Month: December 2023

Volta: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Etymology

The term “Volta” traces its etymological origins to Italian, specifically from the late 16th century. Derived from the Latin word “volvere,” meaning “to turn” or “to roll,” the term evolved through various linguistic phases, including Old Italian and Vulgar Latin, before settling into its current form. The trajectory of its linguistic evolution reflects the concept of a cyclical or turning motion, capturing the essence of change and revolution.

Literal Meaning

• Electrical Term: In the realm of physics and electrical engineering, “Volta” pays homage to Alessandro Volta, an Italian scientist renowned for his invention of the voltaic pile, the precursor to the modern electric battery.
• Measure of Electric Potential: In this context, “volta” is also a unit of measurement for electric potential, representing one joule of energy per coulomb of charge.

Conceptual Meanings

• Revolution and Innovation: The term carries connotations of revolutionary change and innovation, aligning with Alessandro Volta’s groundbreaking contributions to the field of electricity.
• Cyclic Motion: Reflecting its etymological roots, “Volta” can symbolize cyclical patterns or turning points, suggesting a constant evolution or transformation.
• Metaphorical Energy: Beyond its electrical connotations, the term can be metaphorically associated with dynamic energy and transformative power, evoking a sense of vitality and momentum.

Volta: Definition as a Literary/Poetic Device

In poetry, the “Volta” denotes a structural and thematic shift within a poem, typically occurring at the start of a new stanza or section. This poetic device serves as a turning point, signaling a change in tone, perspective, or argumentative direction. The Volta is a sophisticated tool utilized by poets to introduce complexity, surprise, or resolution, thereby enhancing the overall impact and cohesion of the poetic work.

Volta in Poetry: Shakespearean

1. Sonnet 18 (“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”)
   • [Volta:] “But thy eternal summer shall not fade”
   • The volta here shifts from the speaker’s comparison of the beloved to a summer’s day to a declaration of the timeless beauty of the beloved.
2. Sonnet 29 (“When, in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes”)
   • [Volta:] “Haply I think on thee, and then my state,”
   • The volta in this sonnet marks a shift from the speaker’s lamentation of his own misfortune to finding solace and comfort in thoughts of the beloved.
3. Sonnet 73 (“That time of year thou mayst in me behold”)
   • [Volta:] “This thou perceivest, which makes thy love more strong,”
   • The volta in Sonnet 73 shifts from describing the aging process to asserting that this very awareness of mortality enhances the strength of the speaker’s relationship with the beloved.
4. Sonnet 116 (“Let me not to the marriage of true minds”)
   • [Volta:] “Love is not love which alters when it alteration finds,”
   • The volta here marks a transition from defining love to negating qualities that would diminish its constancy and steadfastness.
5. Sonnet 130 (“My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun”)
   • [Volta:] “And yet by heaven, I think my love as rare,”
   • The volta in Sonnet 130 shifts from a series of unconventional comparisons to an affirmation of the speaker’s genuine and unique love for his mistress.

Volta Poetry: Examples

1. John Milton – “Paradise Lost”
   • Volta: The shift occurs in Book III when Satan and his followers are introduced, altering the focus from heavenly harmony to the fallen angels’ rebellion.
2. William Wordsworth – “The World Is Too Much With Us”
   • Volta: It, in this sonnet, occurs in the concluding lines, where Wordsworth shifts from lamenting the materialistic world to a plea for a deeper connection with nature.
3. John Keats – “Ode to a Nightingale”
   • Volta: The poem takes a turn in the third stanza as Keats acknowledges the transient nature of the nightingale’s song and contrasts it with human mortality.
4. Elizabeth Barrett Browning – “Sonnet 43 (How Do I Love Thee? Let Me Count the Ways)”
   • Volta: It comes in the final lines, where Browning moves from enumerating ways to love to asserting the depth and breadth of her love.
5. T.S. Eliot – “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”
   • Volta: It is seen when Prufrock shifts from his internal musings to considering whether he should disturb the universe by expressing his feelings.
6. Seamus Heaney – “Digging”
   • Volta: Heaney’s volta occurs when the speaker transitions from describing his family’s traditional skills to affirming his own identity as a writer.
7. Robert Frost – “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”
   • Volta: The final stanza brings it, as Frost shifts from admiring the tranquil snowy scene to acknowledging responsibilities and the journey ahead.
8. Emily Dickinson – “Because I could not stop for Death”
   • Volta: Dickinson’s volta is evident when the carriage ride with Death shifts from a leisurely journey to a reflection on the finality of life.
9. Langston Hughes – “The Negro Speaks of Rivers”
   • Volta: It occurs as Hughes shifts from narrating the ancient history of rivers to expressing the speaker’s deep connection to African heritage.
10. W.B. Yeats – “The Second Coming”
    • Volta: It happens in the final stanza, where Yeats shifts from describing the chaos of the world to anticipating the arrival of a new era.

Volta in Poetry: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Volta
Formalism	Recognizes the structural significance of the voltas in shaping the overall form of a poem.
New Criticism	Focuses on close reading and analysis of the voltas as a key element in understanding a poem.
Structuralism	Views the volta as a structural component that contributes to the overall meaning of the text.
Poststructuralism	May deconstruct the voltas, exploring how it challenges or subverts traditional poetic norms.
Reader-Response Theory	Considers how readers interpret the voltas and the impact it has on their understanding.
Feminist Criticism	Examines how gender roles and perspectives are reflected in the voltas and its implications.
Cultural Criticism	Analyzes the voltas in the context of cultural norms, values, and historical influences.

Volta in Poetry: Relevant Terms

Poetic Device	Definition
Enjambment	Continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line, stanza, or couplet.
Caesura	A pause or break in a line of verse.
Metaphor	A figure of speech that implies a comparison between two unrelated things.
Simile	A figure of speech that compares two unlike things using “like” or “as.”
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.
Alliteration	Repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words.
Imagery	Use of vivid and descriptive language to evoke sensory experiences.
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality.
Personification	Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities.
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or lines.

Volta in Poetry: Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 11th ed., Wadsworth, 2014.
2. Brooks, Cleanth, and Robert Penn Warren. Understanding Poetry. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960.
3. Fry, Stephen. The Ode Less Traveled: Unlocking the Poet Within. Gotham Books, 2006.
4. Perrine, Laurence, and Thomas R. Arp. Sound and Sense: An Introduction to Poetry. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982.
5. Preminger, Alex, et al., editors. The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton UP, 1993.
6. Vendler, Helen. The Art of Shakespeare’s Sonnets. The Belknap Press of Harvard UP, 1997.

Accumulation: Etymology

“Accumulation” originates from the Latin word “accumulatio,” rooted in “accumulare” meaning “to heap.” Emerging in the late 16th century, the term signifies the gradual gathering of elements or resources over time. Used in various disciplines like economics and sociology, it captures processes of growth or aggregation, reflecting its adaptability and historical evolution.

Accumulation: Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Literal Meaning:

• Etymologically rooted in Latin, derived from “accumulatio” and “accumulare,” signifying “to heap” or “to pile up.”
• First appeared in the late 16th century.

Conceptual Meanings:

• Gradual accrual or gathering of elements, resources, or information.
• Versatile term applied in diverse disciplines.
• Describes the aggregation of wealth, social capital, or environmental pollutants.
• Used in fields such as economics, sociology, and environmental science.
• Captures processes of progressive build-up or growth over time.

Literary Meanings:

• Symbolic representation of the inexorable passage of time and the accrual of experiences.
• Metaphorical use to describe the accumulation of emotions or memories in literary works.
• Conveys a sense of weight or significance, often associated with the accumulation of knowledge or wisdom in literature.

Accumulation: Definition as a Literary Device

Accumulation, as a literary device, involves the systematic repetition of words, phrases, or clauses for rhetorical emphasis and cumulative effect. It serves to amplify a particular idea or emotion, creating a sense of intensity and building momentum in the narrative. This technique enhances the overall impact of the writing by layering information or expressions, thereby engaging the reader through a deliberate and strategic accumulation of linguistic elements.

Accumulation: Types

Type of Accumulation	Definition	Example
Simple Accumulation	Repetition of similar syntactic structures, adding more elements for emphasis.	She laughed, danced, sang—all night long.
Enumerative Accumulation	A list of details that exhaustively enumerates elements for completeness.	The garden was filled with roses, tulips, daisies, and sunflowers.
Cumulative Accumulation	Building up of information or details in a progressive manner.	His achievements, his perseverance, his integrity—all contributed to his success.

These examples illustrate the different types of accumulation, showcasing how this literary device can be applied to enhance emphasis, completeness, and a sense of progression in writing.

Accumulation: Examples in Everyday Life

1. Repetition in Poetry:
   • Poets often use repetition to accumulate words or phrases, creating a rhythmic effect and emphasizing a particular theme or emotion. For example, a line like “day by day, night by night, we waited” in a poem could convey a sense of prolonged anticipation.
2. Cumulative Sentences in Prose:
   • Authors use cumulative sentences, where details or clauses accumulate, to build suspense or describe a scene in intricate detail. The accumulation of information gradually paints a more complete picture. For instance, “The room was filled with the scent of fresh flowers, the soft glow of candlelight, and the distant murmur of laughter.”
3. Accumulation of Imagery:
   • Writers often accumulate vivid images to enhance the sensory experience for readers. By piling up descriptive details, they create a rich and immersive atmosphere. An example might be describing a bustling market with “colors blending, sounds clashing, and aromas intertwining.”
4. Accumulation in Character Development:
   • Character traits or experiences can accumulate throughout a story, revealing growth or transformation. An author might show a character accumulating wisdom, courage, or scars as they navigate through the challenges of the narrative.
5. Building Tension through Plot Development:
   • The accumulation of suspenseful events or clues in a mystery novel can heighten tension. Each new piece of information contributes to the overall suspense, making readers eager to discover the resolution.
6. Gradual Revelation in Drama:
   • In a play, the accumulation of revelations or plot twists can be used to engage the audience and keep them intrigued. Characters might gradually disclose secrets, leading to a cumulative impact on the unfolding drama.
7. Accumulations in Symbolism:
   • Symbolic elements can accumulate to convey deeper meaning. For instance, a recurring symbol or motif may gain significance as the story progresses, accumulating layers of interpretation.
8. Accumulations of Dialogue:
   • Through a series of dialogues, characters’ perspectives, emotions, or conflicts can accumulate. Each conversation adds to the overall understanding of relationships and developments in the narrative.

By employing accumulations as a literary device, writers can create a sense of progression, intensify emotions, and craft a narrative that resonates with readers by gradually building on elements over time.

Accumulations in Literature: Shakespearean Examples

Play	Example	Accumulations Types	Explanation
Macbeth	“Life’s but a walking shadow…”	Metaphorical Accumulation	Shakespeare accumulates metaphors to convey the fleeting and insubstantial nature of life. Each metaphor adds to the overall theme of life’s transience and the insignificance of human actions.
Julius Caesar	Antony’s Funeral Oration	Accumulations of Virtues and Contrast	Mark Antony accumulates Caesar’s virtues and repeatedly contrasts them with Brutus’s assertion that Caesar was ambitious. The accumulation builds emotional tension and sways the crowd against the conspirators.
Hamlet	“To be or not to be” soliloquy	Accumulations of Contrasting Images	Hamlet accumulates contrasting images and dilemmas to explore the complexities of existence. The repetition of “To be, or not to be” emphasizes the central existential question and the internal struggle Hamlet faces.
Othello	Iago’s manipulation of Othello	Accumulations of Deception	Iago accumulates insinuations and false evidence to manipulate Othello’s perception of Desdemona. The accumulation of deception contributes to the tragic unfolding of the plot.
Romeo and Juliet	Balcony Scene Vows and Declarations	Accumulation of Vows and Metaphors	Romeo and Juliet accumulate vows and declarations, piling up words and metaphors to express the intensity of their love. The accumulation of language emphasizes the depth of their emotions and commitment.

Accumulation in Literature: Examples

1. Charles Dickens – A Tale of Two Cities:
   • In the opening lines of this classic novel, Dickens uses accumulations to set the contrasting tone between two cities: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness… The accumulation of contrasting statements establishes the dual nature of the times in which the story is set.
2. F. Scott Fitzgerald – The Great Gatsby:
   • Fitzgerald employs accumulations to describe Gatsby’s extravagant parties: There was music from my neighbor’s house through the summer nights. In his blue gardens, men and girls came and went like moths among the whisperings and the champagne and the stars. The accumulation of sensory details creates a vivid picture of the opulence and decadence of Gatsby’s world.
3. Gabriel Garcia Marquez – One Hundred Years of Solitude:
   • In Marquez’s magical realist masterpiece, accumulation is used to depict the passage of time and the cyclical nature of history. The novel spans generations of the Buendía family in the fictional town of Macondo, and the accumulation of events, names, and repetitions contributes to the novel’s unique narrative structure.
4. J.K. Rowling – Harry Potter series:
   • Rowling uses accumulation in the form of magical objects and creatures to build the rich and detailed world of Hogwarts. The accumulation of magical elements, from the Triwizard Tournament challenges to the variety of magical creatures, contributes to the depth and complexity of the wizarding world.
5. Langston Hughes – “The Negro Speaks of Rivers”:
   • Hughes employs accumulations in his poem, where he connects the history and experience of African Americans with rivers: I’ve known rivers: / I’ve known rivers ancient as the world and older than the / flow of human blood in human veins. The accumulation of references to historical rivers symbolizes the deep roots and enduring strength of African American history.
6. Ray Bradbury – Fahrenheit 451:
   • Bradbury uses accumulations in the repetition of the burning of books to emphasize the oppressive nature of the society depicted in the novel. The accumulation of burned books symbolizes the suppression of knowledge and free thought in a dystopian future.

Accumulation in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Accumulation	Example
Formalism	Emphasizes the structure and form of the text. Accumulation contributes to the rhythm, pattern, and overall organization of literary works.	In T.S. Eliot’s poem “The Waste Land,” the accumulation of fragmented voices and cultural references creates a complex, layered structure.
Structuralism	Focuses on the underlying structures and systems in literature. Accumulation can reveal patterns, repetitions, and interconnections within a text.	In Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude,” the accumulation of recurring themes and names reflects the novel’s structural complexity.
Feminist Criticism	Examines gender roles and representations. Accumulation can highlight the evolution or oppression of characters based on gender.	In Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s “The Yellow Wallpaper,” the accumulation of details reveals the protagonist’s descent into madness and challenges traditional gender roles.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores the psychological aspects of characters and their motivations. Accumulation can unveil the subconscious or repressed elements in a narrative.	In Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Tell-Tale Heart,” the accumulations of the narrator’s obsession and paranoia reflects deeper psychological complexities.
Postcolonial Criticism	Analyzes the impact of colonialism and cultural hegemony. Accumulation may expose power dynamics, cultural clashes, or resistance.	In Chinua Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart,” the accumulations of cultural details illustrates the clash between colonial forces and traditional Igbo society.
Deconstruction	Questions binary oppositions and undermines fixed meanings. Accumulation can destabilize traditional interpretations and challenge certainty.	In Jorge Luis Borges’s “The Garden of Forking Paths,” the accumulations of narratives disrupts conventional notions of time and narrative coherence.

These examples demonstrate how accumulation can be analyzed through different literary theories, providing insights into the structural, cultural, and psychological dimensions of a literary work.

Accumulation in Literature: Relevant Terms

Literary Term	Definition
Accumulation	Progressive addition of elements in a text for emphasis.
Repetition	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis or stylistic effect.
Cataloging	Listing items to create a detailed description or depiction.
Juxtaposition	Placing elements side by side to highlight contrasts.
Motif	Recurring theme contributing to the overall meaning.
Parallelism	Using similar structures or patterns for coherence.
Enumeration	Counting or listing items for emphasis or comprehensiveness.
Progression	Orderly development or advancement of narrative elements.
Intensification	Increasing the strength or importance of narrative elements.

Accumulation in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Eliot, T.S. The Waste Land. Harcourt, 1922.
2. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. Scribner, 1925.
3. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. “The Yellow Wallpaper.” Small & Maynard, 1899.
4. Hughes, Langston. The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes. Vintage, 1995.
5. Marquez, Gabriel Garcia. One Hundred Years of Solitude. HarperCollins, 1991.
6. Rowling, J.K. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone. Scholastic, 1998.
7. Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. Penguin, 2000.
8. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Simon & Schuster, 1992.
9. Bradbury, Ray. Fahrenheit 451. Simon & Schuster, 1953.

Understatement in Literature: Introduction

Understatement in literature, as a rhetorical device, entails deliberate downplaying of the significance or magnitude of a situation, event, or emotion for various rhetorical and artistic purposes. It serves as a subtle form of expression, often characterized by restrained language that intentionally diminishes the impact of a subject, creating a nuanced and sometimes ironic effect.

Understatement is not merely a linguistic technique but a means through which writers convey complex emotions, evoke reader engagement, and offer commentary on the human experience. By presenting situations with less emphasis than expected, authors utilize understatement to provoke thought, convey subtle humor, and emphasize the disparities between the expressed and actual magnitude of events, contributing to the richness and depth of literary narratives.

Understatement in Literature: Shakespearean Example

Play	Example of Understatement	Explanation
Hamlet	“I’m dying, Horatio.”	Hamlet says this after being poisoned, downplaying the severity of his situation.
Macbeth	“It is a tale / Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, / Signifying nothing.”	Macbeth reflects on the brevity and futility of life, minimizing its significance.
Romeo and Juliet	“A scratch, a scratch!”	Mercutio says this after being fatally wounded, making light of his injury for dramatic effect.
Othello	“I am not what I am.”	Iago uses this line to downplay his true nature and intentions, creating dramatic irony.
Julius Caesar	“I am constant as the northern star.”	Caesar claims constancy, but the audience knows that he is about to be betrayed and killed.

These examples showcase how Shakespeare uses understatement to convey deeper meanings, create irony, or add humor to his works. The use of such literary devices adds layers to the characters’ expressions and the overall impact of the plays.

Understatement in Literature: Examples

1. Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal”
   • Understatement: Swift suggests a horrifying solution to poverty and overpopulation (cannibalism) with a calm and reasonable tone.
   • Usage: Swift ironically downplays the severity of the proposal, presenting a shocking remedy for societal issues in a seemingly rational manner.
2. William Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar”
   • Understatement: Cassius downplays the significance of his argument with Brutus, saying, “Well, Brutus, thou art noble.”
   • Usage: Cassius minimizes the intensity of a heated dispute, using calm language to underscore the tension between the characters.
3. Oscar Wilde’s “The Importance of Being Earnest”
   • Understatement: The title ironically suggests that being earnest is of great importance, while the characters engage in trivial and absurd behavior.
   • Usage: Wilde uses the title to satirize societal values, highlighting the discrepancy between the importance placed on earnestness and the characters’ frivolous actions.
4. Mark Twain’s “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”
   • Understatement: Huck Finn narrates dangerous situations, like describing a feud, in a casual manner.
   • Usage: Twain employs Huck’s nonchalant tone to downplay perilous events, creating humor and emphasizing Huck’s resilience in challenging circumstances.
5. Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice”
   • Understatement: Mrs. Bennet repeatedly uses understatement when discussing the urgency of marrying off her daughters.
   • Usage: Austen employs Mrs. Bennet’s understatement to mock her exaggerated concern for marrying off her daughters, adding humor to the novel.
6. Ernest Hemingway’s “The Old Man and the Sea”
   • Understatement: Santiago understates the impact of sharks attacking his prized marlin.
   • Usage: Hemingway uses Santiago’s calm response to the shark attack to underscore his resilience and stoicism in the face of adversity.
7. J.D. Salinger’s “The Catcher in the Rye”
   • Understatement: Holden Caulfield casually dismisses serious issues he faces.
   • Usage: Salinger employs Holden’s nonchalant attitude to understate the gravity of his internal struggles, reflecting the character’s coping mechanism.
8. George Orwell’s “Animal Farm”
   • Understatement: The pigs’ descent into corruption is downplayed through mottos like “All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.”
   • Usage: Orwell uses the pigs’ slogans to satirize their hypocrisy, employing understatement to highlight the growing authoritarianism on the farm.
9. F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby”
   • Understatement: Nick Carraway’s seemingly simple descriptions of Gatsby’s extravagant parties and characters’ actions.
   • Usage: Fitzgerald uses Nick’s understated observations to highlight the excesses and superficiality of Gatsby’s world, adding layers to the narrative.
10. Joseph Heller’s “Catch-22”
    • Understatement: The absurdity of the military bureaucracy and the “Catch-22” rule.
    • Usage: Heller uses understatement to depict the absurdity of military rules, with the “Catch-22” illustrating the paradoxical and nonsensical nature of bureaucracy.

Understatement in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

Example	Literary Theory Relevance
Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal”	– Satirical Theory: Uses understatement to satirize and criticize societal issues in a seemingly rational manner.
William Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar”	– Dramatic Theory: Employs understatement to enhance dramatic tension and underscore character relationships.
Oscar Wilde’s “The Importance of Being Earnest”	– Theatrical Theory: Utilizes understatement to create humor, emphasizing the play’s comedic elements.
Mark Twain’s “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”	– Realism: Presents dangerous situations through Huck’s casual narration, reflecting a realistic and humorous perspective.
Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice”	– Feminist Theory: Mrs. Bennet’s understatement highlights societal expectations on women, offering a feminist critique.
Ernest Hemingway’s “The Old Man and the Sea”	– Hemingway’s Iceberg Theory: Santiago’s understated reaction reflects the iceberg principle, leaving much unsaid for readers to interpret.
J.D. Salinger’s “The Catcher in the Rye”	– Psychoanalytic Theory: Holden’s understatement reflects internal struggles, providing insights into the character’s psyche.
George Orwell’s “Animal Farm”	– Allegorical Theory: The pigs’ slogans and understatement serve as allegorical elements to critique political systems.
F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby”	– Marxist Theory: Nick’s understated descriptions subtly critique the excesses of the upper class and the American Dream.
Joseph Heller’s “Catch-22”	– Postmodernism: Deploys understatement to highlight the absurdity of bureaucracy and challenge traditional narrative structures.

Understatement in Literature: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for emphasis.
Litotes	Affirmation through negation.
Irony	Expressing the opposite for effect.
Satire	Humorous criticism or mockery.
Sarcasm	Mocking through irony.
Euphemism	Mild expression for harsh reality.
Paradox	Apparent contradiction revealing truth.
Dramatic Irony	Audience knows, characters don’t.
Deadpan	Emotionless delivery, often for humor.
Ambiguity	Open to multiple interpretations.

Understatement in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Penguin Books, 2002.
2. Hemingway, Ernest. The Old Man and the Sea. Scribner, 1995.
3. Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. Schocken, 1996.
4. Melville, Herman. Bartleby, the Scrivener. Dover Publications, 1990.
5. Orwell, George. Animal Farm. Signet Classic, 1996.
6. Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. Little, Brown and Company, 1991.
7. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Edited by Harold Jenkins, Bloomsbury Arden Shakespeare, 2016.
8. Swift, Jonathan. Gulliver’s Travels. Oxford University Press, 2008.
9. Thoreau, Henry David. Walden. Dover Publications, 1995.
10. Wilde, Oscar. The Importance of Being Earnest. Dover Publications, 1990.

Understatement: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Etymology of Understatement

The term “understatement” traces its origins to the Middle English period, where it evolved from the Old English word “undersecgan,” meaning “to make less prominent” or “to state less strongly.” The modern sense of “understatement” emerged in the 18th century, reflecting the rhetorical device of deliberately downplaying the significance or magnitude of a situation for rhetorical effect. Rooted in linguistic subtlety, understatement has become a staple in literary and rhetorical analysis, offering writers a nuanced means of expression.

Literal and Conceptual Meanings

• Literal Meaning:
  • Downplaying Magnitude: Understatements involves deliberately representing a situation, event, or emotion as less significant or intense than it actually is.
  • Minimalist Expression: It employs restrained language to convey a message, often characterized by a lack of embellishment or exaggeration.
• Conceptual Meaning:
  • Rhetorical Device: Understatements serves as a rhetorical device, strategically employed to emphasize a point by highlighting the disparity between the expressed and actual magnitude.
  • Subtle Humor: In literature and everyday language, understatements can introduce elements of humor, as the mildness of expression creates a comic effect through its contrast with the true significance of the subject.
  • Irony and Satire: Understatements is integral to irony and satire, enabling writers to comment on societal issues or criticize individuals by deliberately downplaying or mitigating their actions or consequences.

These dual facets of understatement, both in its literal use as a minimalistic expression and its conceptual role as a rhetorical and humorous device, contribute to its versatility in conveying subtle nuances and eliciting varied emotional responses from the audience.

Understatement: Definition as a Literary Device

Understatement, as a literary device, involves deliberately presenting a situation, idea, or emotion as less significant or intense than it truly is. This rhetorical strategy is characterized by the use of restrained language, downplaying the magnitude of a subject to create emphasis or irony. By employing understatements, writers enhance subtlety, provoke thought, and often achieve humorous or satirical effects within their literary works.

Understatement: Type

Type	Definition and Characteristics	Examples
Litotes	Affirming a positive attribute by negating its opposite.	“She’s not unkind” instead of “She is kind.”
Meiosis	Deliberate understatement for rhetorical effect, minimizing importance.	“It’s just a flesh wound” (after losing an arm) in Monty Python’s “The Holy Grail.”
Euphemism	Substituting a mild or indirect expression for a harsh or blunt one.	“He passed away” instead of “He died.”
Hyperbole‘s Opposite	Presenting a situation with less emphasis than expected.	“It’s a bit cold today” during a snowstorm.
Liturgical Understatement	Understatement used for liturgical or religious purposes.	“For I am undone” instead of “I am dead” in biblical contexts.

These types of understatement demonstrate the versatility of the device in literature, allowing authors to convey complex ideas, create irony, or provide commentary with a subtle and nuanced touch.

Understatement: Examples in Everyday Life

Here are examples of understatement in everyday life:

• On a scorching hot day: “It’s a bit warm today.”
• After a minor inconvenience: “Well, that wasn’t ideal.”
• When someone achieves a remarkable feat: “You did okay on that test.”
• After a significant accomplishment: “I guess I didn’t do too badly.”
• About a very tall person: “He’s not exactly short.”
• Regarding a delicious meal: “The food was somewhat enjoyable.”
• After a long and tiring journey: “It was a bit of a trip.”
• About a noisy concert: “The music was not too soft.”
• When a plan goes awry: “That didn’t go exactly as expected.”
• After a heavy rainstorm: “It’s a little wet outside.”

Understatement in everyday language often involves downplaying the impact or significance of a situation, making it a subtle and common form of communication.

Understatement in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Penguin Books, 2002.
2. Hemingway, Ernest. The Old Man and the Sea. Scribner, 1995.
3. Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. Schocken, 1996.
4. Melville, Herman. Bartleby, the Scrivener. Dover Publications, 1990.
5. Orwell, George. Animal Farm. Signet Classic, 1996.
6. Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. Little, Brown and Company, 1991.
7. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Edited by Harold Jenkins, Bloomsbury Arden Shakespeare, 2016.
8. Swift, Jonathan. Gulliver’s Travels. Oxford University Press, 2008.
9. Thoreau, Henry David. Walden. Dover Publications, 1995.
10. Wilde, Oscar. The Importance of Being Earnest. Dover Publications, 1990.

Threnody: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Etymology of Threnody

The term “threnody” has its roots in the Greek language, derived from the combination of two words: “threnos,” meaning lament or dirge, and “ōdē,” signifying song. The amalgamation of these elements results in the concept of a song of lamentation or mourning. Historically, threnodies were often associated with funerary rituals and were employed to express deep sorrow and grief for the deceased.

Literal and Conceptual Meanings:

• Literal Meaning:
  • A Threnody is a musical or literary composition specifically created to mourn the dead or lament a tragic event.
  • It involves the use of somber tones, melancholic melodies, and poignant language to convey a sense of grief and sorrow.
• Conceptual Meaning:
  • Threnody extends beyond its literal definition and serves as a broader artistic expression of human emotions related to loss and tragedy.
  • It can be a vehicle for exploring the complexities of grief, capturing the essence of collective mourning, and providing a cathartic outlet for both creators and audiences.
• Cultural Significance:
  • Threnodies are embedded in various cultures and traditions, reflecting the universal human experience of dealing with loss.
  • They contribute to the cultural and emotional tapestry of societies by providing a means to articulate and share collective grief.
• Artistic Exploration:
  • As a literary device, threnody allows artists to explore the nuances of sorrow, creating a space for reflection on mortality, the impermanence of life, and the impact of tragedy on individuals and communities.

Threnody: Definition as a Literary Term

Threnody, in literary terms, refers to a poignant and mournful composition, be it in the form of poetry, prose, or music, designed to express deep sorrow or lamentation, particularly in the context of death or tragedy. This genre often employs somber language, melancholic imagery, and evocative symbolism to convey a profound sense of grief. Threnodies, rooted in the etymology of lamentation, serve as a literary device to explore and articulate the emotional complexities associated with profound loss within cultural and artistic contexts.

Threnody in Literature: Types

Type	Definition and Characteristics	Examples
Elegy	A formal poem or song expressing sorrow and praise for the deceased.	“In Memoriam” by Alfred Lord Tennyson
Pastoral Elegy	Combines themes of nature and mourning in a rural setting.	“Lycidas” by John Milton
War Requiem	Mourns the loss of lives in war, addressing societal impact.	“Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen
Personal Lament	Expresses an individual’s deep grief and sorrow.	“Funeral Blues” by W. H. Auden
Social/Political Lament	Addresses collective grief for societal or political reasons.	“Requiem for the Croppies” by Seamus Heaney
Religious Lamentation	Incorporates religious elements, seeking solace from a higher power.	“Dies Irae” from the Latin Requiem Mass
Environmental Threnody	Laments environmental degradation and ecological concerns.	“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot
Love Threnody	Focuses on the loss or unrequited nature of love.	“When You Are Old” by W.B. Yeats
Symbolic Threnody	Uses lamentation to explore broader themes symbolically.	“Do not go gentle into that good night” by Dylan Thomas
Narrative Lament	A threnody expressed through a narrative structure.	“The Ballad of Reading Gaol” by Oscar Wilde
Visual Threnody	Threnodies expressed visually in art and film.	“The Tree of Life” (film directed by Terrence Malick)

Please note that some examples may span multiple types, as the categorization is not always rigid, and literary works can blend different thematic elements.

Threnody in Literature: Examples

1. “Lycidas” by John Milton (1637):
   • A classic pastoral elegy that mourns the untimely death of Milton’s friend, Edward King, using threnodic elements to express grief.
2. “In Memoriam” by Alfred Lord Tennyson (1850):
   • Tennyson’s long poem is a threnody that reflects on the death of his close friend Arthur Hallam, exploring themes of grief, faith, and the afterlife.
3. “Dirge Without Music” by Edna St. Vincent Millay (1928):
   • A modern threnody that contemplates the inevitability of death and expresses a poignant acceptance of life’s transience.
4. “Requiem” by Anna Akhmatova (1935-40):
   • Akhmatova’s poetic sequence is a powerful threnody reflecting on the suffering and loss experienced during the tumultuous years of the Russian Revolution.
5. “The Ballad of Reading Gaol” by Oscar Wilde (1898):
   • Wilde’s poem is a poignant threnody inspired by his experiences in prison, addressing the harsh realities of incarceration and the inevitability of death.
6. “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d” by Walt Whitman (1865):
   • Whitman’s elegy for Abraham Lincoln incorporates threnodic elements, mourning the death of the president and reflecting on the broader impact of the Civil War.
7. “Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird” by Wallace Stevens (1917):
   • While not a traditional threnody, this poem contains elements of lamentation, exploring the multifaceted nature of existence and mortality through the symbol of a blackbird.
8. “Funeral Blues” by W. H. Auden (1936):
   • Auden’s emotionally charged poem is a threnody that vividly expresses grief and loss in the context of a romantic relationship.
9. “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe (1845):
   • Poe’s famous narrative poem incorporates threnodic elements as the narrator mourns the loss of his love, Lenore, and grapples with the despair that accompanies her absence.
10. “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” by Thomas Gray (1751):

• Although primarily an elegy, this poem contains threnodic elements as it reflects on the lives and deaths of common people buried in a rural churchyard.

These examples showcase the diverse ways in which threnody is employed in literature to explore themes of grief, loss, and the human experience.

Threnody in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

• Reader-Response Theory:
  • Threnodies evoke emotional responses from readers, engaging them in the process of meaning-making through their personal experiences and emotional reactions to themes of loss and grief.
  • Readers actively participate in the creation of meaning as they interpret the emotional landscape portrayed in threnodies, connecting the text with their own feelings and perspectives.
• Feminist Literary Theory:
  • Threnodies can be examined through a feminist lens to explore how gender influences the expression of grief and the portrayal of mourning in literature.
  • Analysis may focus on the gendered aspects of lamentation, the roles of women in expressing grief, and the societal expectations and norms surrounding mourning.
• New Historicism:
  • Threnodies offer insights into the historical and cultural contexts in which they were created, reflecting the attitudes, values, and beliefs of the society at the time.
  • By studying threnodies, scholars can gain a deeper understanding of how societies grapple with loss, how mourning rituals evolve, and how literature engages with and shapes historical perspectives on death and grief.
• Psychoanalytic Literary Theory:
  • Threnodies can be analyzed through a psychoanalytic lens to explore the unconscious emotions and desires underlying expressions of grief.
  • The mourning process depicted in threnodies may be examined in relation to psychological concepts such as Freudian mourning and the ways in which individuals cope with and navigate the emotional terrain of loss.

Threnodies, with their focus on profound emotions and existential themes, provide rich material for the exploration of diverse literary theories, offering scholars opportunities to delve into the complexities of human experience, culture, and psychology.

Threnody in Literature: Relevant Terms

Literary Term	Definition
Elegy	Poem or song expressing sorrow, typically for the deceased.
Dirge	Funereal song or lament expressing mourning.
Lament	Expression of grief or sorrow, often in a poetic form.
Requiem	Musical or liturgical composition for the dead.
Epitaph	Inscription on a tombstone or memorial, often poetic.
Eulogy	Speech or writing in praise of a person, typically delivered at a funeral.
Memento Mori	Literary theme or work emphasizing the transience of life and inevitability of death.
Thanatopsis	Meditation on death, often found in nature poetry.
Lacrimae Rerum	Latin for “tears of things,” expressing the inherent sorrow in life.
Monody	Poem or song lamenting a single person’s death.

Threnody in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Auden, W. H. Collected Poems. Vintage, 1991.
2. Eliot, T.S. The Waste Land. Norton, 2000.
3. Heaney, Seamus. Opened Ground: Selected Poems 1966-1996. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999.
4. Milton, John. Paradise Lost. Oxford University Press, 2008.
5. Owen, Wilfred. The Complete Poems and Fragments. Chatto & Windus, 1994.
6. Tennyson, Alfred Lord. In Memoriam. Oxford University Press, 2008.
7. Thomas, Dylan. The Poems of Dylan Thomas. New Directions, 2014.
8. Wilde, Oscar. The Complete Works of Oscar Wilde. HarperCollins, 2003.
9. Yeats, W.B. The Collected Poems of W.B. Yeats. Scribner, 1996.
10. Akhmatova, Anna. Anna Akhmatova: Poems. Everyman’s Library, 1992.

Pastoral in Literature: Introduction

Pastoral in literature/pastoral literature, a genre rooted in classical and Renaissance traditions, idealizes rural life and landscapes while exploring themes of nature, innocence, and the simple life.

Emerging from the word “pastor,” meaning shepherd, pastoral works often feature shepherds or rural characters who engage in idyllic, bucolic settings. This genre, with origins in the ancient Greek and Roman traditions, gained prominence during the Renaissance, with notable examples such as Edmund Spenser’s “The Shepheardes Calender.”

Pastoral literature serves as a means of escapism, offering a romanticized vision of the countryside that contrasts with the complexities of urban life, reflecting cultural ideals and societal values of different historical periods. Over time, pastoral themes have evolved, adapting to changing social and environmental contexts, making it a versatile and enduring literary genre.

Pastoral in Literature: Shakespearean

• “As You Like It”: Shakespeare incorporates pastoral elements in this comedy through the Forest of Arden, a rustic retreat where characters seek love and self-discovery away from courtly complexities.
  • Rosalind’s Disguise: The character of Rosalind adopts a pastoral disguise, contributing to the pastoral theme and adding complexity to the narrative.
• “The Winter’s Tale”: In the second half of this play, pastoral motifs emerge as the story shifts to Bohemia, featuring shepherds and a pastoral setting.
  • Reconciliation and Rejuvenation: The pastoral elements in this section symbolize themes of reconciliation, rejuvenation, and the passage of time.
  • Contrasts: The play explores the dichotomy between rural simplicity and the intricate dynamics of courtly life through its use of pastoral elements.

These examples highlight Shakespeare’s adeptness at weaving pastoral themes into his works, employing them not just for their idyllic qualities but also as a narrative device to explore profound themes and contrasts.

Pastoral in Literature: Examples

Title	Author	Key Pastoral Elements and Details
“As You Like It”	William Shakespeare	Forest of Arden, a pastoral retreat where characters seek love and self-discovery. Rosalind adopts a pastoral disguise.
“The Winter’s Tale”	William Shakespeare	Bohemian pastoral setting in the second half of the play, featuring shepherds. Themes of reconciliation, rejuvenation, and the passage of time.
“The Shepheardes Calender”	Edmund Spenser	Idyllic portrayal of rural life in twelve eclogues (poems), featuring shepherds. Contains allegorical elements and reflections on political and social issues.
“Lycidas”	John Milton	A pastoral elegy set in a rural landscape, where shepherds mourn the death of a friend. Addresses themes of loss, death, and the transient nature of life.
“The Bucolics” (Eclogues)	Virgil	Classical pastoral poetry consisting of ten eclogues, featuring dialogues among shepherds. Addresses themes of love, politics, and the Golden Age.
“Arcadia”	Sir Philip Sidney	Prose pastoral romance set in the fictional land of Arcadia. Explores themes of love and honor in an idyllic, pastoral setting.
“Walden”	Henry David Thoreau	Reflective account of Thoreau’s experiment in simple living at Walden Pond. Philosophical reflections on nature, society, and individualism.
“The Wind in the Willows”	Kenneth Grahame	Anthropomorphic animals in a pastoral riverbank setting. Chronicles the adventures of Mole, Rat, Toad, and Badger. Themes include friendship, home, and the changing seasons.
“The Secret Garden”	Frances Hodgson Burnett	Revival of a neglected garden as a symbol of renewal and healing. Set in a Yorkshire manor, the story follows Mary Lennox and her discovery of the secret garden.
“Brother Sun, Sister Moon”	Katherine Paterson	Modern pastoral novel exploring environmental conservation. Follows the journey of a young boy, Francis, and his connection with nature and animals.

Pastoral in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

• New Criticism:
  • Emphasis on close reading and formal analysis of the text.
  • Attention to language, imagery, and symbolism in pastoral elements.
  • Exploration of how pastoral settings and themes contribute to the overall meaning and structure of a literary work.
• Ecocriticism:
  • Focus on the relationship between literature and the environment.
  • Examination of how pastoral literature reflects or challenges cultural attitudes toward nature.
  • Consideration of the ecological implications of pastoral ideals and portrayals of the natural world.
• Postcolonial Theory:
  • Analysis of pastoral literature in relation to colonial landscapes and the impact on indigenous cultures.
  • Exploration of power dynamics and representations of land ownership in pastoral settings.
  • Consideration of how pastoral elements may reinforce or subvert colonial ideologies.
• Feminist Criticism:
  • Examination of gender roles within pastoral settings and their impact on characters.
  • Analysis of how pastoral literature may reinforce or challenge traditional notions of femininity and masculinity.
  • Exploration of the agency and perspectives of female characters in pastoral contexts.
• Marxist Criticism:
  • Investigation of class dynamics and social structures within pastoral portrayals.
  • Analysis of the economic implications of rural life and labor in pastoral settings.
  • Consideration of how pastoral literature reflects or critiques prevailing socioeconomic conditions.
• Psychoanalytic Criticism:
  • Exploration of the psychological dimensions of pastoral characters and landscapes.
  • Analysis of pastoral elements as symbolic representations of the unconscious and desires.
  • Consideration of how pastoral settings contribute to character development and psychological themes.
• Postmodernism:
  • Deconstruction of traditional pastoral ideals and conventions.
  • Examination of how pastoral elements may be used ironically or parodically in postmodern literature.
  • Exploration of the fragmented and decentered nature of pastoral representations in a postmodern context.

Pastoral in Literature: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Idyllic	Picturesque and idealized representation of rural life.
Bucolic	Pastoral poetry or literature depicting peaceful rural life.
Golden Age	Imaginary period of peace and prosperity in pastoral settings.
Eclogue	Short pastoral poem or dialogue featuring shepherds.
Arcadia	Utopian, pastoral region symbolizing an idyllic place.
Ecocriticism	Literary theory examining the relationship between literature and the environment, including pastoral themes.
Sublime	Concept emphasizing awe-inspiring, transcendent aspects of nature, explored in pastoral literature.
Pastoral Elegy	Poetic form lamenting death, often set in a pastoral landscape.
Locus Amoenus	Latin for “pleasant place,” an idealized, beautiful setting common in pastoral literature.
Rustic	Pertaining to rural or countryside life, associated with simplicity and charm in pastoral settings.

Pastoral in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and Experience. Dover Publications, 1992.
2. Hardy, Thomas. Far from the Madding Crowd. Penguin Classics, 2003.
3. Milton, John. Lycidas. Oxford University Press, 2010.
4. Pope, Alexander. Pastorals. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2017.
5. Shelley, Percy Bysshe. Prometheus Unbound. Oxford University Press, 2008.
6. Spenser, Edmund. The Shepherd’s Calendar. Oxford University Press, 2015.
7. Wordsworth, William. Lyrical Ballads. Oxford University Press, 2008.

Pastoral: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Etymology

The term “pastoral” has its roots in the Latin word “pastor,” which means “shepherd.” The word entered English through Old French as “pastorel” in the 15th century, and later evolved into “pastoral” in the 16th century. The original association with shepherds reflects the pastoral genre’s historical connection to rural life, often idealized as peaceful, simple, and harmonious.

Over time, the term expanded beyond its literal agricultural sense to encompass a broader cultural and artistic context, referring to works that depict idyllic rural life or themes associated with the countryside.

Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Literal Meaning	Conceptual Meaning
Literal: Pertaining to rural life, typically involving shepherds or rural settings. Examples include such poetry that romanticizes the countryside and portrays the simplicity of rural existence.	Conceptual: Refers to a genre or style that idealizes and depicts a peaceful, harmonious, and often nostalgic view of rural life. This can extend beyond literature to other art forms, such as painting, music, and film, where such elements evoke a sense of tranquility and connection to nature.

The literal meaning emphasizes the direct association with rural or agricultural themes, while the conceptual meaning broadens the scope to include any artistic representation that conveys a romanticized vision of a serene and pastoral existence.

Pastoral: Definition as a Literary Device

Pastoral, as a literary device, refers to a genre or mode of expression that idealizes rural life and nature, often portraying an idyllic and harmonious vision of the countryside. It is characterized by themes of simplicity, innocence, and the close connection between humans and the natural world. Such settings and elements are frequently employed in literature to evoke a sense of tranquility and escape from the complexities of urban or modern life.

Pastoral: Types

Pastoral Type	Description and Examples
1. Poetry	Poetic form idealizing rural life, often featuring shepherds and natural landscapes.
2. Drama	Theatrical works centered around rural or bucolic themes, exploring the simplicity of country life.
3. Prose	Prose works depicting scenes or characters, often with a focus on the beauty of nature.
4. Eclogue	A subgenre of poetry featuring dialogues between shepherds, often discussing love, politics, or philosophy.
5. Novel	Full-length fictional works portraying an idealized rural setting and exploring themes related to nature and simplicity.

Pastoral: Examples in Everyday Life

1. Art and Literature:
   • Paintings: Artworks depicting idyllic rural scenes with lush landscapes, peaceful countryside, and shepherds or farmers. Famous paintings like “The Gleaners” by Jean-François Millet or “Haystacks” by Claude Monet can be considered pastoral.
   • Literature: Classic literature includes works like “The Shepherd’s Calendar” by Edmund Spenser or “Lycidas” by John Milton, which romanticize rural life.
2. Music:
   • Classical Music: Composers such as Ludwig van Beethoven and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart have composed pastoral symphonies that evoke the beauty and tranquility of nature.
   • Folk Music: Traditional folk music often reflects idyllic themes, celebrating the simplicity of rural life and nature.
3. Film and Television:
   • Movies: Films set in rural landscapes, with themes of farming, small communities, or nature, can be considered pastoral. For example, “A River Runs Through It” or “The Secret Garden.”
   • TV Shows: Series like “Little House on the Prairie” or “The Waltons” portray a simpler, more pastoral way of life.
4. Fashion and Lifestyle:
   • Fashion: Clothing with pastoral elements might include floral patterns, earthy tones, or designs inspired by nature.
   • Lifestyle: The popularity of farmhouse-style homes and rustic decor reflects a desire for a pastoral aesthetic in living spaces.
5. Social Media and Photography:
   • Instagram: Influencers and users often share images of picturesque landscapes, farms, and rural getaways, capturing the essence of a lifestyle.
   • Photography: Photographs featuring natural settings, country life, or peaceful rural scenes can be seen as pastoral.
6. Technology:
   • Digital Art and Virtual Reality: Artists and developers may create virtual pastoral landscapes or experiences, allowing users to immerse themselves in idyllic rural settings.
7. Gardening and Agriculture:
   • Home Gardens: People cultivating gardens with flowers, herbs, and vegetables may create their own small-scale idyllic environments.
   • Farming: Agricultural practices that emphasize sustainability, harmony with nature, and traditional farming methods align with pastoral ideals.
8. Culinary Arts:
   • Farm-to-Table Movement: Restaurants and chefs embracing locally sourced, seasonal ingredients contribute to a pastoral culinary experience.
   • Country-style Cooking: Dishes that use simple, fresh, and wholesome ingredients evoke a pastoral sensibility.

Pastoral in Literature: Suggested Readings

1. Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and Experience. Dover Publications, 1992.
2. Hardy, Thomas. Far from the Madding Crowd. Penguin Classics, 2003.
3. Milton, John. Lycidas. Oxford University Press, 2010.
4. Pope, Alexander. Pastorals. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2017.
5. Shelley, Percy Bysshe. Prometheus Unbound. Oxford University Press, 2008.
6. Spenser, Edmund. The Shepherd’s Calendar. Oxford University Press, 2015.
7. Wordsworth, William. Lyrical Ballads. Oxford University Press, 2008.