Month: August 2023

Introduction

Mood, as a literary device, refers to the emotional atmosphere or prevailing emotional tone that a literary work conveys to its readers.

It is established through the author’s careful selection of descriptive language, imagery, setting, and narrative style, which collectively evoke specific feelings or sensations within the reader. Mood plays a crucial role in shaping the reader’s engagement with the text and influencing their overall interpretation of the narrative’s emotional essence.

How to Create Mood in a Fictional Work

Creating mood in a work can be a subtle and nuanced process, but here are some tips to help you get started:

Step	Explanation	Practical Example
Use Descriptive Language	Employ descriptive adjectives and adverbs to enrich the text. Craft sensory details for reader engagement. Choose words to evoke desired emotions.	In describing a forest, use “lush, verdant foliage” to convey a vibrant and serene mood, or “foreboding shadows” to create a sense of mystery and tension.
Set the Scene	Establish the physical and emotional backdrop. Describe settings, time, and weather to align with the mood.	Depict a quiet seaside town at sunset with “golden hues painting the tranquil waves,” evoking a serene and nostalgic atmosphere.
Use Imagery	Utilize metaphors, similes, and comparisons. Create visual imagery. Connect images to emotions being conveyed.	Compare a smile to “sunlight breaking through clouds,” conjuring an image of warmth and happiness in a moment of joy.
Develop Your Characters	Portray characters’ emotions, thoughts, behaviors. Show interactions with surroundings. Foster reader empathy.	Reveal a protagonist’s trembling hands and racing heartbeat while facing a challenge, allowing readers to share their anxiety and anticipation.
Use Pacing and Tone	Regulate narrative rhythm for mood influence. Vary sentence lengths, structures. Match narrative voice to mood.	Use short, abrupt sentences during an intense chase scene to intensify the pace and tension, immersing readers in the urgency of the moment.
Experiment and Adapt	Recognize mood creation’s subjectivity. Explore techniques. Tailor methods to your work’s unique requirements.	Test combining imagery and character development in a reflective moment to evoke both a sense of place and the character’s emotional journey.

Remember, creating mood is not an exact science, and many different factors influence how your reader feels. Experiment with different techniques and see what works best for your particular work.

Benefits of Mood

1. Engages the Reader
   • Captures readers’ attention through emotional resonance.
   • Fosters a personal connection and emotional investment in the narrative.
2. Sets the Tone
   • Establishes the initial emotional context for the story.
   • Guides readers’ expectations and perceptions of the unfolding events.
3. Enhances the Theme
   • Amplifies the intended thematic messages and ideas.
   • Deepens readers’ understanding by aligning emotions with underlying concepts.
4. Creates Atmosphere
   • Immerses readers in a sensory-rich environment.
   • Conjures a distinct emotional backdrop that envelops the story.
5. Shows the Writer’s Skill
   • Demonstrates the author’s mastery in evoking emotions.
   • Highlights the writer’s ability to manipulate language and imagery effectively.

Mood and Literary Theory

Mood is a fundamental aspect of literature that has been analyzed and interpreted by various literary theories. Here are a few examples of how literary theories view mood:

Literary Theory	Interpretation of Mood	Example of Application of Theory on Mood
Reader Response Theory	The mood is subjective and created through the reader’s interpretation and response to the text.	“Pride and Prejudice” by Jane Austen shows how different readers may interpret the mood as romantic, humorous, or satirical, depending on their individual responses to the characters and events.
Formalism Literary Theory	The mood is created through the use of literary devices and contributes to the overall structure.	T.S. Eliot’s poem “The Waste Land” uses fragmented imagery and disjointed narrative to create a mood of disillusionment and despair, reflecting the fragmented state of post-World War I society.
Psychological Criticism Literary Theory	The mood is created through the author’s language and imagery to evoke specific emotions in the reader.	Edgar Allan Poe’s short story “The Tell-Tale Heart” employs dark and suspenseful imagery to create a mood of fear and unease, eliciting a psychological response from the reader.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	The mood reflects the cultural and historical context, revealing attitudes and challenging dominant beliefs.	In Chinua Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart, the mood shifts from cultural pride to despair as the protagonist grapples with the impact of colonialism on his community.
Feminist Literary Theory	Here it is analyzed in terms of gender roles, power dynamics, and representation of women.	Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s short story “The Yellow Wallpaper” explores the mood of confinement and oppression experienced by the female protagonist within a patriarchal society.
Marxist Literary Theory	The mood is examined based on economic and social structures, highlighting class struggles and inequalities.	John Steinbeck’s novel The Grapes of Wrath portrays the mood of economic hardship and societal injustice faced by the Joad family during the Great Depression.
Deconstructionist Literary Theory	Here it is deconstructed to reveal underlying contradictions and complexities in the text.	In William Shakespeare’s play “Hamlet,” the deconstructionist perspective can reveal a mood that oscillates between uncertainty, madness, and existential crisis in the protagonist.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Here it is explored through characters’ subconscious desires and psychological conflicts.	F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel The Great Gatsby can be analyzed through psychoanalytic theory to uncover the mood influenced by characters’ repressed longings and emotional struggles.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. Howard. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford University Press, 1971.
2. Barthes, Roland. The Semiotic Challenge. Translated by Richard Howard, University of California Press, 1994.
3. Brooks, Cleanth. The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry. Harcourt, Brace & World, 1947.
4. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
5. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Basic Books, 2010.
6. Iser, Wolfgang. The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.
7. Lodge, David. The Modes of Modern Writing: Metaphor, Metonymy, and the Typology of Modern Literature. University of Chicago Press, 1977.
8. Wimsatt, W. K., and Monroe C. Beardsley. “The Intentional Fallacy.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 54, no. 3, 1946, pp. 468-488.

More from Literary Devices:

• Sonnet: Writing and Critique It
• Sonnet: A Poetic Genre
• Soliloquy: Writing and Use It

Etymology of Mood

The term “mood” originated from the Old English word mōd, which meant “mind, feeling, or intention.” The term was also in vogue in Middle English. It used to describe a state of mind, emotion, or temper. The modern usage of the term, as it applies to literature, emerged in the 1580s, when it was used to describe the emotional or psychological atmosphere of a literary work.

Meanings of Mood

1. Emotional State: A person’s emotional feeling.
2. Atmosphere: Emotional quality of a place or situation.
3. Grammatical Mood: Linguistic attitude toward a verb.
4. Weather Conditions: Older usage related to weather.

Mood in Literature:

• Emotional Atmosphere: Refers to the emotional or psychological atmosphere that a literary work creates for the reader.
• Vibe and Feeling: Describes the overall feeling or vibe that a reader gets from a particular text.
• Techniques: Created through various literary techniques such as imagery, setting, tone, and language.
• Subjectivity: Can be influenced by the reader’s own emotional state and interpretation of the text.

Mood in Grammar

In grammar, “mood” is a singular noun that refers to a grammatical category that expresses the speaker’s or writer’s attitude towards the verb.

Definition of Mood

Mood is a literary device that creates an emotional or psychological atmosphere in a work of literature. It is the feeling or vibe that the reader gets from the text, and it is created through various elements, such as setting, tone, imagery, and language. Mood is an important tool for authors to shape the reader’s emotional response to the text and influence their interpretation of the story.

Types of Mood with Examples

Here’s a table that includes the types of mood, their definitions, and examples:

Type	Definition	Example
Eerie Mood	It means to create a sense of unease, mystery, or fear. It often involves dark or unsettling imagery, creating an atmosphere of tension or suspense.	Example: “The old, abandoned mansion stood shrouded in fog, its creaking doors and flickering lights adding to the eerie mood of the scene.”
Joyful Mood	It means to portray a sense of happiness, delight, or exuberance. It uses vibrant and positive language, evoking a cheerful and optimistic atmosphere.	Example: “The children danced and laughed in the colorful meadow, their joyful mood contagious and filling the air with the sounds of pure happiness.”
Gloomy Mood	It means to convey a feeling of sadness, melancholy, or despair. It employs somber language and imagery to evoke a sense of gloom or desolation.	Example: “The rain poured relentlessly, matching the protagonist’s gloomy mood as they wandered through the empty streets, their heart heavy with sorrow.”
Whimsical Mood	A whimsical mood means to establish a playful, fanciful, or imaginative atmosphere. It often includes elements of surprise, humor, or fantasy, captivating the reader.	Example: “In the whimsical forest, the trees whispered secrets to each other, and the animals wore hats and carried umbrellas, creating a delightful mood of enchantment and wonder.”
Mysterious Mood	It means to cultivate an aura of intrigue and enigma. It prompts curiosity and keeps the reader engaged by hinting at hidden secrets or unknown outcomes.	Example: “The locked room on the top floor held an air of mystery, its contents hidden from view. The characters couldn’t help but be drawn to the room, the mysterious mood captivating their thoughts and driving the plot forward.”
Tense Mood	It means building an atmosphere of anxiety, apprehension, or suspense. It utilizes pacing, suspenseful events, and heightened language to create tension.	Example: “As the detective crept through the dark, narrow hallway, every creak of the floorboards and every gust of wind intensified the tense mood, signaling that danger was lurking just around the corner.”
Surreal Mood	It means to portray a dreamlike or bizarre atmosphere that defies traditional logic or reality. It often incorporates surrealistic imagery and elements.	Example: “The protagonist found themselves in a surreal world where fish flew through the sky and trees bloomed with rainbow-colored leaves, blurring the line between dreams and reality and creating a whimsical and surreal mood.”
Serene Mood	It means establishing a calm, tranquil, or peaceful atmosphere. It uses soothing language and gentle imagery to evoke a sense of tranquility and relaxation.	Example: “The sun set over the calm ocean, casting a warm golden glow that reflected on the water’s surface. The serene mood enveloped the characters, offering a moment of tranquility amidst the chaos of their lives.”
Foreboding Mood	It means creating a sense of impending doom, danger, or ominousness. It uses foreshadowing, dark imagery, and a sense of impending catastrophe.	Example: “The thunder rumbled ominously in the distance as dark clouds loomed overhead, foreshadowing the storm that would soon unleash its fury. The foreboding mood hung in the air, hinting at the challenges that lay ahead.”
Nostalgic Mood	It means evoking a sentimental longing for the past. It uses descriptive language and imagery to create a wistful and sentimental atmosphere.	Example: “As the old photo album was opened, memories of carefree childhood days flooded back. The nostalgic mood enveloped the characters, transporting them to a time long gone, filled with laughter and innocence.”

Please note that these examples are just illustrative. You can think about any other mood and find examples or write examples of your own.

Literary Examples of Mood

1. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot:

Let us go then, you and I,

When the evening is spread out against the sky

Like a patient etherized upon a table; (Lines 1-3)

Explanation: The mood in this opening stanza of the poem is a sense of isolation and melancholy. The simile of the “patient etherized upon a table” suggests a sense of detachment and lifelessness, and the use of the word “patient” implies a feeling of helplessness or resignation.

• The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

The eyes of Doctor T. J. Eckleburg are blue and gigantic—their retinas are one yard high. They look out of no face, but instead, from a pair of enormous yellow spectacles which pass over a nonexistent nose. (Chapter-2)

Explanation: In this excerpt from the novel, the mood is one of surrealism and ambiguity. The description of the “gigantic” eyes and the “enormous” spectacles creates a sense of unease and uncertainty, and the fact that they are disembodied adds to the dreamlike, surreal quality of the scene.

• Macbeth by William Shakespeare:

Is this a dagger which I see before me,

The handle toward my hand?

Come, let me clutch thee. I have thee not, and yet I see thee still. (Act-II, Scene-1)

Explanation: This soliloquy shows the mood that is of darkness and foreboding. The hallucination of the dagger, and the fact that the protagonist is unable to grasp it, create a sense of confusion and danger.

• “Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe:

But we loved with a love that was more than love—

I and my Annabel Lee—

With a love that the wingèd seraphs of Heaven

Coveted her and me.

Explanation: In this hauntingly beautiful poem, the mood is one of longing and melancholy. The description of the speaker’s love for Annabel Lee as being greater than that of the angels creates a sense of otherworldliness and transcendence, but also a feeling of sorrow and loss.

• The Road by Cormac McCarthy:

He walked out in the gray light and stood and he saw for a brief moment the absolute truth of the world. The cold relentless circling of the interminable wheels of the earth.

Explanation: This excerpt shows the mood that is of bleakness and despair. The stark imagery of the “cold relentless circling” of the earth creates a sense of hopelessness and futility, and the fact that the protagonist is described as seeing “the absolute truth of the world” suggests a realization of the harsh realities of life.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. Howard. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford University Press, 1971.
2. Barthes, Roland. The Semiotic Challenge. Translated by Richard Howard, University of California Press, 1994.
3. Brooks, Cleanth. The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry. Harcourt, Brace & World, 1947.
4. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
5. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Basic Books, 2010.
6. Iser, Wolfgang. The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.
7. Lodge, David. The Modes of Modern Writing: Metaphor, Metonymy, and the Typology of Modern Literature. University of Chicago Press, 1977.
8. Wimsatt, W. K., and Monroe C. Beardsley. “The Intentional Fallacy.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 54, no. 3, 1946, pp. 468-488.

Etymology of Meter

The word “meter” originates from the Greek word metron. Itmeans “measure.” In ancient Greece, a metron was a measuring device used to create rhythm and time during musical performances. With time, the term, meter, came to refer to any system of measurement, including the measurement of poetry and other forms of literature.

Meanings of Meter as a Literary Device

Meter, as a literary device, refers to the rhythmic pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry. It creates a musical quality and establishes a consistent beat or cadence. By using the meter, poets enhance the flow, structure, and musicality of their verses.

Meter in Grammar

In grammar, the term “meter” is typically used as a singular noun and does not have a distinct plural form. When discussing meter in the context of grammar, it generally refers to the pattern and arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry.

Definition of Meter as Literary Device

It is a literary device that refers to the rhythmical pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry or verse. It involves the arrangement of syllables into a recurring pattern, creating a beat or musicality in the language. By controlling the meter of their writing, poets can create different effects and convey different emotions to their readers.

Types of Meter

Type	Definition	Explanation	Example
Iambic	Stressed syllable followed by unstressed	Creates a natural, conversational rhythm	“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” (Sonnet 18)
Trochaic	Stressed syllable followed by unstressed	Creates a staccato, choppy rhythm	“Tyger! Tyger! burning bright” (The Tyger by William Blake)
Anapestic	Two unstressed syllables followed by stressed	Creates a flowing, upbeat rhythm often used in lighthearted or humorous poetry	“And the sound of a voice that is still” (The Raven by Poe)
Dactylic	Stressed syllable followed by two unstressed	Creates a complex, tripping rhythm often used in serious or dramatic poetry	“This is the forest primeval” (Evangeline by Longfellow)
Spondaic	Two stressed syllables occur together	Creates a slow, heavy rhythm for emphasis or to convey weight or importance	“Break, break, break” (Break, Break, Break by Tennyson)
Pyrrhic	Two unstressed syllables occur together	Relatively rare, creates a sense of lightness or speed	“To a green thought in a green shade” (The Garden by Marvell)

How to Create Meter

Creating meter in poetry involves a deliberate arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables to create a specific rhythm. Here are some steps you can follow to create meter:

1. Choose some :
2. Count syllables
3. Determine stressed and unstressed syllables
4. Use substitutions
5. Pay attention to phrasing
6. Revise and refine

Remember that creating it is not just about following a set of rules, but about using rhythm and sound to convey meaning and emotion in your poetry. Experiment with its different types and techniques to find the one that best suits your voice and style.

Benefits of Meter

The meter provides several benefits to poetry and literature. Here are some of the benefits of meters:

Benefit	Example
Rhythm	The regular beat of the meter creates a musical flow in poems, enhancing the reading experience.
Memorability	The meter helps in creating memorable lines and phrases that are easier to recall and recite.
Emphasis	It emphasizes certain words or ideas by placing them in stressed positions within the line.
Tone	The choice of meter can contribute to the overall tone of a poem, whether it’s light, solemn, or intense.
Structure	It provides a framework for organizing and structuring poetic lines, contributing to the overall form of a poem.

Meter and Literary Theory

Its analysis through different literary theories mainly depends on the approach and focus of the critic. Here are a few examples:

Literary Theory	Interpretation of Meter
Formalist Literary theory	Formalist critics focus on the formal aspects of literature, such as form, structure, and language. They analyze how the use of stressed and unstressed syllables creates rhythm and contributes to the overall meaning and effect of the poem.
New Criticism Literary Theory	New Critics approach literature as a self-contained object that should be analyzed on its own merits. They focus on how the regularity or irregularity of the meter contributes to the  meaning, theme, and musicality of the poem.
Reader-response Literary Theory	Reader-response critics emphasize the reader’s experience of a text and how meaning is constructed through the interaction between the reader and the text. They explore how the rhythm and sound of the poem affect the reader’s emotional response and interpretation of the poem.
Poststructuralist Literary Theory	Poststructuralist critics examine how meaning is constructed through language and discourse. They analyze how the use of meter reinforces or challenges dominant power structures and ideologies, and how it relates to broader cultural and historical contexts.

Suggested Readings

1. Baker, David. Meter in Poetry: A New Theory. University of Arkansas Press, 2018.
2. Fussell, Paul. Poetic Meter and Poetic Form. McGraw-Hill, 1979.
3. Grossman, Allen. The Sighted Singer: Two Works on Poetry for Readers and Writers. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
4. Hobsbaum, Philip. Metre, Rhythm, and Verse Form. Routledge, 1996.
5. Pound, Ezra. ABC of Reading. New Directions, 2010.
6. Preminger, Alex, et al., editors. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. 4th ed., Princeton University Press, 2012.
7. Turco, Lewis. The Book of Forms: A Handbook of Poetics. 3rd ed., University Press of New England, 2000.
8. Vendler, Helen. Poems, Poets, Poetry: An Introduction and Anthology. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2010.
9. Williams, Miller. Patterns of Poetry: An Encyclopedia of Forms. Louisiana State University Press, 1986.

Introduction

A malapropism is a literary device characterized by the unintentional substitution of a word with another word that sounds similar but has a completely different meaning. This often results in humorous or absurd expressions due to the incongruity between the intended and actual word used. They serve to create comedic effects, enhance characterization, and emphasize linguistic nuances within a literary work.

Creating a Malapropism: Steps to Add Humor and Satire

Step	Explanation	Practical Example
Vocabulary Selection	Choose a word that sounds similar to the intended word but has a different meaning. This creates the basis for the humor when the two meanings collide.	Intended word: “profound” Malapropism: “profane” Example: “She had a profane impact on me.”
Contextual Setup	Establish a situation where the intended word would naturally fit. This context prepares the reader for the expected usage before revealing the malapropism.	Intended word: “refined” Malapropism: “refinery” Example: “His refinery taste in literature always impressed me.”
Character Alignment	Ensure the character committing the malapropism possesses traits that make the mistake plausible. These traits lend credibility and humor to the linguistic slip.	Character: A lovable but linguistically challenged grandmother Intended word: “adventurous” Malapropism: “adventurous” Example: “Grandma embarked on an adventurous journey to the grocery store every day.”
Timing and Delivery	Choose a strategic moment to introduce the malapropism. Consider the pacing of dialogue and narrative flow to maximize the comedic impact of the unexpected substitution.	Intended word: “relieved” Malapropism: “relished” Example: “I relished a sigh of relief when the exam was over.”
Reaction Depiction	Portray the reactions of other characters who witness the malapropism. Their bemusement, confusion, or amusement amplifies the humor by reflecting the absurdity of the mistake.	Intended word: “organized” Malapropism: “orgasmic” Example: “The team’s orgasmic planning skills always impress everyone.”
Humorous Discrepancy	Highlight the contrast between the intended meaning and the malapropism’s actual meaning. The discrepancy forms the heart of the comedic effect, generating unexpected humor.	Intended word: “blossomed” Malapropism: “blossomed” Example: “Her talents blossomed like a flower in the sun.”
Elevated Confusion	Exaggerate the confusion caused by the malapropism, showcasing its ripple effects on communication and understanding. This deepens the comedic impact and adds layers to the humor.	Intended word: “contribute” Malapropism: “constipate” Example: “His efforts to constipate to the project were truly remarkable.”
Linguistic Playfulness	Engage in wordplay to underscore the linguistic mix-up. Manipulate word sounds and meanings creatively to enhance the humor and draw attention to the amusing error.	Intended word: “distinguished” Malapropism: “extinguished” Example: “He was truly extinguished in his field of expertise.”
Subtle Reinforcement	Incorporate callbacks or references to the malapropism throughout the narrative. This maintains consistency and reminds the reader of the humorous linguistic blunder, adding coherence to the story.	Intended word: “punctual” Malapropism: “punctual” Example: “His habit of being exactly 15 minutes late was a testament to his unique sense of punctual timing.”
Resolution or Twist	Decide whether to resolve the misunderstanding caused by the malapropism or let it persist. The resolution can provide closure, while allowing it to continue can create ongoing humor or plot complexity.	Intended word: “shocked” Malapropism: “shucked” Example: “He was completely shucked by the news of her engagement.” Resolution: “He was initially shucked, but later he embraced the idea wholeheartedly.” Ongoing: “His expression remained shucked throughout the party.”

Benefits of Using Malapropism

1. Humor:

• They create humor by using similar-sounding words with different meanings.
• They are effective in comedic writing or speeches, eliciting laughter from the audience.

2. Satire:

• They satirize lack of knowledge, education, or social conventions.
• They expose absurdity by substituting words in a way that highlights the incongruity.

3. Memorability:

• Malapropisms make phrases or sentences more memorable due to their unique and unexpected nature.
• Their amusing quality leaves a lasting impression on the audience.

4. Characterization:

• They help characterize speakers or characters based on their level of education or intelligence.
• The misuse of words adds depth to characters and reinforces their personality traits.
• They add humor, satire, or emphasis to writing or speech.
• They also Enhance audience engagement and makes the message more memorable.

Malapropism in Literary Theory

Malapropism, as a literary device, has been discussed and analyzed in various literary theories. Here are some examples:

Theory	Interpretation
Linguistic Theory	They occur when the word (signifier) does not match the intended meaning (signified), highlighting the linguistic nature of the error.
Structuralism	It is seen as the confusion or combination of words with opposite meanings, exemplifying binary oppositions within language.
Postmodernism	It demonstrates the inherent instability of language, disrupting and subverting traditional meanings and challenging linguistic conventions.
Feminist Theory	It can challenge patriarchal language, creating new meanings that resist traditional gender norms and empowering marginalized voices.
Psychoanalytic Theory	It reveals unconscious desires and repressed thoughts expressed through language, providing insights into the speaker’s psychological state.
Marxist Theory	Malapropism exposes contradictions and power struggles within language and society, highlighting the oppressive structures and ideologies at play.
Reader-Response Theory	It creates gaps and ambiguities in the text, engaging readers in active interpretation and meaning construction, emphasizing their role in reading.
Deconstruction	Malapropism challenges binary oppositions in language, creating hybrid meanings that resist fixed categories and deconstructing linguistic hierarchies.

Suggested Readings

1. Estremera, Michael L. Codeswitching & Malapropism: A Multi-Faceted Context. Lulu Press Inc, 2021.
2. Fay, David, and Anne Cutler. “Malapropisms and the structure of the mental lexicon.” Linguistic Inquiry 8.3 (1977): 505-520.
3. Vitevitch, Michael S. “The neighborhood characteristics of malapropisms.” Language and Speech 40.3 (1997): 211-228.
4. Zvolenszky, Zsófia. “Inferring Content: Metaphor and Malapropism.” Croatian Journal of Philosophy 15.44 (2015): 163-182.
5. Zwicky, Arnold M. “Classical Malapropisms.” Language Sciences 1.2 (1979): 339-348.

Etymology of Malapropism

The term “malapropism” derives its name from the fictional character, Mrs. Malaprop, created by the Irish playwright, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, in his 1775 play, The Rivals.

Mrs. Malaprop is a comedic character known for her tendency to misuse words and unintentionally substitute one word for another, resulting in humorous and nonsensical statements.

The term “malapropism” was coined as a linguistic term to describe the humorous misuse of words in this manner. However, it is a combination of the French word “mal à propos,” meaning “inappropriate” or “ill-suited,” with the suffix “-ism,” indicating a particular style or tendency.

With time, “malapropism” has become a widely recognized term in English to describe the unintentional misuse of words, adding a touch of comedy and confusion to everyday language.

Meanings of Malapropism

Malapropism has two main meanings.

• The first refers to the unintentional misuse or substitution of words, often resulting in humorous and nonsensical statements. This occurs when a person mistakenly substitutes a word with a similar-sounding but incorrect word.
• The second meaning of malapropism is more broadly applied to any type of verbal mistake or error, including mispronunciations, misspellings, or grammatical errors.
• In both cases, malapropisms add an element of comedy and often highlight the speaker’s lack of linguistic accuracy or awareness.

Malapropism in Grammar

• “Malapropism” is a noun be used in both singular and plural forms. The plural form is “malapropisms.”
• It refers to a specific linguistic mistake or error and can be used in various contexts to describe instances of such errors.
• Colloquially, the verb form “to malaprop” is sometimes used to describe the act of making a malapropism.
• Example: “He malapropped his way through the speech, confusing several important points.” This usage is not strictly grammatically correct and may be considered informal or nonstandard.

Definition of Malapropism

As a literary device, malapropism refers to the intentional or unintentional use of a word that sounds similar but has a different meaning, often for humorous or satirical effects. It is often used to create comedic or absurd situations, and can be a form of wordplay that highlights a character’s lack of intelligence or social status.

Types of Malapropism

Type	Definition	Example
Similar-sounding words	This type occurs when a word is substituted with another word that sounds similar but has a different meaning.	“I have a photographic memory. I can remember things like they were elephants.” (instead of “vivid”)
Idiomatic expressions	Malapropisms can involve the incorrect use or blending of idiomatic expressions, resulting in comical or nonsensical statements.	“We need to nip it in the butt.” (instead of “nip it in the bud”)
Misunderstood or misused words	In this type, a word is used incorrectly due to a misunderstanding of its meaning or context.	“The situation is really grave, we’re dancing on a volcano!” (instead of “treading on thin ice”)
Invented words	Malapropisms involve the creation of new words or the alteration of existing ones, often resulting in humorous and nonsensical terms.	“We need to be more pacific in our negotiations.” (instead of “specific”)
Unintended wordplay	This type occurs when a word is unintentionally used in a way that creates a pun or double entendre.	“I’m going to the store to buy some butter and bread. I hope they have a good loafer.” (referring to a good “loaf of bread” but sounding like a comfortable shoe)

Common Examples of Malapropism

Here are some common examples of malapropisms:

1. “I resent your suppository remarks!” (supposedly instead of “supposed”)
2. “I’ll have the salmon, please. Rare.” (rare instead of “rarely”)
3. “He’s a wolf in cheap clothing.” (cheap instead of “sheep”)
4. “Don’t put the cart before the horse.” (cart instead of “carte”)
5. “I’m not a dessert person, I prefer something more sensual.” (sensual instead of “substantial”)
6. “I’m not the kind of person to stand around and twiddle my dumbs.” (dumbs instead of “thumbs”)
7. “We need to be more pacific about our plans.” (pacific instead of “specific”)
8. “She’s as headstrong as an allegory on the banks of the Nile.” (allegory instead of “alligator”)
9. “He’s suffering from a severe castration complex.” (castration instead of “inferiority”)
10. “I could care less about that.” (when the correct phrase is “I couldn’t care less”)

Literary Examples of Malapropism

1. Mrs. Malaprop in “The Rivals” by Richard Brinsley Sheridan: Mrs. Malaprop is one of the most famous examples of malapropism in literature. She consistently uses words that sound similar but have different meanings, creating humorous misunderstandings. For example, she says, “He is the very pineapple of politeness,” when she means “pinnacle.” This misuse of words adds comic relief and character depth to the play.
2. Dogberry in “Much Ado About Nothing” by William Shakespeare: Dogberry, a comical constable, is known for his amusing misuse of words. In one instance, he says, “Our watch, sir, have indeed comprehended two auspicious persons,” instead of “apprehended two suspicious persons.” This malapropism highlights Dogberry’s lack of understanding and adds a comedic element to the play.
3. Archie Bunker in “All in the Family” (TV show): While not from literature, Archie Bunker is a famous character known for his malapropisms. In one episode, he says, “It’s a proven fact that capital punishment is a detergent to crime!” instead of “deterrent.” Archie’s malapropisms reflect his working-class background and limited education, creating humor and emphasizing his personality traits.

Suggested Readings

1. Estremera, Michael L. Codeswitching & Malapropism: A Multi-Faceted Context. Lulu Press Inc, 2021.
2. Fay, David, and Anne Cutler. “Malapropisms and the structure of the mental lexicon.” Linguistic Inquiry 8.3 (1977): 505-520.
3. Vitevitch, Michael S. “The neighborhood characteristics of malapropisms.” Language and Speech 40.3 (1997): 211-228.
4. Zvolenszky, Zsófia. “Inferring Content: Metaphor and Malapropism.” Croatian Journal of Philosophy 15.44 (2015): 163-182.
5. Zwicky, Arnold M. “Classical Malapropisms.” Language Sciences 1.2 (1979): 339-348.

More from Literary Devices:

• Logos
• Using Logos
• Innuendo

Introduction

Logos is a persuasive literary and rhetorical device used for logical reasoning, evidence, and factual information to support an argument or point of view. It appeals to the audience’s rational capability by presenting coherent and rational explanations, using statistics, research, and logical connections. Through the use of logos, writers, and speakers aim to convince their audience by demonstrating the validity of their claims.

How to Create Logos

Creating logos involves using logical reasoning, evidence, and arguments to persuade an audience. Here are some steps to help you create logos:

How to Create Logos

1. Identify your audience: Understand who your target audience is. Recognize their characteristics, preferences, and potential biases. Tailor your logical arguments to resonate with their perspectives and values.
2. Define your purpose: Clearly state the objective of your argument. Whether you aim to inform, convince, or persuade, a well-defined purpose guides your logical reasoning and evidence selection.
3. Gather evidence: Collect relevant facts, statistics, research findings, and examples that support your argument. Strong evidence enhances the credibility of your logical appeals and reinforces your position.
4. Structure your argument: Organize your thoughts logically. Present your ideas in a coherent manner, using a clear introduction, a well-structured body with supporting evidence, and a conclusive summary that restates your main points.
5. Use clear and concise language: Employ language that is easily understandable to your audience. Avoid jargon or overly complex terms that could hinder comprehension. Clarity in your language reinforces the strength of your logical appeal.
6. Address counterarguments: Anticipate potential objections or opposing viewpoints. Address these counterarguments logically and respectfully. Demonstrating awareness of alternative perspectives enhances the overall strength of your argument.
7. Revise and edit: Review your argument critically. Ensure the logical flow of your reasoning, the relevance of your evidence, and the overall coherence of your message. Edit for grammar and clarity to eliminate any distractions from your logical appeals.

Remember, the creation of logos involves crafting a persuasive argument based on reason and evidence. By following these steps, you can develop a compelling case that appeals to your audience’s rational thinking and fosters understanding and agreement.

Benefits of Logos

1. Enhances Credibility

Providing logical reasoning and well-supported arguments increases the credibility of your message. When you present facts and evidence in a clear and structured manner, your audience is more likely to trust your perspective and conclusions.

1. Appeals to the Intellect

Using logos in communication appeals to the audience’s intellectual faculties. Logical arguments stimulate thinking and reasoning, engaging the audience’s analytical and rational side. This approach encourages them to process information critically and thoughtfully.

• Strengthens Critical Thinking

Logos prompts the audience to evaluate information objectively. By presenting a well-constructed logical argument, you challenge the audience to consider different viewpoints and assess evidence. This engagement with logic nurtures their critical thinking skills.

• Improves Communication

Incorporating logos in your communication makes your message more organized and coherent. A structured argument is easier for the audience to follow, ensuring that your ideas are conveyed clearly and effectively.

• Encourages Informed Decision-Making

Logos aids in presenting information and evidence necessary for making informed decisions. By relying on logical reasoning and credible data, you empower your audience to make choices based on a deeper understanding of the topic at hand. This contributes to sound decision-making processes.

Logos and Literary Theory

Literary Theory	Critique of Logos	Example
New Criticism Literary Theory	Views logos as a technique for coherence	In the novel To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee uses logical arguments and evidence during Atticus Finch’s courtroom defense, enhancing the plot’s coherence and persuasiveness.
Reader-Response Literary Theory	Emphasizes reader’s logical interpretation	In the short story “The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson, the author presents various logical paths and allows readers to engage their intellect in interpreting the true meaning of the lottery ritual.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	Considers logos as a tool of colonization	In Joseph Conrad’s novel Heart of Darkness, the use of logos by European colonizers serves to justify their actions and reinforce their power over indigenous communities, perpetuating colonial dominance.
Feminist Theory	Explores women’s rational capabilities	In the play A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen, Nora Helmer challenges patriarchal assumptions through her logical arguments and decision to leave her stifling marriage, asserting her independence and rationality.
Marxist Theory	Highlights the manipulation of logos	George Orwell’s novel Animal Farm portrays the ruling class, represented by the pigs, manipulating logical arguments to maintain their power over the working-class animals, exemplifying the oppressive nature of capitalism.
Deconstruction Theory	Questions about the inherent stability of logos	In William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, the character of Hamlet engages in philosophical soliloquies that deconstruct the stability of language and logic, revealing the ambiguity and fragility of logos.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Explores the unconscious influence on logos	In the poem “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot, the speaker’s self-doubt and internal conflicts disrupt the logical coherence of his thoughts, showcasing the unconscious influence of logos.

Suggested Readings

1. Booth, Wayne C., et al. The Craft of Research. 4th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2016.
2. Corbett, Edward P. J., and Robert J. Connors. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 1998.
3. Kennedy, George A. Classical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition from Ancient to Modern Times. University of North Carolina Press, 1999.
4. Lanham, Richard A. Analyzing Prose. 2nd ed., Continuum, 2003.
5. Perelman, Chaim, and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
6. Richards, I. A. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford University Press, 1936.
7. Rosenwasser, David, and Jill Stephen. Writing Analytically. 8th ed., Cengage Learning, 2017.

More from Literary Devices:

• Internal Rhyme: A Poetic Device
• Hypophora: Using and Critiquing It
• Hypophora: A Rhetorical Device

Etymology of Logos

The term “logos” originated from ancient Greek, deriving from the verb legein, meaning “to speak” or “to gather.” In Greek philosophy, “logos” referred to the rational principle that governs the universe and provides it proper order and meaning. It includes idea of logic, reason, discourse, and language. The etymology of logos shows its connection to communication and the power of language in shaping human thinking and mental growth.

Meanings of Logos

• Rational Principle: In Greek philosophy, logos represents the rational principle that governs the universe, providing order and coherence to the world.
• Logic and Reason: Logos encompasses the concepts of logic and reason, highlighting the importance of rational thinking and coherent arguments.
• Discourse and Language: Logos is connected to discourse and language, emphasizing the role of effective communication and meaningful expression.
• Understanding and Knowledge: The term logos underscores its association with human understanding and the acquisition of knowledge through logical reasoning and communication.
• Order and Meaning: It contributes to the establishment of order and meaning in the world, serving as a guiding principle for comprehending the complexities of existence.

Logos Through History

Meaning Type	Definition	Example
Philosophy	Rational principle governing the universe	Logos is the divine reason that shapes all creation.
Rhetoric	Persuasive appeal based on logic and evidence	The speaker used logos to present a compelling argument.
Christianity	Divine Word or Christ as the Word of God	In Christianity, Jesus is often referred to as the logos.
Linguistics	The study of language and its structure	Phonology and syntax are branches of linguistic logos.
Branding and Design	Symbol or graphic representation of a brand	The company’s logo is instantly recognizable.

Definition of Logos as a Literary Device/Rhetorical Device

As a literary device, it refers to the use of logical reasoning, evidence, and arguments to persuade an audience. It involves presenting a clear and rational argument that appeals to the audience’s sense of reason and intellect. Logos can be used in various forms of writing, from persuasive essays to speeches, to support a writer’s or speaker’s claims and convince their audience.

Types of Logos

Type of Logos	Meanings	Example
Inductive Reasoning	Uses specific examples to establish a truth	Every cat I have seen has fur, so all cats must have fur.
Deductive Reasoning	Applies a general principle to a specific case	All mammals have lungs, and a dog is a mammal, so a dog has lungs.
Syllogism	Deductive argument with two true propositions	All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Analogy	Comparison to explain or illustrate a point	Life is like a journey, with its ups and downs.
Cause and Effect	Links actions/events to show their outcomes	Smoking cigarettes causes lung cancer.
Authority	Appeals to credibility or expertise	According to Dr. Smith, this treatment is the most effective.

Literary Examples of Logos

1. From Hamlet by William Shakespeare

“To be or not to be, that is the question.”

In this famous soliloquy, Hamlet uses logos to reason through the decision of whether to take action against his father’s murderer or endure his suffering. He uses deductive reasoning to consider the pros and cons of taking action and reflects on the nature of life and death.

• From Animal Farm by George Orwell

“All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.”

In this novel, Orwell uses logos to criticize the hypocrisy and corruption of the Soviet government. The statement is a logical contradiction and highlights the flawed reasoning and lack of equality in the government’s policies.

• From Apology by Plato

“The unexamined life is not worth living.”

In this dialogue, Socrates uses logos to argue for the importance of self-reflection and critical thinking. He uses deductive reasoning to demonstrate the value of questioning one’s beliefs and assumptions, and to encourage his listeners to examine their own lives.

• From The Republic by Plato

“The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.”

In this dialogue, Socrates uses logos to argue against the arrogance of those who claim to know everything. He uses inductive reasoning to demonstrate that the more one learns, the more one realizes how much they do not know.

Suggested Readings

1. Booth, Wayne C., et al. The Craft of Research. 4th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2016.
2. Corbett, Edward P. J., and Robert J. Connors. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 1998.
3. Kennedy, George A. Classical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition from Ancient to Modern Times. University of North Carolina Press, 1999.
4. Lanham, Richard A. Analyzing Prose. 2nd ed., Continuum, 2003.
5. Perelman, Chaim, and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
6. Richards, I. A. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford University Press, 1936.
7. Rosenwasser, David, and Jill Stephen. Writing Analytically. 8th ed., Cengage Learning, 2017.

More from Literary Devices:

• Malapropism
• Inference
• Using Inference: How to Use It