since at least the 16th century to describe language that uses figures of speech, such as metaphors, similes, and personification, to convey meaning in a more imaginative or expressive way than literal language.

Meanings of Figurative Language

Figurative language is a broad term that encompasses any use of language that goes beyond the literal or dictionary definition of words to create meaning through comparison, association, or imagery. It includes figures of speech such as metaphors, similes, personification, hyperbole, and idioms, among others. Figurative language is used to convey complex ideas or emotions in a more vivid, imaginative, or persuasive way, and it can be found in all forms of writing, from poetry and literature to advertising and everyday conversation. Figurative language allows writers and speakers to engage their audience and create a deeper, more memorable impression, while also enabling readers and listeners to interpret and understand language in a more nuanced and creative way.

Definition of Figurative Language

Figurative language refers to any use of language that goes beyond the literal or dictionary definition of words. It includes a variety of figures of speech, such as metaphors, similes, personification, and hyperbole, that are used to create meaning through comparison, association, or imagery. Figurative language is an important tool for writers and speakers to convey complex ideas, emotions, and experiences in a more vivid, imaginative, or persuasive way.

Types of Figures of Speech

Figures of speech could be categorized differently. Some basic categories or types of figures of speech are as follows.

Figures of Comparison
Figures of Contrast

Figures of Emphasis
Figures of Relationships
Figures of Sound

Figures of Errors
Figures of Disambiguation

Figures of Comparison

The figures of comparison of those figures of speech show a comparison between two like or unlike objects, things, ideas, events, personas, or incidents. There are two types of figures of comparison.

Figures of Direction Comparison: These types of figures of speech involve both things presented parallel to each other and then compared such as a simile. It shows that one thing is directly compared to another thing or one idea is directly compared to another idea. It could be a short or brief simile or an extended simile.
Figures of Indirect Comparison: These types of figures of speech involve both things compared indirectly or implicitly and yet they occur side by side with each other. This type of comparison shows that both things are one and the same thing due to the feature of one being attributed to the other. For example, metaphor is an indirect comparison without the word “like” or “as.” There could be a simple metaphor, or an extended metaphor or a dead metaphor, or even a fossilized metaphor.

Figures of Contrast

These types of figures of speech contrast things, events, ideas, and things. There are a total of seven figures of speech used for contrasting things or ideas. They are antithesis, paradox, oxymoron, and juxtaposition.

Figures of Emphasis

These figures are used to stress upon some ideas by exaggerating or understating them through different techniques. These figures include hyperbole, litotes, antithesis, and rhetorical question. Sometimes, orators use different rhetorical techniques or

Figures of Relationships

These literary devices show the relationship between different things, objects or ideas such as metaphor or similes and metonymy and synecdoche. Personification and euphemism are also considered figures of relationships.

Figures of Sound

These figures show the use of sounds such as alliteration, consonance, assonance, and onomatopoeia.

Figures of Errors

These figures show errors on the part of the speakers. They are also used in rhetoric besides literary texts. They are spoonerism and malapropism.

Figures of Disambiguation

These figures are used for deception or to show a multiplicity of meanings or to deceive or to show verbal jugglery or expertise. They include puns, quips, anagrams, irony, and sarcasm. Neolosis and tropes also fall under this category.

Literary Examples

Example # 1

From All Quiet on the Western Front by Eric Maria Remarque

Once it was different. When we went to the district-commandant to enlist, we were a class of twenty young men, many of whom proudly shaved for the first time before going to the barracks. We had no definite plans for our future. Our thoughts of a career and occupation were as yet of too unpractical a character to furnish any scheme of life. We were still crammed full of vague ideas which gave to life, and to the war also an ideal and almost romantic character. We were trained in the army for ten weeks and in this time more profoundly influenced than by ten years at school. We learned that a bright button is weightier than four volumes of Schopenhauer.

This passage from Maria Remarque’s novel All Quiet on the Western Front shows the use of figurative language. It shows the use of metonymy as they were a class, a metaphor for sack as they were full of plans, and war as a personification of a romantic character. Further, he has used assonance and alliteration such as the sound of /w/ in the first line and /c/ in the third stanza, showing the use of consonance.

Example # 2

From Inaugural Address of Franklin D. Roosevelt, March 4, 1933

Yet our distress comes from no failure of substance. We are stricken by no plague of locusts.
Compared with the perils which our forefathers conquered because they believed and were not afraid, we have still much to be thankful for. Nature still offers her bounty and human
efforts have multiplied it. Plenty is at our doorstep, but a generous use of it languishes in the
very sight of the supply. Primarily this is because the rulers of the exchange of mankind’s
goods have failed, through their own stubbornness and their own incompetence, have
admitted their failure, and abdicated. Practices of the unscrupulous money changers stand
indicted in the court of public opinion, rejected by the hearts and minds of men.

The president has used several figures of speech such as metaphors, personificationس, and metonyms in some places such as the metaphor of peril or the personification of practices and hearts and minds as metonymies.

Example # 3

From “The Darkling Thrush” by Thomas Hardy

I leant upon a coppice gate

When Frost was spectre-grey,

And Winter’s dregs made desolate

The weakening eye of day.

The tangled bine-stems scored the sky

Like strings of broken lyres,

And all mankind that haunted nigh

Had sought their household fires.

This is the first stanza of the by Thomas Hardy. It shows the use of several figures of speech such as Frost and Winter shown as personificfications while images of seasons and sound show his mastery in using this type of language. There is also a simile in the third last line.

Example # 4

“A Walk After Dark” by W. H. Auden

A cloudless night like this
Can set the spirit soaring:
After a tiring day
The clockwork spectacle is
Impressive in a slightly boring
Eighteenth-century way.

The first stanza of the poem “A Walk after Dark” shows the use of different figures of speech. The first line shows the personification of the night or the metaphor of day or the use of assonance and consonance along with the metaphor.

How to Create Figurative Language

Choose a concept: This heading suggests starting with a clear idea of what you want to describe before creating any figurative language. It could be a physical object, an abstract concept, or an emotion.

Brainstorm metaphors: This heading suggests coming up with a list of potential metaphors for the chosen concept. Metaphors compare two seemingly unrelated things in order to create a new perspective on the original concept.
Consider context: This heading suggests thinking about the context in which the figurative language will be used. The same metaphor could have different connotations depending on the context in which it is used.
Use sensory details: This heading suggests using sensory languages, such as sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell, to bring the figurative language to life and create a vivid image in the reader’s mind.

Emphasize comparisons: This heading suggests placing emphasis on the comparison being made between the concept and the metaphor. The comparison should be clear and effective in order to create a strong impact.
Experiment with form: This heading suggests experimenting with different types of figurative language, such as metaphors, similes, personification, and hyperbole, to see which works best for the chosen concept.
Find unexpected angles: This heading suggests trying to find a unique and unexpected angle when creating figurative language. This can help to make the language more interesting and memorable.

Use similes: This heading suggests using similes, which compare two things using “like” or “as,” to create a comparison between the chosen concept and another object or idea.
Avoid cliches: This heading suggests trying to avoid overused or predictable metaphors and instead finding a fresh and original way to describe the chosen concept.
Revise and refine: This heading suggests reviewing and revising the figurative language to ensure it is clear, effective, and impactful. Refining the language can help to make it more precise and memorable.

Benefits of Using Figurative Language

Here are some benefits of using figurative language:

Engages the reader: Figurative language can make writing more engaging by adding depth and interest to descriptions. It can also make a piece of writing more memorable by creating vivid and imaginative images in the reader’s mind.
Conveys complex ideas: Figurative language can be used to express complex or abstract ideas in a way that is more accessible to readers. Metaphors and analogies can help readers to better understand and relate to difficult concepts.

Creates emotional impact: Figurative language can evoke emotions in readers by creating powerful and vivid images. This can help to create a deeper connection between the reader and the text.
Adds depth and richness: Figurative language can add depth and richness to writing by conveying meaning beyond the literal words on the page. It can create layers of meaning and add nuance to descriptions.
Enhances creativity: Figurative language encourages writers to think creatively and experiment with language. This can help to improve writing skills and foster a greater appreciation for the beauty and complexity of language.

Contributes to a unique writing style: Figurative language is a tool that writers can use to develop a unique writing style. By using metaphors, similes, and other figurative devices, writers can create a distinctive voice and tone that sets their writing apart from others.

Figurative Language in Literary Theory

Reader-response theory: This theory emphasizes the role of the reader in interpreting a text. Figurative language, such as metaphor and simile, invites the reader to participate in the creation of meaning by drawing on their own experiences and associations.
Structuralism: Structuralist theory focuses on the underlying structures and patterns in literature. Figurative language can be seen as part of these structures, with metaphors and other figures of speech forming part of a larger network of signifiers that contribute to the meaning of a text.

Deconstruction: Deconstruction emphasizes the ambiguity and instability of language, suggesting that meanings are always provisional and subject to change. A figurative language is a key tool in creating this instability, as it can create multiple meanings that may be in tension with one another.
Feminist theory: Feminist theory emphasizes the role of gender and power in shaping literature. Figurative language can be used to reinforce or challenge gender norms, with metaphors and other figures of speech often reflecting and perpetuating patriarchal assumptions.
Postcolonial theory: Postcolonial theory examines the ways in which colonialism and imperialism have shaped literature and culture. Figurative language can be used to reflect the cultural hybridity that results from these historical processes, with metaphors and other figures of speech often drawing on multiple cultural traditions and perspectives.

Eulogy

Etymology of Eulogy

The word “eulogy” comes from the Greek term “eulogia,” which means “good words.” The prefix “eu” means “good,” and “logos” means “word” or “speech.” In ancient Greece, a eulogy was a speech given at a funeral or public event that praised the deceased person’s character and accomplishments.

In English, a eulogy is a speech or piece of writing that honors and pays tribute to a person who has recently died. It is typically delivered at a funeral or memorial service and highlights the person’s positive qualities, achievements, and contributions to their community or society.

Meanings:

The literal meanings of the word “eulogy” are derived from its Greek roots. The prefix “eu” means “good” or “well,” while “logos” means “word” or “speech.” So, the literal meanings of “eulogy” are:

“Good words” or “well-spoken words”
“Praise” or “commendation”
“A tribute” or “a speech of praise”

These meanings reflect the traditional use of eulogies in ancient Greece, where they were speeches of praise given in honor of a deceased person. In modern usage, eulogies are still typically used to praise the deceased, but they can also be used to honor and celebrate the achievements and contributions of living individuals.

Definition of Eulogy

As a literary device, a eulogy is a speech or piece of writing that pays tribute to a person or thing, highlighting their positive qualities and achievements. It is often used to create a sense of reverence and admiration, as well as to evoke emotions such as sadness or nostalgia. Eulogies can be used in a variety of genres, including poetry, prose, and drama.

Types of Eulogy

There are different types of eulogies, including:

Personal eulogy: This type of eulogy focuses on the personal qualities and experiences of the deceased, highlighting their unique characteristics, interests, and achievements.
Religious eulogy: This type of eulogy is often delivered within a religious context and may incorporate scriptures, prayers, or other religious elements.
Professional eulogy: This type of eulogy is commonly used to honor the achievements and contributions of the deceased in their professional life, highlighting their career milestones, impact on their field, and the legacy they leave behind.

Tribute eulogy: This type of eulogy is a general tribute to the deceased that often includes personal stories and anecdotes shared by family members, friends, or colleagues.
Commemorative eulogy: This type of eulogy is typically delivered on anniversaries or special occasions to commemorate the life and memory of the deceased.
Inspirational eulogy: This type of eulogy seeks to inspire and uplift the audience, often using the life and legacy of the deceased as an example of strength, perseverance, and positivity.

In short, the type of eulogy selected will depend on the occasion, audience, and the preferences of the family and friends of the deceased.

Literary Examples of Eulogy

Eulogy for Othello in Othello by William Shakespeare:

Extract: “This is thy work: the object poisons sight. / Let it be hid.”

Explanation: This eulogy is delivered by Lodovico in “Othello” after the tragic death of Othello, the play’s protagonist. The lines are a lament for Othello’s downfall and a reflection on the way that jealousy and suspicion can cloud one’s perception of the truth.

Reference: Shakespeare, William. “Othello.” Act 5, Scene 2.

Eulogy for Julius Caesar in Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare:

Extract: “Here was a Caesar! when comes such another?”

Explanation: This eulogy is delivered by Mark Antony in “Julius Caesar” after the assassination of the eponymous character. The lines are a tribute to Caesar’s greatness and a condemnation of his murderers.

Reference: Shakespeare, William. “Julius Caesar.” Act 3, Scene 2.

Eulogy for Yorick in Hamlet by William Shakespeare:

Extract: “Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio: a fellow / of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy.”

Explanation: This eulogy is delivered by Hamlet in “Hamlet” as he holds the skull of Yorick, the court jester. The lines are a reflection on the transience of life and the power of memory.

Reference: Shakespeare, William. “Hamlet.” Act 5, Scene 1.

Eulogy for Abraham Lincoln by Walt Whitman:

Extract: “O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, / The ship has weather’d every rack, the prize we sought is won.”

Explanation: This eulogy is a poem written by Walt Whitman after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. The lines are a metaphorical tribute to Lincoln’s leadership and sacrifice, comparing him to a captain who has led his ship through stormy waters to a hard-won victory.

Reference: Whitman, Walt. “O Captain! My Captain!” Leaves of Grass.

Eulogy for Arthur Hallam in “In Memoriam A.H.H.” by Alfred Lord Tennyson:

Extract: “I hold it true, whate’er befall; / I feel it, when I sorrow most; / ‘Tis better to have loved and lost / Than never to have loved at all.”

Explanation: This eulogy is a poem written by Alfred Lord Tennyson in memory of his friend Arthur Hallam, who died at a young age. The lines are a reflection on the nature of grief, loss, and love, and a tribute to the power of memory and friendship.

Reference: Tennyson, Alfred Lord. In Memoriam A.H.H.

How to Create a Eulogy

Writing a eulogy can be a daunting task, but here are some steps that may help you create a meaningful and heartfelt tribute to the deceased:

Gather information: Take some time to gather information about the deceased. Speak to their family members and friends, look through old photos and mementos, and take note of their accomplishments, hobbies, and interests.
Choose a focus: Decide what you want to focus on in your eulogy. You might choose to highlight the deceased’s personality, their achievements, their impact on others, or some other aspect of their life.

Brainstorm: Spend some time brainstorming ideas for your eulogy. Write down any memories, stories, or quotes that come to mind. Don’t worry about organizing your ideas at this stage.
Organize your ideas: Once you have a list of ideas, start organizing them into a coherent structure. You might choose to arrange your ideas chronologically, thematically, or according to the deceased’s personality traits.
Write your eulogy: Using your notes and outline as a guide, start writing your eulogy. Keep in mind that a good eulogy is personal, heartfelt, and respectful. Be sure to include personal anecdotes, memories, and reflections on the deceased’s life.

Edit and revise: Once you have a draft of your eulogy, take some time to read it over and make revisions. Edit for clarity, tone, and length, and make sure your eulogy accurately reflects the life and personality of the deceased.
Practice: Practice delivering your eulogy out loud. You might want to rehearse in front of a mirror, a trusted friend or family member, or record yourself on your phone. This will help you feel more confident and comfortable when the time comes to deliver your eulogy.

NOTE: Remember that a eulogy is a tribute to the deceased, so focus on celebrating their life and honoring their memory. It’s okay to feel emotional and vulnerable while writing and delivering your eulogy, but take comfort in knowing that your words can provide comfort and support to those who are grieving.

Benefits of Writing or Delivering a Eulogy

Eulogies offer several benefits to both the speaker and the audience. Here are some of the main benefits of eulogies:

Honoring the deceased: A eulogy is an opportunity to honor the life and memory of the deceased. It allows the speaker to celebrate the person’s accomplishments, personality, and impact on others, and helps the audience remember the person in a positive light.
Providing comfort: Eulogies can be a source of comfort for the audience, especially those who are grieving. They can provide a sense of closure and help people process their emotions.

Bringing people together: Eulogies can bring family and friends together in a shared experience of mourning and remembrance. They can create a sense of community and support during a difficult time.
Sharing memories and stories: Eulogies allow people to share memories and stories about the deceased, which can be both healing and therapeutic. They can help people remember the person as they were in life, and keep their memory alive.
Honing public speaking skills: For the speaker, delivering a eulogy can be an opportunity to practice public speaking and develop confidence in front of an audience. It can also be a chance to reflect on the meaning and importance of life, and to pay tribute to someone who was important to them

Eulogy and Literary Theory

Eulogies can be analyzed through several literary theories, depending on the context and purpose of the eulogy. Here are a few examples:

Reader-Response Theory: This theory focuses on the reader’s interpretation and response to a literary text. In the case of a eulogy, the theory could be applied to the audience’s reaction to the speaker’s words. The eulogy becomes a text that is interpreted and responded to by the listeners, and their reactions are influenced by their own experiences and emotions.
New Criticism: This theory emphasizes close reading of a literary text, looking at its formal elements and structure. In the case of a eulogy, a New Critic might analyze the speaker’s use of language, imagery, and tone to create meaning and convey emotion.

Feminist Theory: This theory examines how gender influences literature and language. In the case of a eulogy, a feminist analysis might look at how gender roles and stereotypes are reinforced or challenged in the speaker’s words, or how the eulogy reflects cultural attitudes toward death and mourning.
Psychoanalytic Theory: This theory looks at how unconscious desires and conflicts influence literary texts. In the case of a eulogy, a psychoanalytic analysis might look at how the speaker’s own unconscious feelings about the deceased, or their own mortality, are reflected in their words.
Postcolonial Theory: This theory examines how power relations between different groups are reflected in literature. In the case of a eulogy, a postcolonial analysis might look at how the speaker’s words reflect cultural or social hierarchies, or how the eulogy reflects the relationship between the deceased and their community or society.