Etymology and Meanings of Figurative Language
The term “figurative language” comes from the Latin word “figura,” which means “shape” or “form.” In the context of language, “figura” refers to the use of language that creates a visual image or “shape” in the mind of the listener or reader. The concept of figurative language has been recognized and studied for thousands of years, with the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle discussing it in his work on rhetoric. The term “figurative language” has been used in English since at least the 16th century to describe language that uses figures of speech, such as metaphors, similes, and personification, to convey meaning in a more imaginative or expressive way than literal language.
Meanings of Figurative Language
Figurative language is a broad term that encompasses any use of language that goes beyond the literal or dictionary definition of words to create meaning through comparison, association, or imagery. It includes figures of speech such as metaphors, similes, personification, hyperbole, and idioms, among others. Figurative language is used to convey complex ideas or emotions in a more vivid, imaginative, or persuasive way, and it can be found in all forms of writing, from poetry and literature to advertising and everyday conversation. Figurative language allows writers and speakers to engage their audience and create a deeper, more memorable impression, while also enabling readers and listeners to interpret and understand language in a more nuanced and creative way.
Definition of Figurative Language
Figurative language refers to any use of language that goes beyond the literal or dictionary definition of words. It includes a variety of figures of speech, such as metaphors, similes, personification, and hyperbole, that are used to create meaning through comparison, association, or imagery. Figurative language is an important tool for writers and speakers to convey complex ideas, emotions, and experiences in a more vivid, imaginative, or persuasive way.
Types of Figures of Speech
Figures of speech could be categorized differently. Some basic categories or types of figures of speech are as follows.
- Figures of Comparison
- Figures of Contrast
- Figures of Emphasis
- Figures of Relationships
- Figures of Sound
- Figures of Errors
- Figures of Disambiguation
- Figures of Comparison
The figures of comparison of those figures of speech show a comparison between two like or unlike objects, things, ideas, events, personas, or incidents. There are two types of figures of comparison.
- Figures of Direction Comparison: These types of figures of speech involve both things presented parallel to each other and then compared such as a simile. It shows that one thing is directly compared to another thing or one idea is directly compared to another idea. It could be a short or brief simile or an extended simile.
- Figures of Indirect Comparison: These types of figures of speech involve both things compared indirectly or implicitly and yet they occur side by side with each other. This type of comparison shows that both things are one and the same thing due to the feature of one being attributed to the other. For example, metaphor is an indirect comparison without the word “like” or “as.” There could be a simple metaphor, or an extended metaphor or a dead metaphor, or even a fossilized metaphor.
- Figures of Contrast
These types of figures of speech contrast things, events, ideas, and things. There are a total of seven figures of speech used for contrasting things or ideas. They are antithesis, paradox, oxymoron, and juxtaposition.
- Figures of Emphasis
These figures are used to stress upon some ideas by exaggerating or understating them through different techniques. These figures include hyperbole, litotes, antithesis, and rhetorical question. Sometimes, orators use different rhetorical techniques or
- Figures of Relationships
These literary devices show the relationship between different things, objects or ideas such as metaphor or similes and metonymy and synecdoche. Personification and euphemism are also considered figures of relationships.
- Figures of Sound
These figures show the use of sounds such as alliteration, consonance, assonance, and onomatopoeia.
- Figures of Errors
These figures show errors on the part of the speakers. They are also used in rhetoric besides literary texts. They are spoonerism and malapropism.
- Figures of Disambiguation
These figures are used for deception or to show a multiplicity of meanings or to deceive or to show verbal jugglery or expertise. They include puns, quips, anagrams, irony, and sarcasm. Neolosis and tropes also fall under this category.
Literary Examples
Example # 1
From All Quiet on the Western Front by Eric Maria Remarque
Once it was different. When we went to the district-commandant to enlist, we were a class of twenty young men, many of whom proudly shaved for the first time before going to the barracks. We had no definite plans for our future. Our thoughts of a career and occupation were as yet of too unpractical a character to furnish any scheme of life. We were still crammed full of vague ideas which gave to life, and to the war also an ideal and almost romantic character. We were trained in the army for ten weeks and in this time more profoundly influenced than by ten years at school. We learned that a bright button is weightier than four volumes of Schopenhauer.
This passage from Maria Remarque’s novel All Quiet on the Western Front shows the use of figurative language. It shows the use of metonymy as they were a class, a metaphor for sack as they were full of plans, and war as a personification of a romantic character. Further, he has used assonance and alliteration such as the sound of /w/ in the first line and /c/ in the third stanza, showing the use of consonance.
Example # 2
From Inaugural Address of Franklin D. Roosevelt, March 4, 1933
Yet our distress comes from no failure of substance. We are stricken by no plague of locusts.
Compared with the perils which our forefathers conquered because they believed and were not afraid, we have still much to be thankful for. Nature still offers her bounty and human
efforts have multiplied it. Plenty is at our doorstep, but a generous use of it languishes in the
very sight of the supply. Primarily this is because the rulers of the exchange of mankind’s
goods have failed, through their own stubbornness and their own incompetence, have
admitted their failure, and abdicated. Practices of the unscrupulous money changers stand
indicted in the court of public opinion, rejected by the hearts and minds of men.
The president has used several figures of speech such as metaphors, personificationس, and metonyms in some places such as the metaphor of peril or the personification of practices and hearts and minds as metonymies.
Example # 3
From “The Darkling Thrush” by Thomas Hardy
I leant upon a coppice gate
When Frost was spectre-grey,
And Winter’s dregs made desolate
The weakening eye of day.
The tangled bine-stems scored the sky
Like strings of broken lyres,
And all mankind that haunted nigh
Had sought their household fires.
This is the first stanza of the by Thomas Hardy. It shows the use of several figures of speech such as Frost and Winter shown as personificfications while images of seasons and sound show his mastery in using this type of language. There is also a simile in the third last line.
Example # 4
“A Walk After Dark” by W. H. Auden
A cloudless night like this
Can set the spirit soaring:
After a tiring day
The clockwork spectacle is
Impressive in a slightly boring
Eighteenth-century way.
The first stanza of the poem “A Walk after Dark” shows the use of different figures of speech. The first line shows the personification of the night or the metaphor of day or the use of assonance and consonance along with the metaphor.
How to Create Figurative Language
- Choose a concept: This heading suggests starting with a clear idea of what you want to describe before creating any figurative language. It could be a physical object, an abstract concept, or an emotion.
- Brainstorm metaphors: This heading suggests coming up with a list of potential metaphors for the chosen concept. Metaphors compare two seemingly unrelated things in order to create a new perspective on the original concept.
- Consider context: This heading suggests thinking about the context in which the figurative language will be used. The same metaphor could have different connotations depending on the context in which it is used.
- Use sensory details: This heading suggests using sensory languages, such as sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell, to bring the figurative language to life and create a vivid image in the reader’s mind.
- Emphasize comparisons: This heading suggests placing emphasis on the comparison being made between the concept and the metaphor. The comparison should be clear and effective in order to create a strong impact.
- Experiment with form: This heading suggests experimenting with different types of figurative language, such as metaphors, similes, personification, and hyperbole, to see which works best for the chosen concept.
- Find unexpected angles: This heading suggests trying to find a unique and unexpected angle when creating figurative language. This can help to make the language more interesting and memorable.
- Use similes: This heading suggests using similes, which compare two things using “like” or “as,” to create a comparison between the chosen concept and another object or idea.
- Avoid cliches: This heading suggests trying to avoid overused or predictable metaphors and instead finding a fresh and original way to describe the chosen concept.
- Revise and refine: This heading suggests reviewing and revising the figurative language to ensure it is clear, effective, and impactful. Refining the language can help to make it more precise and memorable.
Benefits of Using Figurative Language
Here are some benefits of using figurative language:
- Engages the reader: Figurative language can make writing more engaging by adding depth and interest to descriptions. It can also make a piece of writing more memorable by creating vivid and imaginative images in the reader’s mind.
- Conveys complex ideas: Figurative language can be used to express complex or abstract ideas in a way that is more accessible to readers. Metaphors and analogies can help readers to better understand and relate to difficult concepts.
- Creates emotional impact: Figurative language can evoke emotions in readers by creating powerful and vivid images. This can help to create a deeper connection between the reader and the text.
- Adds depth and richness: Figurative language can add depth and richness to writing by conveying meaning beyond the literal words on the page. It can create layers of meaning and add nuance to descriptions.
- Enhances creativity: Figurative language encourages writers to think creatively and experiment with language. This can help to improve writing skills and foster a greater appreciation for the beauty and complexity of language.
- Contributes to a unique writing style: Figurative language is a tool that writers can use to develop a unique writing style. By using metaphors, similes, and other figurative devices, writers can create a distinctive voice and tone that sets their writing apart from others.
Figurative Language in Literary Theory
- Reader-response theory: This theory emphasizes the role of the reader in interpreting a text. Figurative language, such as metaphor and simile, invites the reader to participate in the creation of meaning by drawing on their own experiences and associations.
- Structuralism: Structuralist theory focuses on the underlying structures and patterns in literature. Figurative language can be seen as part of these structures, with metaphors and other figures of speech forming part of a larger network of signifiers that contribute to the meaning of a text.
- Deconstruction: Deconstruction emphasizes the ambiguity and instability of language, suggesting that meanings are always provisional and subject to change. A figurative language is a key tool in creating this instability, as it can create multiple meanings that may be in tension with one another.
- Feminist theory: Feminist theory emphasizes the role of gender and power in shaping literature. Figurative language can be used to reinforce or challenge gender norms, with metaphors and other figures of speech often reflecting and perpetuating patriarchal assumptions.
- Postcolonial theory: Postcolonial theory examines the ways in which colonialism and imperialism have shaped literature and culture. Figurative language can be used to reflect the cultural hybridity that results from these historical processes, with metaphors and other figures of speech often drawing on multiple cultural traditions and perspectives.
Suggested Readings
Katz, Albert N., and Cristina Cacciari. Figurative Language and Thought. Oxford UP, 2017.
Quinn, Arthur. Figures of Speech: 60 Ways to Turn a Phrase. Collins Reference, 2005.
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. 2nd ed., U of Chicago P, 2003.
Gibbs, Jr., Raymond W., editor. The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge UP, 2019.
Cruse, D. Alan, editor. The Handbook of Figurative Language. Routledge, 2017.
Goatly, Andrew. The Language of Metaphors. Routledge, 2007.
Turner, Mark. The Literary Mind: The Origins of Thought and Language. Oxford UP, 1998.
Dancygier, Barbara, editor. The Oxford Handbook of Figurative Language. Oxford UP, 2019.
Landau, Mark J., et al. The Power of Metaphor: Examining Its Influence on Social Life. APA, 2012. Jones, Rodney H., editor. The Routledge Handbook of Language and Creativity. Routledge, 2015.
