Day: August 22, 2023

Etymology of Repetition

The term “repetition” comes from the Latin word repetitio, which means “repetition, recitation, or rehearsal.” Its derivative is the verb repetere, which means “to demand again, or to repeat.”

The prefix “re-” means “again,” and “petere” means “to seek, to ask for.” Therefore, repetition refers to the act of repeating something already been said or done.

Literal Meanings of Repetition

Type of Repetition	Definition	Purpose
Communication	The act of repeating something already said or done.	Often used for emphasis or clarity.
Music	The repeating of a musical phrase or motif.	Creates familiarity and tension in the music.
Literature	Often used for rhetorical effect.	Emphasizes a particular point in the text.
Psychology and Therapy	The act of repeating a behavioral trait or thought.	A powerful tool for establishing new patterns of behavior and thought.

Repetition in Grammar

• A repetition is a noun with its plural form as “repetitions.”
• The verb used with “repetition” depends on the context.
• In the case of a specific repetition of a musical phrase, we might use a singular verb. For instance, “The repetition was effective.”
• When referring to multiple repetitions of a behavioral trait, a plural verb is employed. For instance, “The repetitions have strengthened the neural pathways.”

Definition of Repetition

In literature, it is a literary device that involves repeating a word or phrase to create emphasis or rhythm. It has various uses such as to create a sense of urgency, to reinforce a theme or idea, or to highlight the importance of a particular concept or image. It also creates a sense of musicality in writing through a rhythmic pattern pleasing to the ear. It is a powerful tool to help writers to make their writings impactful and effective.

Types of Repetition

There are several types used in literature and other forms of communication. Here are some of the most common types with examples:

Type of Repetition	Definition	Example from Literature
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.	“I have a dream that one day… I have a dream that one day… I have a dream that one day…” (Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech)
Epiphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses or sentences.	“Where now? Who now? When now?” (Samuel Beckett’s The Unnamable)
Polyptoton	Repetition of a word in a different form or tense.	“But love is blind, and lovers cannot see / The pretty follies that themselves commit” (William Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice)
Anadiplosis	Repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the next clause.	“Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering.” (Yoda in Star Wars)
Chiasmus	Repetition of words or phrases in reverse order.	“Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.” (John F. Kennedy’s inaugural address)
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.	“Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.”
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds in words.	“Men sell the wedding bells.”
Consonance	Repetition of consonant sounds within words.	“All’s well that ends well.”

These are just a few examples of the many types used in literature and communication to create emphasis, rhythm, and impact. However, it is interesting to note that all of these are literary devices in their own right and have their own specific features.

Common Examples

Repetition is a common occurrence in everyday conversation, often used for emphasis or clarification. Here are some examples of repetitions that occur in everyday conversation:

1. “Can you pass the salt, please? The salt, the one next to you.”
2. “I really, really like your outfit.”
3. “I told him no, no, absolutely not.”
4. “I can’t believe he did that, I mean, really, I can’t believe it.”
5. “I had a terrible day today. Everything went wrong, I mean everything.”
6. “It’s a beautiful, beautiful day outside.”
7. “I need to study, study hard, if I want to pass this exam.”
8. “I’m sorry, sorry I was late, I got stuck in traffic.”

These are just a few examples of how repetition are used or occurin everyday conversation to emphasize or clarify a point. It is a natural part of human communication and can be used to great effect in both formal and informal contexts.

Literary Examples of Repetition

Source	Extract	Explanation
Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities	“I have a dream that one day…I have a dream that one day…I have a dream that one day…”	Anaphora: Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences. Used to emphasize King’s vision of a better future and rally his audience behind his cause.
Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven”	“Quoth the Raven, ‘Nevermore.’”	Epiphora: It is a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses or sentences. Creates a sense of horror and emphasizes the finality of the Raven’s message.
Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities	“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness…”	Repetitive Structures: Repetition used for parallelism and balance. Highlights the contrasts between the two cities and their residents.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”	“Water, water, everywhere, And all the boards did shrink; Water, water, everywhere, Nor any drop to drink.”	It is used to create a sense of despair and hopelessness. Emphasizes the Mariner’s isolation and desperation.

Suggested Readings

1. Barthes, Roland. “Repetition.” Image-Music-Text, edited by Stephen Heath, Hill and Wang, 1977, pp. 142-148.
2. Fled, Steven. Sound and Sentiment: Birds, Weeping, Poetics, and Song in Kaluli Expression. 2nd ed., University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016.
3. Hobsbaum, Philip. Metre, Rhythm and Verse Form. Routledge, 2013.
4. Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith. Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2002.
5. Shklovsky, Viktor. Theory of Prose. Translated by Benjamin Sher, Dalkey Archive Press, 1991.

More from Literary Devices:

• Using Repetition in Writing
• Red Herring: Literary Device
• Red Herring: Using and Not Using?

Introduction

A red herring is a literary and rhetorical device involving the introduction of irrelevant information or arguments to divert attention from the main issue or argument. It is used to mislead or confuse the audience, often by presenting a misleading clue or distraction. This fallacy can lead to faulty reasoning and hinder a clear understanding of the subject at hand. These sources likely explore the concept and usage of red herrings in various contexts, such as literature, argumentation, and critical thinking.

How to Create Red Herring in Your Writing?

Creating a red herring in a fictional work could be an effective way to add tension and intrigue to the story. Here are some tips on how to create a red herring:

Step	Explanation	Practical Example
1. Plausible Suspects or Motives	Introduce believable culprits or motives.	In the mystery novel, present a character with a motive that appears convincing but later turns out to be innocent.
2. Misdirection: Diverting Attention	Use hints to steer readers away from the suspect.	Drop subtle hints implying a different character’s guilt, leading readers to consider them as the potential culprit.
3. Multiple Suspects or Motives	Present various possibilities to confuse readers.	Introduce multiple characters with plausible motives, making it challenging for readers to pinpoint the real culprit.
4. Unreliable Narration	Employ an untrustworthy narrator.	Have a narrator with personal biases or deceptive tendencies narrate the story, casting doubt on their account of events.
5. Genre Conventions	Play with genre expectations.	In a detective story, have the detective initially suspect a character who, according to genre norms, seems guilty but is not.

By using these techniques, you can create a red herring that will keep your readers guessing and add depth and complexity to your fictional work.

Benefits of Red Herring

Red herrings can provide several benefits in writing. Here are some of the main benefits:

1. Increased Tension: Creating it increases suspense and anticipation by leaving readers unsure of the true culprit or motive.
2. Deeper Characterization: Introducing a red herring allows for in-depth exploration of different characters’ motivations and actions, even if they are not the actual culprit.
3. Surprise Twist: It can set up a surprising twist ending, especially when readers are led to believe one character is guilty, only to discover it was someone else entirely.
4. Reader Engagement: Creating a red herring keeps readers engaged as they actively try to solve the mystery and identify the true culprit, making the reading experience more interactive.
5. Improved Pacing: Introducing it enhances story pacing by providing a natural narrative break, allowing readers to reassess the situation before progressing to the next part of the story.

Red Herring and Literary Theory

Red herring can be analyzed through various literary theories. Here are a few examples:

Literary Theory	Critique of Red Herring
Reader Response Theory	They engage readers by presenting false leads and encouraging them to actively interpret the text. They challenge assumptions and promote critical thinking as readers navigate through misleading clues and question their own understanding of the story.
Structuralism Theory	Red herrings disrupt reader expectations and conventional narrative structures. They introduce unexpected elements, creating tension and suspense. By destabilizing the narrative structure, red herrings prompt readers to reassess their assumptions about the story, encouraging a deeper engagement with the text.
Postmodernism Theory	It challenges the notion of fixed truths by introducing uncertainty and multiple possibilities. They highlight the limitations of language and storytelling in capturing an objective reality. By incorporating red herrings, the authors emphasize the subjectivity of interpretations and invite readers to question their own understanding of the story’s events.
Feminist Literary Theory	Red herrings can perpetuate or subvert gender stereotypes in literature. Depending on their portrayal, red herrings can reinforce traditional assumptions about women or challenge them. A red herring that leads the reader to suspect a female character of a crime may perpetuate negative stereotypes, while a red herring that subverts these assumptions by exonerating the female character challenges gender biases and provides a critique of societal expectations.

Suggested Readings

1. Adams, Mary. The Red Herring in Mystery Novels. Random House, 2016.
2. Finn, Kavita Mudan. “Pickled Red Herring.” Shakespeare and Creative Criticism, edited by Rob Conkie and Scott Maisano, 1st ed., vol. 4, Berghahn Books, 2019, pp. 61–100. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1850h61.8. Accessed 16 July 2023.
3. Tindale, Christopher W. Fallacies and argument appraisal. Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Etymology of Red Herring

The phrase “red herring” originated from the practice of using a strong-smelling fish called a red herring to mislead hunting dogs during training in the 17th century. By dragging the fish across the intended scent trail, the dogs would be distracted and led astray. Over time, the term metaphorically evolved to describe any misleading or distracting tactic used to divert attention from the truth or the main point of an argument, and it is now commonly used in various contexts to signify intentional deception or confusion.

Meanings of Red Herring

• Red herring refers to a deliberate diversion or distraction from the main issue or topic being discussed.
• It is commonly used as a tactic in debates or arguments to steer attention away from an uncomfortable or unfavorable topic.
• A red herring can also be a false lead or clue intentionally introduced to misdirect an investigation.
• In literature, it serves as a plot device used to mislead the reader or create suspense.

Red Herring in Grammar

• The term is singular and takes a singular verb. For example, you would say “That red herring is misleading” instead of “That red herring are misleading.”
• When referring to multiple instances, you would use the plural form “red herrings” and employ a plural verb.
• For instance, you would say “These red herrings are deceptive” rather than “These red herrings is deceptive.”

Definition of Red Herring

It is a deliberate diversion or distraction from the main issue or topic being discussed. It is a literary device used to steer attention away from an uncomfortable or unfavorable topic. This term can also refer to a false lead or clue that is intentionally introduced to misdirect an investigation or confuse someone.

Types of Term

There are several types of red herring, including:

Type	Definition	Example
Ignoring the issue	This occurs when someone completely disregards the topic being discussed and instead focuses on a different, often irrelevant, subject.	Person A: “We need to address the rising crime rates in our city.” Person B: “Well, what about the weather? It’s been great lately.”
Personal Attack	This happens when someone attacks the character of the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself.	Person A: “I believe we should invest in renewable energy sources.” Person B: “Why should we listen to you? You’re just a lazy slacker.”
Straw Man	This happens when someone creates a distorted or exaggerated version of the opposing argument to make it easier to attack.	Person A: “I think we should improve the healthcare system.” Person B: “So, you’re saying we should just give everyone free healthcare?”
Changing the Subject	This occurs when someone changes the topic of discussion to something unrelated to the original issue.	Person A: “We need to address the budget deficit.” Person B: “Did you see the latest episode of that TV show? It was amazing!”
False Dilemma	This is when someone presents only two options, both unfavorable to force a decision in their favor.	Person A: “Either we increase taxes or we cut funding for education. It’s your choice.” Person B: “There must be other alternatives.”
Circular Reasoning	This happens when someone uses the conclusion of their argument as evidence to support their argument. It is also known as begging the question.	Person A: “God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is the word of God.” Person B: “That’s just circular reasoning.”
Ad Hominem	This is a specific type of personal attack that involves attacking the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself.	Person A: “I think we should focus on improving public transportation.” Person B: “Why should we listen to you? You’re a terrible driver.”

Literary Examples of Red Herring

Example	Explanation
The Hound of the Baskervilles by Arthur Conan Doyle	In this detective novel, a mysterious hound is believed to be responsible for a string of murders. However, it is later revealed that the hound is a red herring, meant to mislead the characters and readers, as the true killer is someone else entirely.
“The Cask of Amontillado” by Edgar Allan Poe	In this short story, a man seeks revenge by luring another man into a wine cellar. While the revenge plot is the primary focus, the true motive for the revenge is left ambiguous, creating a sense of uncertainty and making it a potential red herring in the narrative.
The Sign of Four by Arthur Conan Doyle	In this Sherlock Holmes novel, a treasure hunt is undertaken to find a missing person. However, it is later revealed that the treasure hunt itself is a red herring, diverting attention from the true motive and culprits involved in the crime being investigated.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	In this classic novel, the murder of a character is initially believed to be the work of a jealous husband. However, it reveals later that the husband is a red herring, distracting from the motive and complex web of relationships that led to the his demise.
Macbeth by William Shakespeare	In this play, a prophecy leads Macbeth to believe he will become king of Scotland. However, the prophecy itself is a red herring as it drives Macbeth toward his fate, blinding him to the consequences of his actions and the downfall he faces.

Suggested Readings

1. Finn, Kavita Mudan. “Pickled Red Herring.” Shakespeare and Creative Criticism, edited by Rob Conkie and Scott Maisano, 1st ed., vol. 4, Berghahn Books, 2019, pp. 61–100. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1850h61.8. Accessed 16 July 2023.
2. Guthke, Karl S. “Revelation or Deceit?: Last Words in Detective Novels.” Exploring the Interior: Essays on Literary and Cultural History, 1st ed., Open Book Publishers, 2018, pp. 289–318. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv4ncnxx.15. Accessed 16 July 2023.
3. “Red Herring.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 8, no. 11, 1973, pp. 529–529. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4362407. Accessed 16 July 2023.
4. “Red Herring.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 13, no. 22, 1978, pp. 890–890. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4366669. Accessed 16 July 2023.

You may read more on Literary Devices below:

• Tragic Flaw or Hamartia: A Literary Device
• Tragic Flaw: Using and Critiquing It
• Limerick: Creating and Critiquing
• Symbolism: Creating and Critiquing
• Parataxis: Creating and Critiquing It

How to Create Portmanteau in Your Writing

Portmanteau words are created by combining two or more words or parts of words to form a new word that conveys a unique meaning. Here are some tips on how to create your own portmanteau:

Step	How to Do it	Example
1.	Choose Two Or More Words	If you want to create a portmanteau, start by selecting two or more words that are related to the meaning you want to convey. For example, if you want to combine “breakfast” and “lunch,” you could choose the words “break” and “lunch” as the basis for your portmanteau.
2.	Identify The Shared Syllable Or Sound	Look for a syllable or sound that the chosen words have in common. This shared element will be the foundation of your portmanteau. For instance, the words “breakfast” and “lunch” share the sound “br,” which can be used as the shared element in the creation of the portmanteau “brunch.”
3.	Combine The Words	Utilizing the shared syllable or sound as the starting point, merge the selected words to form your portmanteau. Experiment with different combinations until you find one that sounds pleasing and effectively conveys the desired meaning. In our example, combining “break” and “lunch” gives us the portmanteau “brunch.”
4.	Define The New Word	Once you have created your portmanteau, provide a definition that clarifies its meaning to others. While you can draw inspiration from the words you combined, the definition should capture the unique concept represented by the new word. For “brunch,” you could define it as “a meal eaten between breakfast and lunch.”
5.	Use The New Word	To popularize your portmanteau, incorporate it into your everyday vocabulary. By using the word regularly, you increase the likelihood of others adopting it. With time, it might even become part of the broader lexicon.

Some examples of portmanteau words created in recent years include “bromance” (brother + romance), “chillax” (chill + relax), “infomercial” (information + commercial), and “staycation” (stay + vacation).

Benefits of Portmanteau

A portmanteau is defined as a linguistic blend of words in which parts of multiple words are combined into a new word. Here are some benefits of using portmanteau:

1. Conciseness: Portmanteaus convey complex ideas or concepts in a concise manner. By combining two or more words into one, you can create a word that expresses a new concept more efficiently than using separate words.
2. Creativity: Portmanteaus allow for creative expression and can be used to create new and unique words that can capture the imagination of the audience. This can be especially useful in fields like marketing, advertising, and branding.
3. Memorable: Portmanteaus can be catchy and easy to remember, making them effective in marketing and branding campaigns. For example, “Brangelina” (Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie) or “Jumbotron” (giant screen).
4. Fun: Portmanteaus could be playful and fun, adding an element of humor or wit to the language. This can make communication more enjoyable and engaging.
5. Efficiency: Portmanteaus could be used to create efficient technical terminology, especially in fields like science and technology. For example, “Biopic” (biographical film) or “Sitcom” (situation comedy).

Portmanteau and Literary Theory

Portmanteau can be a useful tool for literary theorists and scholars in analyzing and interpreting texts. Here are some examples of how portmanteau can be used in literary theories:

Literary Theory	Significance of Portmanteau	Example from Literature	Interpretation
Structuralism	Blending of multiple meanings and concepts into a single word	“Brunch” – combination of “breakfast” and “lunch”	Portrays the merging of two distinct ideas or concepts, highlighting the fluidity of language and the possibility of new meanings
Postmodernism	Deconstruction and subversion of traditional language boundaries	“Spanglish” – combination of Spanish and English	Challenges the notion of linguistic purity, emphasizes hybridity and cultural blending in a globalized world
Surrealism	Unconscious associations and juxtapositions in language	“Chortle” – combination of “chuckle” and “snort”	Creates a nonsensical, dreamlike effect by merging incongruous sounds and meanings
Dadaism	Playful disruption of language and meaning	“Zyzzyva” – coined word with no specific meaning	Rejects the conventional rules of language, emphasizing randomness and anti-rationality
Feminist Theory	Subverting patriarchal language structures	“Herstory” – combination of “her” and “history”	Challenges the dominance of male-centered language, highlights women’s experiences and contributions

Note: The interpretations provided are general and may vary depending on the specific literary context and the readers’ interpretation.

Suggested Readings

1. Carroll, Lewis. Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There. Macmillan, 1871.
2. Crystal, David. The Stories of English. Overlook Press, 2004.
3. Lodge, David. The Modes of Modern Writing: Metaphor, Metonymy, and Portmanteau. Routledge, 1977.
4. Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Philosophical Investigations. Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe, Blackwell, 1953.

Etymology of Portmanteau

The word “portmanteau” comes from the French language. It originally referred to a large traveling bag with two compartments. It is a combination of two French words: porter, which means “to carry,” and manteau, which means “cloak.” The concept of combining two separate compartments into a single bag led to the word’s figurative meaning, which is to blend or merge two words or concepts to create a new word.

Meanings of Portmanteau

• Combination of words or parts of words
• Blending of sounds and meanings
• Creating a new word by merging two or more words together
• Forming a concise expression or term by combining elements
• Utilizing a linguistic technique to create a compact and unique word
• A literary device that condenses or abbreviates language through fusion
• Combining the characteristics or qualities of two or more words into one
• Inventive word formation by merging lexical elements

Portmanteau in Grammar

• Grammatically “Portmanteau” is;
  • Singular noun: “portmanteau”
  • Plural forms: “portmanteaux” or “portmanteaus”
• Verb Agreement with “Portmanteau”
  • Subject of the sentence: Verb is singular
  • Verb form depends on the context of use

Definition of Portmanteau

A portmanteau, as a linguistic phenomenon, refers to the amalgamation of two or more lexical units or morphemes, resulting in a new word form. It involves the combination of both the sounds and meanings of the constituent words, thereby creating a novel lexical entity. This literary device serves as a means of linguistic condensation, enabling the concise expression of complex ideas by merging linguistic elements into a single cohesive unit.

Types of Portmanteaus

Different types of portmanteau words can be created by blending two or more words. Here are some common types of portmanteaus:

Type	Definition	Example
Blends	Created by blending the sounds and meanings of two or more words.	“brunch” (breakfast + lunch)
Compound Blends	Combining two or more words, where each word retains its original meaning.	“spork” (spoon + fork)
Alphabet Blends	Combines two words by taking the initial letter(s) from one word and combining it with the remaining letters from another word.	“sitcom” (situation + comedy)
Sound-alike Blends	Combining words that have similar sounds or phonetic patterns.	“fantabulous” (fantastic + fabulous)
Backronyms	Combining a word with an acronym created specifically to fit that word.	“spork” (spoon + fork)
Clipping and Blends	Combining a clipped (shortened) word with another word to create a new word.	“brunch” (breakfast + lunch)
Phonetic Blends	Combining words based on their phonetic sounds or rhyming patterns.	“puggle” (pug + beagle)
Semantic Blends	Combining words based on their semantic or meaning-related characteristics.	“infotainment” (information + entertainment)
Contractions	Combining and contracting two words, typically by omitting some letters or sounds.	“can’t” (cannot)
Acronyms as Portmanteaus	Using acronyms by combining the initial letters of multiple words.	“NATO” (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
Proper Name Blends	Combining the names of individuals to create a new name.	“Brangelina” (Brad Pitt + Angelina Jolie)
Onomatopoeic Blends	Combining words that imitate or resemble the sounds they describe.	“buzzword” (buzz + word)
Language Blends	Combining words from different languages.	“Spanglish” (Spanish + English)
Technological Blends	Combining words related to technology or digital concepts.	“cyborg” (cybernetic + organism)
Brand Blends	Combining parts of brand names or trademarks to form a new word.	“Microsoft” (microcomputer + software)

Common Examples of Portmanteau

There are many common everyday examples of portmanteau words in the English language. Here are some examples:

1. Brunch: A meal that combines elements of breakfast and lunch.
2. Spork: A utensil that combines the features of a spoon and a fork.
3. Chocoholic: A person who is addicted to chocolate.
4. Infomercial: A television advertisement that provides information about a product.
5. Blog: A website or online platform where an individual or group shares their thoughts and opinions.
6. Smog: A type of air pollution that is a mixture of smoke and fog.
7. Animatronic: A robot or mechanical device that resembles an animal and is animated by motors.
8. Podcast: A digital audio or video program that can be downloaded or streamed online.
9. Ginormous: Extremely large or enormous.
10. Edutainment: A form of entertainment that is designed to educate and inform as well as entertain.

These are just a few examples of the many portmanteau words that are commonly used in everyday English.

Literary Examples of Portmanteau

Example	Reference	Type	Explanation
Chortle	Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking-Glass	Sound-alike Blend	In the novel, “chortle” describes the sound made by the Jabberwock when it is killed. It combines “chuckle” and “snort” to capture the creature’s unusual nature and its demise.
Smog	C. P. Snow’s Lecture “The Two Cultures”	Compound Blend	C. P. Snow used “smog” to describe environmental pollution in cities. The word blends “smoke” and “fog” to convey the hazy and polluted atmosphere of urban environments.
Spork	Edward Lear’s Poem “The Owl and the Pussycat”	Compound Blend	This poem shows the characters eat with a “runcible spoon.” Though a nonsense word, “runcible” has been associated with utensils like the “spork,” combining spoon and fork functions.
Brunch	Guy Beringer’s Essay “Brunch: A Plea”	Compound Blend	Beringer proposed “brunch” as a mealtime between breakfast and lunch in his article. The word merges “breakfast” and “lunch,” suggesting a relaxed and enjoyable start to the day.
Mocktail	Katherine Applegate’s Novel The One and Only Ivan	Compound Blend	In the children’s book, Stella the elephant makes a “mocktail” for the other animals—a non-alcoholic version of a cocktail. The word blends “mock” and “cocktail.”
Frenemy	J. K. Rowling’s Novel Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire	Compound Blend	Barty Crouch Jr. refers to the relationship between Harry Potter and Cedric Diggory as a “frenemy” situation. The word blends “friend” and “enemy,” describing a relationship where two people are both friends and rivals.

Suggested Readings

1. Borg, Ruben. “Neologizing in Finnegans Wake: Beyond a Typology of the Wakean Portmanteau.” Poetics Today 28.1 (2007): 143-164.
2. Carroll, Lewis. Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There. Penguin Classics, 2015.
3. Crystal, David. Words, Words, Words. Oxford University Press, 2007.
4. Eco, Umberto. Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language. Indiana University Press, 1984.
5. Lodge, David. The Art of Fiction. Penguin, 1992.
6. Quinion, Michael. Port Out, Starboard Home: And Other Language Myths. Penguin, 2006.
7. Shipley, Joseph T. The Origins of English Words: A Discursive Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984.
8. Tufte, Edward R. Envisioning Information. Graphics Press, 1990.

Introduction to Point of View

Point of view in literature refers to the perspective from which a narrative is presented to the reader. It includes vantage point and narrator’s position, influencing the reader’s understanding of events, characters, and the overall story. It choice significantly impacts a narrative’s tone, reliability, and emotional engagement, making it a critical element in storytelling.

Using Point of View in Writing

These steps provide guidance on effectively utilizing point of view in writing to enhance narrative depth, engagement, and impact.

Benefits of Point of View

Using a point of view in a work of fiction has several benefits, including:

1. Building a connection between the reader and the character
2. Creating suspense
3. Developing multiple perspectives
4. Fostering empathy
5. Enhancing the overall narrative

Overall, using point of view can help writers create a more engaging and immersive experience for readers, while also providing opportunities for exploring different perspectives and themes.

Point of View and Literary Theory

Literary Theory	Critique of Point of View	Practical Example
Reader-response Literary Theory	Emphasizes the reader’s role in interpreting the text. Critiques point of view by analyzing how the reader’s interpretation is influenced by the narrator’s perspective.	In a reader-response analysis of a first-person narrative, the critique would focus on how different readers interpret the story based on their own experiences, biases, and emotions, thus highlighting the subjectivity of point of view and the role of individual readers in constructing meaning.
Feminist Literary Theory	Focuses on gender and power dynamics. Critiques point of view by examining how the narrator’s gender and perspective shape the representation of characters and experiences.	Applying feminist theory to a novel, the critique of point of view would analyze how the male narrator’s perspective may privilege or marginalize female characters, perpetuating or challenging gender stereotypes and power imbalances.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Emphasizes unconscious motivations and desires. Critiques point of view by exploring the narrator’s repressed desires and how they manifest in the story.	In a psychoanalytic critique, the analysis of point of view would delve into the hidden desires and unresolved conflicts reflected in the narrator’s perspective, revealing subconscious motivations and providing insight into their actions and interpretations.
Marxist Literary Theory	Focuses on social, economic, and political contexts. Critiques point of view by examining how the narrator’s class, race, and social position influence their perspective and portrayal.	Employing a Marxist critique, the analysis of point of view would scrutinize how the narrator’s social class and economic circumstances shape their worldview and representation of social relationships, exposing any biases or ideologies embedded in the narrative.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	Focuses on the effects of colonialism and imperialism. Critiques point of view by analyzing how the narrator’s cultural background and perspective shape the representation of characters and experiences.	Applying a postcolonial critique, the analysis of point of view would explore how the narrator’s cultural heritage and colonial history inform their interpretation of events and characters, shedding light on power dynamics, cultural clashes, and the influence of colonial legacies in the narrative.

Suggested Readings

1. Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction. University of Chicago Press, 1983.
2. Cohn, Dorrit. Transparent Minds: Narrative Modes for Presenting Consciousness in Fiction. Princeton University Press, 2008.
3. Fludernik, Monika. The Fictions of Language and the Languages of Fiction: The Linguistic Representation of Speech and Consciousness. Routledge, 1993.
4. Genette, Gérard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin, Cornell University Press, 1980.
5. Hühn, Peter et al., editors. The Living Handbook of Narratology. Hamburg University Press, 2014. www.lhn.uni-hamburg.de. Accessed 5 July 2023.
6. Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith. Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2002.
7. Sternberg, Meir. The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading. Indiana University Press, 1987.
8. Toolan, Michael. Narrative: A Critical Linguistic Introduction. Routledge, 2015.

Etymology Point of View

The term “point of view” originates from the French phrase “point de vue.” It literally means “point of sight.” It first appeared in English in the 17th century as a synonym for “opinion” or “perspective.” With time, “point of view” is used to refer to an individual’s unique perspective or position on a particular topic or issue.

Meanings of Point of View

1. Literature: The perspective from which a story is narrated, including:
   • First person point of view: Narrated by a character within the story, using pronouns like “I” and “we.”
   • Third person limited point of view: Narrated by an external observer, focusing on the thoughts and experiences of a single character.
   • Third person omniscient: Narrated by an external observer with knowledge of all characters’ thoughts and experiences.
2. Film and Photography: The angle or perspective from which a photographer takes a shot to capture a scene or subject.
3. Philosophy: An individual’s subjective experience or interpretation of reality, shaped by their own beliefs, values, and experiences.
4. Debate or Argumentation: The position or stance taken by an individual regarding a specific topic or issue.
5. General: A particular way of looking at or interpreting something, often influenced by personal experiences, beliefs, or biases.

Definition of Point of View

It is a literary device that refers to a perspective or position of an individual about or on a particular topic, issue, or situation. It refers to a person’s subjective experience, interpretation, or understanding of reality, as well as their attitudes, beliefs, and values.

Types of Point of View

There are four major types in response to what is point of view and what are its types. They are as follows.

Type of Point of View	Explanation	Example
First person point of view	Narrated by a character within the story using “I” or “we.” Provides an intimate look into the narrator’s thoughts and feelings but can be limited to their perspective.	“I walked into the room and saw the most beautiful painting I had ever seen.”
Second person point of view	Uses “you” to directly address the reader or another character. Less common in literature, often used in instructional or self-help writing.	“You walk into the room and see the most beautiful painting you have ever seen.”
Third-person	Narrated by someone outside of the story using “he,” “she,” or “they.” Can provide an objective and omniscient perspective, but may create a distance between the reader and characters.	“He walked into the room and saw the most beautiful painting he had ever seen.”
Third-person limited	Limited to the perspective of one character and only shows their thoughts and feelings.	“She entered the room, mesmerized by the most beautiful painting she had ever seen.”
Third-person omniscient	Provides an all-knowing perspective and can show the thoughts and feelings of multiple characters.	“As they all gathered in the room, the painting left each of them in awe.”

Literary Examples of Point of View

Extract with Reference	Type of Point of View
1. From To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee	First-person
The story is told from the first-person point of view of Scout Finch, a young girl growing up in a small Southern town during the 1930s. For example, “When enough years had gone by to enable us to look back on them, we sometimes discussed the events leading to his accident.” – Scout Finch (Chapter 1)
2. From The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger	First-person
The story is told from the first-person point of view of Holden Caulfield, a teenage boy who is struggling with adolescence and societal expectations. For example, “If you really want to hear about it, the first thing you’ll probably want to know is where I was born, and what my lousy childhood was like.” – Holden Caulfield (Chapter 1)
3. From The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	First-person
The story is told from the first-person point of view of Nick Carraway, a young man who becomes involved with the wealthy and mysterious Jay Gatsby. For example, “Gatsby, who represented everything for which I have an unaffected scorn.” – Nick Carraway (Chapter 1)
4. From Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte	First-person
The story is told from the first-person point of view of Nelly Dean, a servant who witnesses the tumultuous relationship between Heathcliff and Catherine. For example, “I wish I were a girl again, half savage and hardy, and free.” – Nelly Dean (Chapter 1)
5. From Beloved by Toni Morrison	Third-person  omniscient
The story is told from the third-person omniscient point of view, providing insight into the thoughts and feelings of various characters, including Sethe and her daughter Beloved. For example, “There is a loneliness that can be rocked. Arms crossed, knees drawn up, holding, holding on, this motion, unlike a ship’s, smooths and contains the rocker.” (Chapter 1)

These examples demonstrate the different ways that point of view can impact the reader’s understanding of the narrative, characters, and themes of a literary work.

Suggested Readings

1. Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction. University of Chicago Press, 1983.
2. Cohn, Dorrit. Transparent Minds: Narrative Modes for Presenting Consciousness in Fiction. Princeton University Press, 2008.
3. Fludernik, Monika. The Fictions of Language and the Languages of Fiction: The Linguistic Representation of Speech and Consciousness. Routledge, 1993.
4. Genette, Gérard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin, Cornell University Press, 1980.
5. Hühn, Peter et al., editors. The Living Handbook of Narratology. Hamburg University Press, 2014. www.lhn.uni-hamburg.de. Accessed 5 July 2023.
6. Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith. Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2002.
7. Sternberg, Meir. The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading. Indiana University Press, 1987.
8. Toolan, Michael. Narrative: A Critical Linguistic Introduction. Routledge, 2015.

You may read more on Literary Devices below:

• Persona: Creating and Critiquing It
• Protagonist: Creating and Critiquing
• Poetic Devices
• Pentameter: Creating and Critiquing It
• Hero: Creating and Critiquing