Month: December 2023

Circular Reasoning in Literature: Introduction

Circular reasoning in literature, a sophisticated rhetorical device, seamlessly intertwines with literary works, serving as a narrative tool to create intricate layers of meaning. Within literary realms, authors deftly employ circular reasoning to craft narratives that challenge readers’ interpretative skills. This nuanced technique often involves a self-referential loop, where the conclusion is subtly embedded within the narrative premises, inviting readers to navigate complex thematic landscapes. By strategically utilizing circular reasoning, writers introduce a level of ambiguity and complexity, prompting readers to unravel the intricacies of character motivations and plot developments. In literature, circular reasoning becomes a captivating element that adds depth to storytelling, compelling readers to explore the elusive nature of truth within the imaginative worlds crafted by authors.

Circular Reasoning in Literature: Shakespearean Examples

Example	Explanation
1. Hamlet’s Delay in Avenging His Father	Circular Reasoning: Hamlet delays avenging his father’s murder because he is unsure about the ghost’s honesty. Explanation: Hamlet questions the ghost’s credibility, using his uncertainty about the ghost’s honesty as a reason for his inaction, creating a circular justification for his delay.
2. Macbeth’s Ambition and Prophecies	Circular Reasoning: Macbeth believes he is invincible because the witches told him so. Explanation: Macbeth’s belief in the witches’ prophecies becomes a circular justification for his actions, as he interprets subsequent events to fit the prophecy, reinforcing his conviction of invincibility.
3. Othello’s Jealousy and Desdemona’s Infidelity	Circular Reasoning: Othello becomes jealous of Desdemona because Iago suggests she is unfaithful, and Othello’s jealousy is then used as evidence of her guilt. Explanation: Iago’s insinuations plant the seed of suspicion, and Othello’s increasing jealousy becomes the very evidence that supports Iago’s initial claims, creating a self-reinforcing cycle of distrust and tragedy.

These examples from Shakespearean works illustrate instances where characters’ reasoning forms a circular structure, contributing to the complexity and depth of the narratives.

Circular Reasoning in Literature: Examples

1. The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger
   • Circular Reasoning: Holden Caulfield dislikes “phony” people because they are not genuine.
   • Explanation: Holden’s definition of “phony” is vague, and his dislike for people is based on their perceived phoniness, creating a circular justification for his disdain.
2. 1984 by George Orwell
   • Circular Reasoning: The government in “1984” asserts its authority is unquestionable because it cannot be challenged.
   • Explanation: The circularity lies in the government’s claim that its authority is absolute, using the inability to challenge it as proof of its inviolability.
3. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez
   • Circular Reasoning: The Buendía family in the novel is cursed because of the actions of its members.
   • Explanation: The circularity arises as the family’s purported curse is based on the actions of its members, while those actions are influenced by the supposed curse.
4. “The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson
   • Circular Reasoning: The town continues the ritualistic lottery because it has always been done that way.
   • Explanation: The circularity is evident in the tradition’s perpetuation based on its longstanding practice, without questioning its purpose or morality.
5. “The Tell-Tale Heart” by Edgar Allan Poe
   • Circular Reasoning: The narrator insists on their sanity because they can tell the story coherently.
   • Explanation: The narrator’s argument for sanity relies on their coherent storytelling, which in turn is used as evidence of their mental stability.
6. “The Stranger” by Albert Camus
   • Circular Reasoning: Meursault is deemed morally deficient because he is indifferent to societal norms.
   • Explanation: The circularity lies in society’s judgment of Meursault’s morality, which is based on his indifference to societal norms, creating a self-referential loop.
7. “The Metamorphosis” by Franz Kafka
   • Circular Reasoning: Gregor Samsa is treated as an insect because he looks like one.
   • Explanation: The circularity is evident in the family’s reaction to Gregor’s physical transformation, as their treatment of him as an insect is based solely on his appearance.

These examples illustrate how circular reasoning is employed in literature to enhance characterization, thematic complexity, and narrative depth.

Circular Reasoning in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Circular Reasoning	Examples in Literature
Psychoanalytic Theory	In psychoanalysis, circular reasoning can depict the complexities of characters’ subconscious motivations and conflicts.	In “The Catcher in the Rye,” Holden’s aversion to “phony” people reflects deeper psychological struggles and conflicts.
Marxist Literary Theory	Circular reasoning can illuminate how societal structures and power dynamics perpetuate themselves.	In “1984,” the government’s assertion of unquestionable authority reflects the self-perpetuating nature of oppressive regimes.
Magical Realism	Within magical realism, circular reasoning can enhance the seamless integration of fantastical elements into everyday life.	In “One Hundred Years of Solitude,” the circularity of the Buendía family’s curse aligns with the magical realist narrative, blurring the lines between reality and magic.
Structuralism	Circular reasoning can be relevant in structuralism by showcasing how narrative structures and symbols refer back to themselves.	In “The Lottery,” the town’s continuation of the lottery based on tradition exemplifies the circularity inherent in cultural rituals and structures.
Narrative Theory	Within narrative theory, circular reasoning can be employed to explore the subjective nature of storytelling and perspective.	In “The Tell-Tale Heart,” the narrator’s insistence on sanity based on coherent storytelling engages with the theme of unreliable narration.
Existentialist Literary Theory	Circular reasoning aligns with existentialism by exploring individualism, alienation, and the arbitrary nature of societal judgments.	In “The Stranger,” Meursault’s moral deficiency attributed to his indifference reflects existentialist themes of individualism and societal absurdity.
Kafkaesque Literature	In Kafkaesque literature, circular reasoning contributes to the surreal and absurd nature of the narrative, emphasizing themes of alienation.	In “The Metamorphosis,” Gregor’s treatment as an insect based on appearance aligns with Kafkaesque themes of the bizarre and the absurd.

These examples illustrate how circular reasoning is pertinent across various literary theories, enhancing the exploration of complex themes within different theoretical frameworks.

Circular Reasoning in Literature: Relevant Terms

Rhetorical Fallacy/Term	Description	Relevance to Circular Reasoning in Literature
Begging the Question	Assuming the truth of a statement without providing evidence, often creating a circular argument.	Commonly found in characters or plotlines where assumptions are accepted without justification.
Circular Definition	Defining a term using the term itself or a synonym, resulting in circular reasoning.	Appears when characters or themes in literature are described in ways that lack substantive meaning.
Tautology	Expressing the same idea using different words, contributing to a circular argument.	Often found in dialogues or narratives where characters redundantly reinforce the same concept.
False Dilemma	Presenting a situation as having only two possible outcomes when more exist, oversimplifying complexity.	Reflects in literature when characters face limited choices, ignoring nuanced possibilities.
Post Hoc Fallacy	Assuming that because one event precedes another, it is the cause of the second event.	Relevant when characters attribute outcomes to preceding events without establishing causation.
Ad Hominem	Attacking the character or motives of a person rather than the substance of their argument.	Appears in literature when characters engage in personal attacks rather than addressing the argument.
Red Herring	Introducing irrelevant information to divert attention from the main issue.	Evident when authors introduce distractions or side plots, steering readers away from essential themes.
Appeal to Authority	Relying on the opinion of an authority figure rather than presenting valid evidence.	Characters might employ this fallacy by accepting statements solely based on the speaker’s authority.
Hasty Generalization	Drawing a conclusion based on insufficient evidence, often contributing to circular reasoning.	Characters may jump to conclusions without adequate information, perpetuating circular logic.
Slippery Slope	Asserting that a particular event will set off a chain reaction leading to an undesirable outcome.	Appears in literature when characters predict extreme consequences without demonstrating causal links.

These fallacies and terms are relevant in identifying and understanding instances of circular reasoning in literary works.

Circular Reasoning in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by George A. Kennedy, Oxford UP, 2007.
2. Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research. 4th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2016.
3. Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. 3rd ed., W. W. Norton & Company, 2014.
4. Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion. 3rd ed., Three Rivers Press, 2017.
5. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., University of California Press, 1991.
6. Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters. Everything’s an Argument with Readings. 8th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019.
7. Perelman, Chaim, and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. Translated by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
8. Strunk, William, and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 4th ed., Pearson, 1999.

Circular Reasoning: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Etymology

The term “Circular Reasoning” derives from the Latin word “circulus,” meaning circle or circuit, and “ratio,” meaning reason. This etymology reflects the inherent nature of the concept, which involves a logical fallacy where the conclusion of an argument is inherently presupposed by its premises, creating a circular and self-referential structure.

Literal Meaning

In a literal sense, “Circular Reasoning” refers to the logical fallacy wherein the argument’s conclusion is restated in one of its premises, resulting in a circular and tautological structure. This form of reasoning fails to provide meaningful evidence or support for the conclusion and instead relies on a self-referential loop that lacks substantive logical progression.

Conceptual Meaning

Conceptually, “Circular Reasoning” extends beyond the specific instances of logical fallacies and encompasses a broader critique of reasoning processes that lack foundational coherence. It highlights the inherent flaw in arguments where the premises merely restate or assume the truth of the conclusion without offering external evidence, thereby hindering the pursuit of valid and sound logical deductions.

In short, the term “Circular Reasoning” encompasses the following:

• Etymology: The term originates from Latin, combining “circulus” (circle) and “ratio” (reason).
• Literal Meaning: Refers to the logical fallacy where the argument’s conclusion is restated in its premises, creating a circular and tautological structure.
• Conceptual Meaning: Critiques reasoning processes lacking foundational coherence, emphasizing the need for valid and sound logical deductions.

Circular Reasoning: Definition as a Rhetorical Device

“Circular Reasoning” operates as a rhetorical device characterized by the logical fallacy of presenting an argument whose conclusion is assumed in one of its premises. This circular and self-referential structure creates an illusion of validity without offering substantive evidence or logical progression. As a rhetorical strategy, it undermines the integrity of logical discourse by perpetuating a closed loop of reasoning that fails to contribute meaningful support to the argument’s conclusion.

Circular Reasoning: Types and Examples

Type of Circular Reasoning	Description	Example
Circular Definition	Defining a term using the term itself or a synonym.	Example: “The paranormal is that which cannot be explained by science.”
Circular Reference	Supporting a claim by referring to the claim itself.	Example: “This drug is effective because it cures illnesses.”
Circular Cause and Consequence	Assuming the consequence as the cause or vice versa.	Example: “He is rich because he has a lot of money.”
Circular Proof	Using the conclusion as part of the evidence.	Example: “God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is the word of God.”
Circular Analogy	Employing an analogy that is synonymous with the argument.	Example: “This plan will succeed because it’s like a well-thought-out success.”

These examples illustrate instances where the reasoning relies on a circular structure, creating an illusion of validity without offering external support or logical progression.

Circular Reasoning: Examples in Everyday Life

1. Circular Definition:

• Example: “Honesty is the quality of being truthful and not deceitful.” In this case, the definition uses synonyms that do not provide distinct meaning, creating a circular reference.

2. Circular Reference:

• Example: “I trust her because she never lies, and I know she never lies because she is a trustworthy person.” The trustworthiness is assumed without external validation, creating a circular reference.

3. Circular Cause and Consequence:

• Example: “He must be guilty because only a guilty person would act so suspiciously. His suspicious behavior proves his guilt.” Here, the assumption of guilt is based on the very behavior that is said to prove it.

4. Circular Proof:

• Example: “The theory is correct because it’s written in this official document, and the document is official because it contains the correct theory.” The argument relies on the document’s authority, which is itself contingent on the theory being correct.

5. Circular Analogy:

• Example: “This approach is effective because it mimics the successful strategy, and the successful strategy is effective because it follows this approach.” The circular analogy assumes effectiveness without external validation.

6. Circular Justification:

• Example: “He deserves the promotion because he has been in the company the longest, and being in the company the longest makes him the most deserving of a promotion.” The justification for promotion is circular, relying solely on seniority.

7. Circular Quoting:

• Example: “The article is reliable because it quotes an expert, and the expert’s opinion is trustworthy because it’s cited in this reliable article.” The circularity arises from relying on the article’s reliability to vouch for the expert’s credibility.

8. Circular Assumption:

• Example: “God exists because the Bible says so, and we can trust the Bible because it is the word of God.” The assumption of God’s existence relies on the premise that the Bible is divinely inspired.

9. Circular Comparison:

• Example: “This car is superior because it outperforms others, and it outperforms others because it is a superior vehicle.” The circularity arises from using the conclusion to support the initial premise.

10. Circular Validation:

• Example: “The survey results are accurate because they agree with what people believe, and what people believe is validated by the survey results.” The circular validation assumes accuracy without independent verification.

Circular Reasoning in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by George A. Kennedy, Oxford UP, 2007.
2. Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research. 4th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2016.
3. Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. 3rd ed., W. W. Norton & Company, 2014.
4. Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion. 3rd ed., Three Rivers Press, 2017.
5. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., University of California Press, 1991.
6. Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters. Everything’s an Argument with Readings. 8th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019.
7. Perelman, Chaim, and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. Translated by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
8. Strunk, William, and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 4th ed., Pearson, 1999.

Ciphers in Literature: Introduction

Ciphers in literature serve as powerful devices, embodying symbols and metaphors that transcend their surface meanings. These enigmatic elements contribute depth and complexity to narratives by inviting readers to unravel hidden meanings and make connections. Often, characters may function as ciphers, representing broader themes, ideologies, or archetypes within the story. Symbolic and allegorical in nature, ciphers facilitate nuanced storytelling, allowing authors to convey intricate concepts without explicit exposition. As literary tools, ciphers engage readers in a dynamic process of interpretation, enriching the narrative experience through layers of symbolism and ambiguity.

Ciphers in Literature: Shakespearean Examples

Play	Cipher Example	Context
Hamlet	“To be or not to be, that is the question.”	This famous soliloquy is a contemplation on life and death, serving as a cipher for existentialism.
Macbeth	“Out, out, brief candle!”	This line reflects on the transience of life and the inevitability of death.
Othello	“I am not what I am.”	Spoken by Iago, this line reflects the theme of deception and manipulation in the play.
Romeo and Juliet	“But, soft! what light through yonder window breaks?”	This line is a romantic cipher expressing the beauty of Juliet as seen by Romeo.
Julius Caesar	“Beware the Ides of March.”	This warning, delivered by a soothsayer, foreshadows the events that unfold in the play.
A Midsummer Night’s Dream	“The course of true love never did run smooth.”	This line encapsulates the theme of love’s challenges and complications in the play.
The Tempest	“We are such stuff as dreams are made on.”	This line reflects on the ephemeral nature of reality and the power of imagination.

These examples showcase how Shakespeare employed language to convey deeper meanings and themes through the use of ciphers and metaphors.

Ciphers in Literature: Examples

Literary Work	Cipher Example	Context
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight	The green girdle	The green girdle is a symbolic cipher representing Gawain’s struggle with his own weaknesses and moral choices.
Sherlock Holmes Series	“The Dancing Men” code	In the short story “The Dancing Men,” Holmes deciphers a series of stick figures to solve a mystery involving secret messages.
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland	The Cheshire Cat’s riddles	The Cheshire Cat speaks in enigmatic riddles, adding a layer of mystery and whimsy to Lewis Carroll’s tale.
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde	Dr. Jekyll’s letter to Mr. Utterson	Dr. Jekyll’s letter reveals the dual identity and the struggle between good and evil in Robert Louis Stevenson’s novel.
Macbeth	The witches’ prophecies	The prophecies given by the three witches serve as a cipher, driving Macbeth’s actions and shaping the play’s plot.
Rebecca	Mrs. Danvers’ manipulation	Mrs. Danvers, in Daphne du Maurier’s novel, is a cipher for the lingering influence of the deceased Rebecca on Manderley.
The Da Vinci Code	Cryptic codes and symbols	Dan Brown’s novel is filled with ciphers and codes related to art, history, and religious symbolism, adding intrigue to the plot.
Trainspotting	Scottish dialect and slang	Irvine Welsh’s novel employs a cipher of Scottish dialect and slang, providing an authentic portrayal of the characters and setting.

These examples demonstrate the diverse ways in which ciphers and codes are used to enhance the storytelling and thematic elements in British and Scottish literature.

Ciphers in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Ciphers in Literature	Example
Structuralism	Ciphers can be seen as elements within a larger structure, contributing to the overall meaning and organization of a literary work.	Analyzing the recurrence of motifs or symbols as ciphers in a text.
Semiotics	Ciphers are symbols that convey meaning through a system of signs and can be examined for their cultural and contextual significance.	Studying the use of symbols or codes as ciphers in relation to cultural or historical contexts.
Deconstruction	Ciphers can be deconstructed to reveal layers of meaning, ambiguity, and contradictions, challenging fixed interpretations.	Examining how a cipher’s meaning may be fluid or contested in a text.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Ciphers may represent repressed desires, subconscious thoughts, or psychological conflicts, providing insights into characters’ minds.	Analyzing symbols or actions as ciphers for characters’ inner struggles.
New Criticism/Formalism	Ciphers serve as integral components for close reading, emphasizing the intrinsic value of the text itself and its formal elements.	Focusing on how a cipher contributes to the unity and coherence of a work.
Feminist Criticism	Ciphers may be examined for gendered representations and power dynamics, revealing how language and symbols contribute to societal norms.	Exploring how female characters or symbols are used as ciphers in a patriarchal context.
Cultural Studies	Ciphers reflect cultural codes and can be studied to understand how literature engages with and challenges prevailing cultural norms.	Investigating how ciphers convey cultural messages or subvert dominant ideologies.
Postcolonial Theory	Ciphers may represent colonial impositions or resistance, and their analysis can uncover the ways in which power dynamics are encoded.	Examining symbols or language as ciphers for colonial legacies and resistance.

These examples demonstrate the multifaceted role of ciphers in literature and how they can be analyzed through various theoretical lenses, enriching our understanding of texts within different literary frameworks.

Ciphers in Literature: Relevant Terms

1. Symbolism: The use of symbols, like ciphers, to represent deeper meanings and concepts within a literary work.
2. Motif: A recurring theme, idea, or symbol that serves as a unifying element in a story.
3. Allegory: A narrative where characters and events symbolize broader ideas or moral concepts.
4. Metaphor: A figure of speech where a word or phrase is applied to something it does not literally denote, often creating a symbolic comparison.
5. Enigma: Something mysterious or puzzling, akin to a cipher, that invites interpretation or solution.
6. Subtext: The underlying or implicit meaning in a text that is not explicitly stated, often requiring interpretation.
7. Foreshadowing: The use of hints or clues to suggest future events, creating a sense of anticipation or mystery.
8. Dystopia: A literary genre that explores an imagined society with undesirable or oppressive characteristics, often serving as a cipher for social critique.
9. Paradox: A statement or situation that seems contradictory but may reveal a deeper truth.
10. Allusion: A brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea of historical, cultural, literary, or political significance.

Ciphers in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Baldick, Chris. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2000.
2. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Blackwell, 2008.
3. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
4. Guerin, Wilfred L., et al. A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature. Oxford University Press, 2015.
5. Lentricchia, Frank, and Thomas McLaughlin. Critical Terms for Literary Study. University of Chicago Press, 1995.
6. Lodge, David. The Art of Fiction. Vintage, 1992.
7. Rivkin, Julie, and Michael Ryan. Literary Theory: An Anthology. Blackwell, 2004.
8. Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide. Routledge, 2015.
9. Wellek, René, and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. Harcourt, Brace, 1949.
10. Wolfreys, Julian. Introducing Literary Theories: A Guide and Glossary. Edinburgh University Press, 2001.

Cipher: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Etymology/Term

The term “cipher” originates from the Arabic word “sifr,” meaning zero or empty. It entered medieval Latin as “cifra,” and later Middle French as “chiffre,” signifying a numerical symbol or code. Over time, it evolved to encompass various encoding methods and cryptographic techniques.

Literal Meanings

• Mathematics: Originally denoting zero, a cipher is a numerical digit with no intrinsic value, often used as a placeholder in positional number systems.
• Cryptography: In a strict sense, a cipher is a method of encrypting text or data to secure communication. It involves substituting or transposing characters according to a predefined algorithm.

Conceptual Meanings

• Secrecy and Concealment: Beyond its technical definition, “cipher” is metaphorically associated with secrecy and concealment, reflecting the primary purpose of cryptographic ciphers to obscure information.
• Mystery and Enigma: In a broader context, “cipher” can evoke a sense of mystery or puzzle, symbolizing anything that is difficult to interpret or decode.
• Symbolism in Culture: The term has cultural significance, representing hidden meanings or encrypted messages in literature, art, and popular culture. It can connote a hidden language or code understood by a select few.

Cipher: Definition as a Literary Device

In literature, a cipher refers to a character or symbol that lacks clear individual traits or characteristics, serving as a blank slate for readers to project their interpretations onto. Ciphers often embody ambiguity, allowing authors to convey broader themes or societal concepts through these enigmatic figures. The deliberate vagueness of a cipher adds layers of complexity to a narrative, inviting readers to engage in deeper analysis and draw personal connections to the story.

Cipher: Types and Examples

1. Symbolic Ciphers:
   • Definition: Characters or objects that represent abstract ideas or concepts.
   • Example: In George Orwell’s “Animal Farm,” the character of Napoleon symbolizes Joseph Stalin, acting as a cipher for the oppressive regime.
2. Enigmatic Characters:
   • Definition: Characters deliberately crafted with mysterious or ambiguous qualities, allowing readers to project their interpretations.
   • Example: Jay Gatsby in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby” serves as an enigmatic cipher, embodying the American Dream and the illusions of wealth.
3. Allegorical Ciphers:
   • Definition: Characters or elements that stand for moral, political, or philosophical concepts within an allegory.
   • Example: In John Bunyan’s “The Pilgrim’s Progress,” Christian represents the individual’s spiritual journey, serving as an allegorical cipher for the pursuit of faith.
4. Blank Slate Protagonists:
   • Definition: Protagonists intentionally lacking distinct traits to enable reader identification and immersion.
   • Example: The narrator in Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s “The Yellow Wallpaper” functions as a blank slate protagonist, allowing readers to experience the descent into madness firsthand.
5. Narrative Ciphers:
   • Definition: Elements in the narrative that carry symbolic weight, enhancing the overall meaning.
   • Example: The journey of the river in Joseph Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness” serves as a narrative cipher, symbolizing the progression into the dark recesses of the human soul.
6. Cultural or Historical Ciphers:
   • Definition: Literary elements representing broader cultural or historical contexts.
   • Example: The character of Atticus Finch in Harper Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird” can be viewed as a cultural cipher for justice and moral integrity in the face of racial injustice.
7. Metaphorical Ciphers:
   • Definition: Symbols or metaphors within a text that convey deeper meanings.
   • Example: The “green light” in “The Great Gatsby” serves as a metaphorical cipher for Gatsby’s unreachable dreams and aspirations.
8. Archetypal Ciphers:
   • Definition: Characters embodying archetypal roles or universal symbols.
   • Example: The protagonist as a “heroic figure” in the hero’s journey archetype, seen in works like J.K. Rowling’s “Harry Potter” series.

Understanding these diverse types of ciphers enriches the reader’s experience, providing layers of meaning and complexity to the literary work.

Cipher: Examples in Everyday Life

1. Traffic Signals:
   • Example: Red, yellow, and green lights serve as ciphers, conveying specific instructions to drivers without the need for written language.
2. Emojis:
   • Example: Emojis function as visual ciphers, expressing emotions or conveying tone in digital communication.
3. Barcodes:
   • Example: Barcodes on products serve as ciphers that encode information about the item, facilitating efficient scanning and inventory management.
4. QR Codes:
   • Example: QR codes act as ciphers, encoding information such as website links, contact details, or event details for quick access via smartphones.
5. Road Signs:
   • Example: Traffic signs, with symbols and colors, function as ciphers to communicate rules and warnings to drivers.
6. Musical Notation:
   • Example: Sheet music is a cipher that represents musical notes, allowing musicians to interpret and perform compositions.
7. Airport Signage:
   • Example: Airport symbols and signs, such as those indicating restrooms or baggage claim, act as ciphers to guide travelers without language barriers.
8. Symbols on Electronic Devices:
   • Example: Icons on smartphones and other electronic devices serve as ciphers, representing functions like battery status, connectivity, and app categories.
9. Currency Symbols:
   • Example: Symbols such as $, €, or ¥ serve as ciphers for different currencies, facilitating international commerce.
10. Weather Icons:
    • Example: Weather forecasts often use visual ciphers like sun, clouds, rain, or snow to convey meteorological conditions at a glance.

These examples illustrate how ciphers play a fundamental role in simplifying and enhancing communication in various aspects of daily life, allowing for quick and efficient understanding without the need for extensive explanations.

Cipher in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Baldick, Chris. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2000.
2. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Blackwell, 2008.
3. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
4. Guerin, Wilfred L., et al. A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature. Oxford University Press, 2015.
5. Lentricchia, Frank, and Thomas McLaughlin. Critical Terms for Literary Study. University of Chicago Press, 1995.
6. Lodge, David. The Art of Fiction. Vintage, 1992.
7. Rivkin, Julie, and Michael Ryan. Literary Theory: An Anthology. Blackwell, 2004.
8. Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide. Routledge, 2015.
9. Wellek, René, and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. Harcourt, Brace, 1949.
10. Wolfreys, Julian. Introducing Literary Theories: A Guide and Glossary. Edinburgh University Press, 2001.

Undistributed Middle in Literature: Introduction

The undistributed middle in literature, a fallacy rooted in logic, finds intriguing applications in literature, transcending its traditional role in deductive reasoning. In literary analysis, this fallacy manifests when authors draw faulty connections between characters, themes, or ideas by erroneously emphasizing shared attributes. This misuse of logic can lead to misleading conclusions or misinterpretations within the narrative. As writers navigate the complexities of rhetoric and argumentation in literature, understanding the undistributed middle becomes pivotal in maintaining coherence and validity. Exploring how this fallacy operates within the nuanced landscape of storytelling enriches the study of literature by unveiling the subtle interplay between logic and narrative craft.

Undistributed Middle in Literature: Shakespearean Examples

Shakespearean Example	Explanation
Example 1: “Macbeth”	Premise 1: Macbeth is ambitious. Premise 2: Lady Macbeth is ambitious. Conclusion: Therefore, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth have the same moral character, ignoring other factors contributing to their actions and motivations.
Example 2: “Romeo and Juliet”	Premise 1: Juliet loves Romeo. Premise 2: Juliet’s Nurse loves Juliet. Conclusion: Therefore, Juliet’s Nurse and Romeo share a similar type of love, oversimplifying the complex nature of romantic and familial affection in the play.
Example 3: “Othello”	Premise 1: Othello is a Moor. Premise 2: Iago is a Moor. Conclusion: Therefore, Othello and Iago must have identical cultural and moral backgrounds, neglecting the crucial distinctions in their characters and motivations.
Example 4: “Hamlet”	Premise 1: Hamlet is indecisive. Premise 2: Ophelia is indecisive. Conclusion: Therefore, Hamlet and Ophelia share the same flaw, oversimplifying their complex characters and the unique circumstances influencing their decision-making.
Example 5: “Julius Caesar”	Premise 1: Brutus is honorable. Premise 2: Cassius is honorable. Conclusion: Therefore, Brutus and Cassius possess identical moral virtues, disregarding the contextual nuances and conflicting motives that drive their actions throughout the play.

Undistributed Middle in Literature: Examples

1. Harry Potter Series by J.K. Rowling:
   • Premise 1: Harry can speak Parseltongue.
   • Premise 2: Tom Riddle can speak Parseltongue.
   • Fallacy: Therefore, Harry is the heir of Slytherin.

In this example, the fallacy occurs because the ability to speak Parseltongue is not exclusive to the heir of Slytherin, as evidenced by Tom Riddle.

2. Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare:
   • Premise 1: Juliet loves Romeo.
   • Premise 2: Romeo loves Juliet.
   • Fallacy: Therefore, their families will accept their love.

The undistributed middle here is the assumption that mutual love between Romeo and Juliet will automatically result in acceptance from their feuding families.

3. Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen:
   • Premise 1: Darcy is wealthy.
   • Premise 2: Bingley is wealthy.
   • Fallacy: Therefore, both Darcy and Bingley are equally eligible bachelors.

This oversimplification ignores other important factors such as character and values that play a crucial role in the story.

4. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
   • Premise 1: Gatsby throws extravagant parties.
   • Premise 2: Tom Buchanan throws extravagant parties.
   • Fallacy: Therefore, Gatsby and Tom are equally morally bankrupt.

The undistributed middle here is assuming that similar behaviors imply similar moral character, neglecting other aspects of their personalities.

5. Animal Farm by George Orwell:
   • Premise 1: Snowball opposes the humans.
   • Premise 2: Napoleon opposes the humans.
   • Fallacy: Therefore, Snowball and Napoleon have the same goals.

This oversimplification ignores the different motivations and methods used by Snowball and Napoleon in the pursuit of their goals.

6. Lord of the Flies by William Golding:
   • Premise 1: Ralph wants order.
   • Premise 2: Piggy wants order.
   • Fallacy: Therefore, Ralph and Piggy have the same leadership capabilities.

This overlooks the differences in leadership styles and the characters’ ability to adapt to the challenges they face on the island.

7. To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee:
   • Premise 1: Atticus defends Tom Robinson.
   • Premise 2: Miss Maudie supports Atticus.
   • Fallacy: Therefore, everyone in Maycomb supports Tom Robinson’s innocence.

This oversimplification ignores the racial prejudices prevalent in Maycomb and the varying attitudes toward Tom Robinson’s trial.

8. The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger:
   • Premise 1: Holden Caulfield dislikes phonies.
   • Premise 2: Mr. Spencer dislikes phonies.
   • Fallacy: Therefore, Holden and Mr. Spencer share the same perspective on life.

This oversimplification overlooks the broader context of each character’s experiences and the reasons behind their attitudes toward phoniness.

Undistributed Middle in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

1. Formalism:
   • Relevance: Formalism, which focuses on the intrinsic elements of a literary work, could potentially fall into the undistributed middle fallacy if it makes assumptions about the meaning of a work based solely on its formal features without considering external factors. For instance, assuming that a poem’s rhyme scheme alone determines its thematic depth would be committing the undistributed middle fallacy.
2. Marxist Literary Theory:
   • Relevance: Marxist literary theory often analyzes literature through the lens of class struggle and economic structures. The undistributed middle could occur if one assumes that the economic conditions of a society directly determine the meaning of a literary work without considering other cultural or individual factors.
3. Feminist Literary Theory:
   • Relevance: Feminist literary theory focuses on the representation of women and gender roles in literature. The undistributed middle might be present if one assumes that the gender of an author alone determines the feminist or anti-feminist nature of a work without considering the specific content and context of the text.
4. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory:
   • Relevance: Psychoanalytic theory, particularly Freudian analysis, might exhibit the undistributed middle if it assumes that certain symbols or themes in literature have a universal meaning based solely on Freudian concepts, without considering the specific cultural or historical context of the work.
5. Postcolonial Literary Theory:
   • Relevance: Postcolonial theory explores the effects of colonialism on literature and culture. The undistributed middle could occur if one assumes that any text from a colonized region is inherently anti-colonial or that all works from colonizers are inherently colonialist, without considering the nuances of individual texts.

Undistributed Middle in Literature: Relevant Terms

Fallacy	Definition
Ad Hominem	Attacking the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself.
Straw Man	Misrepresenting an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack.
False Analogy	Making an inappropriate or misleading comparison between two things.
Hasty Generalization	Drawing a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence.
Circular Reasoning	Restating the argument rather than proving it.
Red Herring	Introducing irrelevant information to divert attention from the main issue.
Appeal to Authority	Relying on the opinion of an authority figure instead of providing evidence.
Post Hoc Fallacy	Incorrectly assuming that one event caused another because it occurred afterward.
Begging the Question	Assuming the truth of an argument’s conclusion within the premise itself.
Appeal to Ignorance	Arguing that a claim is true because it has not been proven false, or vice versa.

Undistributed Middle in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by George A. Kennedy, Oxford UP, 2007.
2. Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research. 4th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2016.
3. Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. 3rd ed., W. W. Norton & Company, 2014.
4. Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion. 3rd ed., Three Rivers Press, 2017.
5. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., University of California Press, 1991.
6. Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters. Everything’s an Argument with Readings. 8th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019.
7. Perelman, Chaim, and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. Translated by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
8. Strunk, William, and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 4th ed., Pearson, 1999.

Undistributed Middle: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Etymology/Term:

The term “Undistributed Middle” originated in the field of logic and is associated with a fallacy in deductive reasoning. The term can be traced back to the mid-19th century and has its roots in formal logic and syllogistic reasoning.

Literal Meaning:

• The undistributed middle refers to a logical fallacy where the middle term in a categorical syllogism is not distributed to both premises.
• In a syllogism, the middle term is the one shared by the major and minor premises. When this term is not properly distributed, it can lead to faulty conclusions.

Conceptual Meaning:

• The undistributed middle fallacy occurs when the middle term, which connects the major and minor premises, fails to establish a connection between the two.
• It results in an invalid syllogism, as the conclusion drawn does not necessarily follow logically from the premises.
• The conceptual essence of the undistributed middle fallacy lies in the failure to adequately connect the terms in a way that ensures a sound and valid argument.

Undistributed Middle: Definition as a Rhetorical Device

The undistributed middle, as a rhetorical device, involves the misleading use of shared characteristics to create a false connection between disparate ideas or groups. It occurs when a speaker implies a commonality between two subjects by focusing on a trait they share, yet fails to demonstrate a direct relationship. This device aims to manipulate perceptions by exploiting superficial similarities without establishing a valid logical link.

Undistributed Middle: Types and Examples

Type	Description	Example
Superficial Similarity	Attributes or characteristics are shared, creating a deceptive connection without logical support.	All cats have whiskers. My car has whiskers (antennas). Therefore, my car is a cat.
Association Fallacy	Linking two subjects based on shared traits, implying a connection without addressing relevant factors.	People who like ice cream are generally happy. Mary likes ice cream. Therefore, Mary must be a happy person.
Ambiguous Language	The middle term is used in an ambiguous way, allowing for multiple interpretations and confusion.	Dogs are known for loyalty. This book is loyal to its theme. Therefore, this book is a dog.

These examples illustrate different manifestations of the undistributed middle fallacy, where the shared characteristics are insufficient to establish a valid logical connection between the subjects involved.

Undistributed Middle: Examples in Everyday Life

1. Coffee and Tea Fallacy:
   • Premise 1: Coffee wakes you up.
   • Premise 2: Tea wakes you up.
   • Conclusion: Therefore, coffee is tea.
2. Car and Bicycle Fallacy:
   • Premise 1: Cars have wheels.
   • Premise 2: Bicycles have wheels.
   • Conclusion: Therefore, cars are bicycles.
3. Vegetarian and Vegan Fallacy:
   • Premise 1: Vegetarians eat plants.
   • Premise 2: Vegans eat plants.
   • Conclusion: Therefore, vegetarians are vegans.
4. Book and Movie Fallacy:
   • Premise 1: Books tell stories.
   • Premise 2: Movies tell stories.
   • Conclusion: Therefore, books are movies.
5. Summer and Winter Fallacy:
   • Premise 1: Summer is hot.
   • Premise 2: Winter is hot (indoors with heating).
   • Conclusion: Therefore, summer is winter.
6. Language and Communication Fallacy:
   • Premise 1: English is a language.
   • Premise 2: Sign language is a language.
   • Conclusion: Therefore, English is sign language.
7. Fruit and Vegetable Fallacy:
   • Premise 1: Fruits are sweet.
   • Premise 2: Desserts are sweet.
   • Conclusion: Therefore, fruits are desserts.
8. Watermelon and Water Fallacy:
   • Premise 1: Watermelons contain water.
   • Premise 2: Water bottles contain water.
   • Conclusion: Therefore, watermelons are water bottles.
9. Dog and Cat Fallacy:
   • Premise 1: Dogs have tails.
   • Premise 2: Cats have tails.
   • Conclusion: Therefore, dogs are cats.
10. Bus and Plane Fallacy:
    • Premise 1: Buses transport people.
    • Premise 2: Planes transport people.
    • Conclusion: Therefore, buses are planes.

Undistributed Middle in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by George A. Kennedy, Oxford UP, 2007.
2. Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research. 4th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2016.
3. Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. 3rd ed., W. W. Norton & Company, 2014.
4. Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion. 3rd ed., Three Rivers Press, 2017.
5. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., University of California Press, 1991.
6. Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters. Everything’s an Argument with Readings. 8th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019.
7. Perelman, Chaim, and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. Translated by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
8. Strunk, William, and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 4th ed., Pearson, 1999.

Cherry Picking in Literature: Introduction

Cherry picking in literature, an important rhetorical device, finds its nuanced application where authors deliberately select and present specific details, events, or characters to shape narrative perspectives and influence reader interpretation. Literary cherry picking extends beyond mere narrative choices and entails a purposeful curation of elements to evoke desired emotions, establish thematic motifs, or underscore underlying messages. Authors wield this literary device to craft a deliberate, often subjective, portrayal of their fictional worlds, selectively emphasizing certain facets while strategically neglecting others. This artful manipulation of narrative elements allows for the construction of compelling narratives that resonate with readers, offering a glimpse into the deliberate choices writers make to convey meaning and provoke particular responses within the literary landscape.

Cherry Picking in Literature: Shakespearean Examples

1. “Hamlet” – Selective Madness: In Shakespeare’s “Hamlet,” the protagonist feigns madness, using selective behavior and speech to manipulate those around him. Hamlet strategically chooses when to appear mad, creating ambiguity about his true mental state and leading characters, and readers, to question the authenticity of his madness.
2. “Othello” – Selective Trust: In “Othello,” Iago selectively provides information to Othello, omitting crucial details and manipulating perceptions to stoke jealousy and suspicion. By cherry-picking facts, Iago masterfully engineers Othello’s tragic downfall.
3. “Macbeth” – Selective Ambition: The character of Macbeth in the play “Macbeth” selectively embraces ambition, choosing to heed the prophecies that align with his aspirations while disregarding warnings that could deter him from the path of ruthless power-seeking.
4. “Romeo and Juliet” – Selective Loyalties: In the tragedy “Romeo and Juliet,” the titular characters selectively prioritize their love over loyalty to their feuding families, leading to a series of tragic events. Their selective allegiance to each other contributes to the ultimate tragedy of the play.
5. “Julius Caesar” – Selective Persuasion: In “Julius Caesar,” Cassius selectively appeals to Brutus’s sense of honor and patriotism while omitting the potential negative consequences of their plot against Caesar. Cassius’s cherry-picked arguments influence Brutus’s decision to join the conspiracy.
6. “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” – Selective Perception: Shakespeare employs the theme of selective perception in “A Midsummer Night’s Dream,” where characters experience magical illusions that influence their romantic entanglements. This selective perception adds layers of comedic confusion to the play.

Cherry Picking in Literature: Examples

1. Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings (Colombia):
   • Cherry Picked Element: Magical realism
   • Context: The story blends fantastical elements with mundane reality. If one were to only focus on the magical realism without considering the deeper social commentary, they might miss the critique of human nature and society.
2. Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis (Czech Republic):
   • Cherry Picked Element: Gregor Samsa’s transformation into a giant insect
   • Context: The story is often analyzed for its existential themes, exploring alienation and the absurdity of human existence. Cherry picking the insect transformation might oversimplify the profound philosophical aspects.
3. Rumi’s Poetry (Persian):
   • Cherry Picked Element: Romantic verses
   • Context: Rumi’s poetry encompasses a wide range of themes, including spirituality, mysticism, and the nature of existence. Focusing solely on romantic verses might neglect the spiritual depth and philosophical insights present in his work.
4. Lu Xun’s “Diary of a Madman” (China):
   • Cherry Picked Element: Allegory of cannibalism
   • Context: The story is a critique of traditional Chinese culture and its oppressive nature. Cherry picking the cannibalism theme without understanding its allegorical significance may miss the broader commentary on societal ills.
5. Pablo Neruda’s Poetry (Chile):
   • Cherry Picked Element: Love poems
   • Context: Neruda’s poetry spans a wide range of themes, including politics, nature, and existential reflections. Focusing solely on love poems might overlook his contributions to social and political discourse.
6. Haruki Murakami’s “Kafka on the Shore” (Japan):
   • Cherry Picked Element: Surrealistic and dreamlike sequences
   • Context: Murakami’s work often explores the human psyche and existential questions. Cherry picking the surreal elements might miss the psychological depth and the interplay between reality and fantasy.
7. Octavio Paz’s Poetry (Mexico):
   • Cherry Picked Element: Sensual and erotic imagery
   • Context: Paz’s poetry delves into existential questions, cultural identity, and the nature of language. Focusing only on the sensual aspects might overlook the philosophical and intellectual dimensions of his work.

In each case, it’s essential to consider the broader context of the literary work to fully appreciate its richness and depth. Cherry picking specific elements can lead to a superficial understanding and miss the intended nuances and complexities of the text.

Cherry Picking in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Cherry Picked Element	Relevance in Theory
Formalism	Symbolism in a poem’s imagery	Formalism focuses on the intrinsic structure of a work, so cherry picking symbols aids in structural analysis.
Structuralism	Specific recurring motifs in a novel	Identifying and isolating certain motifs helps reveal underlying structures and patterns in the narrative.
Feminist Criticism	Female characters’ dialogues in a play	Analyzing specific dialogues sheds light on gender dynamics and power relations, crucial in feminist critique.
Marxist Criticism	Instances of class struggle in a novel	Cherry picking examples of class conflict helps illuminate the text’s reflection of societal power imbalances and economic structures.
Postcolonial Criticism	Representations of colonial oppression	Focusing on specific instances of colonial oppression aids in uncovering the text’s relationship with postcolonial contexts and power dynamics.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Dreams and unconscious desires in a story	Examining cherry-picked dream sequences or symbols contributes to understanding the characters’ subconscious motivations and conflicts.
Reader-Response Theory	Individual reader’s emotional response	Cherry picking specific emotional reactions helps illustrate the theory’s emphasis on the subjective, personal interpretation of a text.

It’s important to note that these literary theories are not mutually exclusive, and elements of each may be present in various works. Cherry picking allows scholars to highlight and emphasize specific elements relevant to their chosen theoretical framework while potentially overlooking other facets of the text. A comprehensive analysis often considers multiple theories to provide a well-rounded interpretation.

Cherry Picking in Literature: Relevant Terms

1. Metaphor: Direct comparison between two unlike things for symbolic meaning.
2. Irony: A contrast between expectation and reality, often for humor or emphasis.
3. Hyperbole: Exaggeration for emphasis or effect.
4. Alliteration: Repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words.
5. Anaphora: Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.
6. Oxymoron: Combining contradictory terms for a paradoxical effect.
7. Euphemism: Substituting a mild or less direct word or phrase for one considered harsh or blunt.
8. Paradox: A statement that seems contradictory but may reveal a deeper truth.
9. Synecdoche: Using a part of something to represent the whole or vice versa.
10. Assonance: Repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words for rhythmic effect.

Cherry Picking in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by George A. Kennedy, Oxford UP, 2007.
2. Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research. 4th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2016.
3. Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. 3rd ed., W. W. Norton & Company, 2014.
4. Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion. 3rd ed., Three Rivers Press, 2017.
5. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., University of California Press, 1991.
6. Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters. Everything’s an Argument with Readings. 8th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019.
7. Perelman, Chaim, and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. Translated by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
8. Strunk, William, and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 4th ed., Pearson, 1999.

Cherry Picking: Etymology/Term, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Cherry Picking Etymology/Term

The term “cherry picking” has its roots in the literal act of selectively choosing ripe cherries from a tree. Over time, it evolved into a metaphorical expression with broader applications.

Literal Meaning:

• Fruit Harvesting: Originally, cherry picking referred to the practice of carefully selecting only the ripest or best cherries from a tree during harvest.

Conceptual Meanings:

• Selective Choosing: In a broader sense, cherry picking has come to signify the act of selectively choosing specific elements or information while disregarding others.
• Confirmation Bias: It is often associated with confirmation bias, where individuals choose or emphasize information that supports their existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.
• Data Analysis: In fields like research and statistics, cherry picking involves selectively presenting data points that support a particular argument, while omitting those that might weaken the case.
• Argumentation Fallacy: Cherry picking is considered a logical fallacy when someone selectively presents evidence to support their claims while ignoring counterarguments.

In essence, “cherry picking” encapsulates the idea of selectively choosing, whether in the context of harvesting fruit, gathering information, or forming arguments, often with the intention of presenting a skewed perspective.

Cherry Picking: Definition as a Rhetorical Device

Cherry picking, as a rhetorical device, involves selectively presenting evidence or examples that support a particular viewpoint while intentionally ignoring or omitting information that contradicts it. This practice aims to persuade or manipulate an audience by providing a one-sided and incomplete representation of the available data or arguments. In essence, cherry picking is a strategic form of argumentation that seeks to strengthen a position by highlighting favorable elements while neglecting the broader context.

Cherry Picking: Types and Examples

Type of Cherry Picking	Definition	Example
Data Cherry Picking	Selectively presenting statistical data to emphasize a specific trend or outcome while disregarding conflicting data.	Presenting only positive economic indicators to create an overly optimistic view of the economy.
Quote Mining	Extracting quotes out of context to support a particular viewpoint, even if the original intent or meaning differs from the presented argument.	Taking a politician’s statement out of context to make it appear as though they endorse a policy they may not fully support.
Anecdotal Evidence Selection	Relying on isolated personal stories or anecdotes that align with a desired narrative while ignoring broader trends or statistical evidence.	Using a single case of an adverse reaction to a vaccine to argue against vaccination without considering the overwhelming evidence of its safety.
Historical Cherry Picking	Highlighting specific events or periods from history that support an argument while overlooking other historical contexts that might present a more balanced view.	Arguing against a social policy by selectively referencing instances where it failed without acknowledging cases where it succeeded.
Scientific Study Cherry Picking	Citing only specific studies that support a claim while neglecting the body of research that may offer conflicting results or a more nuanced understanding.	Advocating for a controversial medical treatment by highlighting one study that supports its efficacy while ignoring research raising safety concerns.
Selective Fact Presentation	Choosing facts selectively to construct a narrative that suits a particular agenda, often neglecting contradictory information.	Arguing for or against climate change by focusing on specific temperature data points while disregarding the broader trend of global temperature increase.

Cherry Picking: Examples in Everyday Life

1. Social Media Discussions:

• Example: In a debate on social media, someone might selectively share news articles or quotes that support their viewpoint while ignoring information that contradicts it, creating a biased representation of the issue.

2. Product Reviews:

• Example: A customer writing a review for a product may highlight positive features that align with their expectations while overlooking or downplaying any negative aspects, presenting a skewed perspective to potential buyers.

3. Political Debates:

• Example: Politicians or political pundits may selectively reference specific policies or actions of opponents to criticize them while ignoring achievements or positive aspects, creating a one-sided narrative.

4. Personal Relationships:

• Example: During an argument, an individual might recall only instances where their partner behaved negatively, ignoring times when they were supportive, leading to an unfair portrayal of the relationship.

5. Job Interviews:

• Example: A job applicant may focus on specific achievements and experiences that align with the job requirements, downplaying or omitting aspects of their work history that could be perceived as less favorable.

6. Health and Fitness:

• Example: A person advocating for a particular diet or exercise routine might share success stories or before-and-after photos, omitting cases where the approach did not yield the desired results for a more balanced perspective.

7. News Reporting:

• Example: News outlets might selectively cover events or present information in a way that aligns with their editorial stance, potentially excluding crucial details that could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the news.

8. Academic Essays:

• Example: When writing an essay, a student may selectively cite sources that support their thesis while neglecting scholarly works that present alternative perspectives, leading to a biased argument.

9. Advertising:

• Example: Advertisers often showcase the positive aspects of a product or service in promotional materials, emphasizing strengths while downplaying or omitting any potential drawbacks or limitations.

10. Personal Biographies:

• Example: When recounting personal experiences, individuals may choose to share stories that highlight their achievements and positive attributes, consciously omitting or minimizing less flattering aspects of their past.

Cherry Picking in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by George A. Kennedy, Oxford UP, 2007.
2. Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research. 4th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2016.
3. Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. 3rd ed., W. W. Norton & Company, 2014.
4. Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion. 3rd ed., Three Rivers Press, 2017.
5. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., University of California Press, 1991.
6. Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters. Everything’s an Argument with Readings. 8th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019.
7. Perelman, Chaim, and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. Translated by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
8. Strunk, William, and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 4th ed., Pearson, 1999.

Causation Fallacy in Literature: Introduction

The causation fallacy in literature manifests when a writer erroneously attributes cause-and-effect relationships between events or characters without adequate evidence or logical support. This fallacy can distort the narrative’s intended meaning, leading to oversimplified conclusions about character motivations or plot developments.

Writers may inadvertently engage in causation fallacy by assuming that sequential occurrences inherently imply causation, neglecting the nuanced complexities that contribute to the story’s unfolding. Detecting and understanding causation fallacies in literature is crucial for readers and critics alike, as it promotes a more nuanced and accurate interpretation of the author’s intended message. Ultimately, recognizing and avoiding causation fallacies enhances the depth and authenticity of literary analysis.

Causation Fallacy in Literature: Shakespearean Examples

1. Post Hoc Fallacy in “Macbeth”:
   • Example: Macbeth sees the witches’ prophecies come true and believes that their predictions caused his actions, overlooking his own choices and ambitions.
2. Cum Hoc Fallacy in “Othello”:
   • Example: Othello becomes jealous of Cassio due to Iago’s manipulations, assuming Cassio’s presence with Desdemona is the cause of her perceived infidelity.
3. Ignored Third Variable Fallacy in “Romeo and Juliet”:
   • Example: The deaths of Romeo and Juliet are often attributed to their love, ignoring the feud between their families as a significant third variable contributing to the tragedy.
4. Regression Fallacy in “Hamlet”:
   • Example: After the ghost appears, Hamlet’s erratic behavior is attributed to supernatural influence, ignoring the natural grief and turmoil he experiences after his father’s death.
5. False Analogy in “Julius Caesar”:
   • Example: Brutus believes killing Caesar is akin to preventing the rise of a tyrant, falsely analogizing the situation to justify his actions without considering the complexities of leadership.
6. Cherry Picking in “King Lear”:
   • Example: Lear fixates on Cordelia’s refusal to flatter him, attributing her supposed lack of love as the cause of their strained relationship, while neglecting his own role in the family dynamic.
7. Misleading Causation in “The Tempest”:
   • Example: Prospero uses his magical powers to manipulate events on the island, leading characters to believe that the magical elements directly cause the unfolding events, rather than Prospero’s orchestrated schemes.

Causation Fallacy in Literature: Examples

1. Post Hoc Fallacy in “One Hundred Years of Solitude” by Gabriel Garcia Marquez (Colombia):
   • Example: The character Remedios dies after ascending to the sky, and some characters attribute her death to her ascension, assuming a causal link.
2. Cum Hoc Fallacy in “The Master and Margarita” by Mikhail Bulgakov (Russia):
   • Example: Woland, the devil, arrives in Moscow, and chaos ensues. Characters mistakenly associate the devil’s arrival with the ensuing mayhem.
3. Ignored Third Variable Fallacy in “Like Water for Chocolate” by Laura Esquivel (Mexico):
   • Example: Tita’s emotions influence the kitchen and the food she prepares. The narrative sometimes overlooks external factors, such as family dynamics, contributing to the outcomes.
4. Regression Fallacy in “Chronicle of a Death Foretold” by Gabriel Garcia Marquez (Colombia):
   • Example: The Vicario twins kill Santiago Nasar based on a perceived threat to their sister’s honor, assuming this act will restore their family’s honor, overlooking the irreparable consequences.
5. False Analogy in “The Trial” by Franz Kafka (Czech Republic):
   • Example: Josef K. is arrested without being informed of the charges, and he falsely analogizes the legal proceedings to his everyday life, assuming they follow the same logical principles.
6. Cherry Picking in “Blindness” by Jose Saramago (Portugal):
   • Example: In the face of an epidemic of sudden blindness, characters fixate on specific instances of violence, attributing the collapse of social order solely to the loss of sight.
7. Misleading Causation in “Death and the Maiden” by Ariel Dorfman (Chile):
   • Example: Paulina believes that Dr. Miranda is the man who tortured her years ago. Her quest for justice becomes a focal point, misleading characters and readers about the true nature of the past events.
8. Post Hoc Fallacy in “The Metamorphosis” by Franz Kafka (Czech Republic):
   • Example: Gregor Samsa wakes up transformed into an insect, and family members attribute his transformation to the stress he faced at work, oversimplifying the situation.
9. Cum Hoc Fallacy in “Norwegian Wood” by Haruki Murakami (Japan):
   • Example: Naoko experiences mental health struggles after her boyfriend’s suicide, and characters associate her condition solely with the trauma, overlooking other contributing factors.
10. Regression Fallacy in “Things Fall Apart” by Chinua Achebe (Nigeria):
    • Example: The Igbo society undergoes changes with the arrival of the colonialists, and characters like Okonkwo assume that returning to traditional values will restore their former way of life, ignoring irreversible external influences.

Causation Fallacy in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance to Causation Fallacy in Literature
Formalism	Causation fallacies can distort the internal coherence of a literary work, impacting its structure and narrative integrity.
Structuralism	Structuralist analysis may identify how causation fallacies affect the underlying patterns and relationships within a literary text.
Feminist Criticism	Causation fallacies may perpetuate gender stereotypes or oversimplify character motivations, impacting feminist interpretations of literature.
Marxist Criticism	Marxist critics might explore how causation fallacies reflect or reinforce class-based ideologies in literature, influencing character agency and social dynamics.
Postcolonial Criticism	Causation fallacies may contribute to misrepresentations of historical events or cultures in postcolonial literature, influencing the narrative’s ideological impact.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Psychoanalytic perspectives might examine how causation fallacies reveal characters’ subconscious motivations, impacting the psychological depth of literary analysis.
Reader-Response Theory	Reader responses may be influenced by causation fallacies, affecting how readers interpret characters’ actions and relationships within the narrative.

Recognizing and analyzing causation fallacies in literature is essential across various literary theories, as they can impact the interpretation and understanding of characters, plot developments, and overarching themes within a literary work.

Causation Fallacy in Literature: Relevant Terms

Fallacy Type	Brief Definition	Example in Literature
Post Hoc Fallacy	Incorrectly assuming causation because one event follows another.	In “Macbeth,” Macbeth believes the witches’ prophecies directly cause his actions.
Cum Hoc Fallacy	Incorrectly associating two events occurring simultaneously as causally related.	In “Othello,” Othello believes Cassio’s presence with Desdemona causes her infidelity.
Ignored Third Variable Fallacy	Overlooking other factors that may influence the observed relationship.	In “Romeo and Juliet,” attributing the tragedy solely to the love between the protagonists.
Regression Fallacy	Assuming a trend will continue without considering natural fluctuations.	In “Hamlet,” attributing Hamlet’s erratic behavior solely to supernatural influence.
False Analogy	Drawing a flawed comparison to justify a conclusion.	In “Julius Caesar,” Brutus falsely analogizes killing Caesar to preventing tyranny.
Cherry Picking	Selectively choosing evidence to support a predetermined conclusion.	In “King Lear,” focusing only on Cordelia’s refusal to flatter, neglecting other dynamics.
Misleading Causation	Creating a false impression that one event directly causes another.	In “The Tempest,” characters assume magical elements directly cause unfolding events.

Causation Fallacy in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by George A. Kennedy, Oxford UP, 2007.
2. Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research. 4th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2016.
3. Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. 3rd ed., W. W. Norton & Company, 2014.
4. Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion. 3rd ed., Three Rivers Press, 2017.
5. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., University of California Press, 1991.
6. Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters. Everything’s an Argument with Readings. 8th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019.
7. Perelman, Chaim, and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. Translated by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
8. Strunk, William, and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 4th ed., Pearson, 1999.

Causation Fallacy: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Etymology/Term

The term “causation fallacy” originates from the Latin word “causa,” meaning cause or reason. In logic and rhetoric, a fallacy refers to faulty reasoning that undermines the validity of an argument. The causation fallacy, also known as the fallacy of false cause or non causa pro causa, occurs when a cause-and-effect relationship is incorrectly assumed between two events without proper evidence or logical connection.

Literal and Conceptual Meanings:

• Literal Meaning:
  • Misattribution: Incorrectly assigning causation between two events.
  • Correlation vs. Causation: Mistaking correlation (a statistical association) for causation (a cause-and-effect relationship).
• Conceptual Meaning:
  • Post Hoc Fallacy: Assuming that because one event follows another, the first caused the second.
  • Cum Hoc Fallacy: Incorrectly associating two events occurring simultaneously as causally related.
  • Ignored Third Variable: Overlooking other factors that may be influencing the observed relationship.
  • Regression Fallacy: Assuming that a trend will continue in the same direction without considering natural fluctuations.

In essence, the causation fallacy underscores the importance of critically examining the evidence and reasoning behind claims of cause-and-effect relationships to avoid logical pitfalls and ensure accurate conclusions.

Causation Fallacy: Definition as a Rhetorical Device

The causation fallacy, as a rhetorical device, involves erroneously attributing a cause-and-effect relationship between two events without sufficient evidence or logical support. It often relies on the assumption that just because one event precedes another, it must be the cause, neglecting other potential factors. This fallacy misleads by oversimplifying complex relationships and can undermine the credibility of an argument or claim.

Causation Fallacy: Types and Examples

Type of Causation Fallacy	Definition	Example
Post Hoc Fallacy (Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc)	Assuming that because one event follows another, the first caused the second.	Example: The rooster crows before sunrise; therefore, the rooster’s crowing causes the sun to rise.
Cum Hoc Fallacy (Correlation Implies Causation)	Incorrectly associating two events occurring simultaneously as causally related.	Example: Ice cream sales and drowning incidents both increase in the summer, so eating ice cream causes drowning.
Ignored Third Variable Fallacy	Overlooking other factors that may be influencing the observed relationship.	Example: A study finds a correlation between increased ice cream sales and sunburns, ignoring sun exposure as the third variable.
Regression Fallacy	Assuming that a trend will continue in the same direction without considering natural fluctuations.	Example: After a winning streak, assuming a sports team will always win without acknowledging variations in performance.

Each type of causation fallacy demonstrates a different way in which the connection between cause and effect is inaccurately established, leading to flawed reasoning and potentially false conclusions.

Causation Fallacy: Examples in Everyday Life

1. Post Hoc Fallacy:
   • Situation: A student wears a lucky charm during exams and scores well.
   • Causation Fallacy: Assuming the lucky charm caused the success without considering other factors like preparation.
2. Cum Hoc Fallacy:
   • Situation: People using umbrellas and an increase in car accidents are observed during a rainy day.
   • Causation Fallacy: Incorrectly concluding that using umbrellas causes car accidents due to their simultaneous occurrence.
3. Ignored Third Variable Fallacy:
   • Situation: Research shows a link between increased ice cream sales and a rise in drowning incidents.
   • Causation Fallacy: Failing to consider the third variable of warm weather, which contributes to both ice cream sales and swimming, leading to more drownings.
4. Regression Fallacy:
   • Situation: A basketball player scores exceptionally well in one game but performs below average in the following games.
   • Causation Fallacy: Assuming the player will consistently perform exceptionally without considering the normal variations in performance.
5. False Analogy:
   • Situation: A successful CEO drops out of college, so dropping out of college is seen as the key to success.
   • Causation Fallacy: Assuming that because one successful person dropped out of college, dropping out is the cause of success.
6. Cherry Picking:
   • Situation: Highlighting a few students who excelled without studying much and claiming that hard work is not necessary for academic success.
   • Causation Fallacy: Cherry picking examples to support the claim that minimal effort leads to success.
7. Misleading Graphs:
   • Situation: Graphs show a correlation between the number of storks in an area and the birth rate.
   • Fallacy: Incorrectly implying that more storks cause higher birth rates, neglecting the common factor of population density.
8. Superstitions:
   • Situation: A person wins a lottery after wearing a specific pair of socks.
   • Fallacy: Believing that the socks caused the win without acknowledging chance.
9. Political Campaigns:
   • Situation: A candidate claims that crime rates increased during their opponent’s term, implying their policies caused the rise.
   • Fallacy: Oversimplifying complex social factors contributing to crime and attributing it solely to the opponent’s policies.
10. Homeopathic Remedies:
    • Situation: Taking a homeopathic remedy and feeling better afterward.
    • Fallacy: Assuming the remedy caused the improvement without considering the body’s natural healing processes or other factors.

Causation Fallacy in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by George A. Kennedy, Oxford UP, 2007.
2. Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research. 4th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2016.
3. Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. 3rd ed., W. W. Norton & Company, 2014.
4. Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion. 3rd ed., Three Rivers Press, 2017.
5. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., University of California Press, 1991.
6. Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters. Everything’s an Argument with Readings. 8th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2019.
7. Perelman, Chaim, and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. Translated by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
8. Strunk, William, and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 4th ed., Pearson, 1999.