Discourse: Literary Device

Etymology of Discourse

The term “discourse” originates from the Latin word discursus, which means “conversation” or “discussion.” It evolved through Old French and Middle English before taking its current form.

In essence, it has always been associated with the exchange of ideas and communication among individuals, reflecting the fundamental concept of spoken or written language as a means of conveying thoughts, opinions, and information within a societal context.

Meanings of Discourse

Subject	Meanings	Example
Communication	Here it refers to the exchange of information, ideas, or opinions through spoken or written language.	In a productive piece, participants share their viewpoints on the environmental crisis.
Conversation	It signifies a formal or informal dialogue between individuals or groups, involving discussion, debate, or interaction.	The panel engaged in a lively conversation or discussion about the future of technology during the conference.
Textual Analysis	In academic contexts, it refers to the systematic study and analysis of written or spoken texts to uncover underlying meanings, ideologies, or structures.	The professor conducted a discourse analysis of the novel, revealing subtle themes of societal critique.
Social Interaction	It encompasses the ways in which language and communication shape social interactions, including power dynamics, norms, and cultural influences.	The nuances of social hierarchy became apparent through the discourse of the business negotiation.
Narrative	It can denote a particular type of discourse, such as storytelling, where events are recounted or a series of events are connected in a meaningful way.	The ancient epic poems are exemplary instances of heroic narrative discourse.
Political	Refers to discussions and debates within the realm of politics, often involving the expression of ideas, policies, and ideologies.	The candidates engaged in a vigorous discourse about economic reform during the televised debate.
Academic	Pertains to the specialized language and conventions used in various academic disciplines for scholarly communication.	The research paper was written in the formal academic discourse of the field of quantum physics.
Discourse Analysis	The systematic examination of language in use, looking at how language constructs meaning and reflects social and cultural contexts.	The linguist conducted discourse analysis to understand how gender roles were reflected in everyday conversations.
Linguistic Theory	In linguistics, it relates to the study of how sentences and utterances are organized into coherent conversations or texts.	Linguistic theory explores the mechanisms that govern the transition between different discourse elements.
Philosophical Inquiry	It could be a subject of philosophical exploration, concerning how language and communication relate to knowledge, truth, and reality.	The philosopher delved into the nature of reality through a complex discourse on language and perception.

Discourse in Grammar

• Grammatical Characteristics:
  • Grammatically, it is a singular noun but can take on plural verb forms depending on the context.
  • This is because discourse refers to a collection of ideas, conversations, or written works, and is therefore considered a plural concept.
• Singular Usage Example:
  • For example, you could say, “The discourse on climate change is ongoing,” where the verb “is” agrees with the singular noun “discourse.”
• Plural Usage Example:
  • Alternatively, you could say, “The discourses on climate change are varied,” where the verb “are” agrees with the plural concept of multiple discourses.

Definition of Discourse

Discourse, as a rhetorical or literary device, refers to the structured and purposeful use of language to convey ideas, persuade, or engage an audience. It involves the artful arrangement of words and sentences to create a coherent and persuasive narrative. It is a fundamental element of rhetoric, literature, and communication, allowing authors and speakers to shape meaning and influence their audience’s perception and understanding of a given topic or theme.

Types of Discourse

Type	Explanation	Practical Example
Narrative	This type of discourse tells a story or recounts a series of events. It often has a clear beginning, middle, and end, and can be found in a wide range of genres such as novels, memoirs, and even news articles.	In To Kill a Mockingbird,  Harper Lee employs narrative discourse to narrate the experiences of Scout Finch as she grows up in the racially charged American South during the 1930s.
Argumentative	This type of discourse aims to persuade the audience of a particular point of view or to convince them to take a certain action. It typically involves presenting evidence, reasoning, and counterarguments to support a particular claim.	In a debate on climate change, the speaker used argumentative discourse to present scientific data, expert opinions, and economic implications to persuade the audience that immediate action is necessary to combat global warming.
Descriptive	This type of discourse aims to paint a vivid picture of a person, place, object, or event through language. It often uses sensory details and figurative language to create a rich and immersive experience for the reader or listener.	In a travelogue about Venice, the author employs descriptive discourse to evoke the city’s romantic atmosphere, describing the winding canals, ornate architecture, and bustling piazzas in exquisite detail.
Expository	This type of discourse aims to explain or clarify a concept or idea. It often follows a clear structure, with an introduction, body, and conclusion, and may use examples, comparisons, or definitions to make the topic more accessible to the audience.	A textbook chapter on the solar system uses expository discourse to explain the characteristics of planets, their orbits, and the formation of celestial bodies, providing clarity and understanding for students.
Persuasive	This type of discourse aims to influence the beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors of the audience by appealing to their emotions, values, or interests. It may use rhetorical devices such as repetition, exaggeration, or metaphor to make a point and can be found in a variety of genres such as advertising, political speeches, and social media posts.	An advertisement for a luxury car uses persuasive discourse to appeal to consumers’ desire for status and sophistication, employing sleek visuals, dynamic music, and compelling language to persuade potential buyers.
Instructional	This type of discourse aims to provide guidance or direction on how to perform a task or carry out a process. It often uses clear and concise language and may include visual aids or step-by-step instructions.	A cooking recipe is a classic example of instructional discourse, providing a list of ingredients, precise measurements, and a series of steps to follow in order to create a delicious dish.
Academic	This type of discourse is used in academic settings and is characterized by its formal and technical language. It often involves presenting research findings or engaging in scholarly debates and may use specialized terminology and citation conventions.	An academic paper in the field of psychology employs academic discourse to present the results of a controlled experiment, using statistical analysis and citing relevant research studies to support its conclusions.
Interpersonal	This type is used in everyday interactions between individuals and is characterized by its social and contextual nature. It can include both verbal and nonverbal communication and is shaped by factors such as cultural norms, power dynamics, and personal relationships.	Two friends engaged in a casual conversation at a cafe demonstrate interpersonal discourse, with gestures, tone of voice, and shared cultural references influencing the flow and meaning of their exchange.
Collaborative	This type involves multiple individuals working together to accomplish a shared goal. It often involves negotiation and compromise and may require participants to take turns speaking or to follow specific communication protocols.	During a team project at work, colleagues use collaborative discourse to brainstorm ideas, assign tasks, and coordinate efforts, ensuring everyone contributes to the project’s success.
Medical	This type of discourse is used in medical settings and is characterized by its technical and specialized language. It may involve communicating diagnoses, treatment plans, or other medical information to patients, caregivers, or other medical professionals.	A doctor uses medical discourse to explain a patient’s diagnosis, treatment options, and potential side effects of medication, ensuring the patient and their family have a clear understanding of the medical situation.

Common Examples

It is found in a wide range of contexts and forms of communication. Here are some common examples:

1. Political speeches: Use persuasive and argumentative discourse to influence and engage the audience.
2. News articles: Employ various discourse types, like descriptive, narrative, or argumentative, for informing or persuading readers.
3. Academic papers: Use formal, technical discourse to convey research findings or theories to a scholarly audience.
4. Conversations with friends: Involve informal in casual exchanges of ideas and information.
5. Social media posts: Cover a wide range of styles, from persuasive to descriptive, in concise and direct communication.
6. Legal documents: Utilize formal, technical discourse to establish legal rights and obligations precisely.

These are just a few examples of the many contexts and forms in which it takes place. Ultimately, discourse is a fundamental aspect of human communication and can be found in virtually every form of written or spoken communication.

Suggested Readings

1. Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. Vintage, 2010.
2. Genette, Gérard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Cornell University Press, 1983.
3. Hall, Stuart. The Work of Representation. Sage Publications, 2013.
4. Hutcheon, Linda. A Theory of Adaptation. Routledge, 2013.
5. Iser, Wolfgang. The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980.
6. Jauss, Hans Robert. Toward an Aesthetic of Reception. University of Minnesota Press, 1982.
7. Ricoeur, Paul. Time and Narrative. University of Chicago Press, 1984.
8. Todorov, Tzvetan. The Poetics of Prose. Cornell University Press, 1977.
9. Van Dijk, Teun A. Discourse and Literature: New Approaches to the Analysis of Literary Genres. John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1985.
10. Widdowson, Henry G. Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature. Routledge, 2002.