January 17, 2024 - English Studies

Confirmation Bias in Literature & Literary Theory

Confirmation bias is a cognitive phenomenon where individuals tend to favor information that reinforces their existing beliefs while avoiding or downplaying contradictory evidence.

Confirmation Bias: Etymology, Meanings, and Concept

Etymology/Term:

Confirmation bias, a term prevalent in psychology and cognitive science, describes the tendency of individuals to favor information that confirms their pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses. The term originated from the concept of selectively reinforcing one’s existing views, thereby “confirming” what one already believes.

Meanings and Concept:

Selective Perception: Individuals actively seek, interpret, and remember information that aligns with their existing beliefs, while disregarding or downplaying conflicting evidence.
Cognitive Shortcut: It serves as a mental shortcut or heuristic, allowing people to process information efficiently by relying on their pre-existing beliefs rather than critically evaluating each piece of evidence.

Influence on Decision-Making: It plays a significant role in decision-making, potentially leading to flawed judgments, reinforcing stereotypes, and hindering the acceptance of new information that challenges established beliefs.
Psychological Comfort: It offers a sense of psychological comfort by validating existing opinions, contributing to the maintenance of a person’s cognitive and emotional equilibrium.
Impact on Objectivity: The bias can distort objectivity, impeding the ability to assess situations impartially and fostering a closed-minded approach to information.

Understanding it is crucial in various fields, from psychology and sociology to decision science, as it sheds light on the ways individuals process information, make decisions, and navigate their cognitive landscapes.

Confirmation Bias: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Confirmation bias is a cognitive phenomenon where individuals tend to favor information that reinforces their existing beliefs while avoiding or downplaying contradictory evidence. This bias can lead to selective perception, where people actively seek and interpret information in a way that aligns with their preconceived notions. It has significant implications for decision-making, potentially distorting objectivity and hindering the acceptance of diverse perspectives or conflicting data.

Confirmation Bias: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorists:

Leon Festinger: In his theory of cognitive dissonance, Festinger highlighted bias as a mechanism to reduce discomfort by seeking information that aligns with existing beliefs.

Peter Wason: Known for his work on the psychology of reasoning, Wason’s research on bias explored how individuals tend to selectively process information to confirm their hypotheses.
Raymond Nickerson: Contributed extensively to the study of cognitive biases, including bias, emphasizing its role in shaping decision-making and information processing.

Key Works:

A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance by Leon Festinger (1957): Festinger’s seminal work introduces bias as a component of cognitive dissonance theory, illustrating how individuals strive to maintain consistency in their beliefs.

Reasoning and the Explanation of Actions by Peter Wason (1968): Wason’s research in this work explores bias within the context of reasoning, shedding light on the mechanisms behind biased information processing.
Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises by Raymond Nickerson (1998): Nickerson’s comprehensive review delves into various manifestations of bias across different domains, emphasizing its pervasive nature.

Argument:

Confirmation bias, as explored by these theorists, is rooted in the human tendency to seek information that aligns with pre-existing beliefs while avoiding contradictory evidence. Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory suggests that individuals are motivated to maintain internal consistency, leading to biased information processing. Wason and Nickerson contribute insights into the cognitive mechanisms and contexts that drive confirmation bias, highlighting its ubiquitous presence in decision-making and reasoning processes.

Major Characteristics of Confirmation Bias:

Selective Perception: Individuals tend to actively seek, perceive, and remember information that confirms their existing beliefs while ignoring or downplaying contradictory evidence.
Cognitive Shortcut: It serves as a mental shortcut, allowing individuals to process information efficiently by relying on their pre-existing beliefs rather than critically evaluating each piece of evidence.
Influence on Decision-Making: It significantly affects decision-making processes, leading to biased judgments, reinforcing stereotypes, and hindering the acceptance of new information that challenges established beliefs.

Psychological Comfort: It provides a sense of psychological comfort by validating existing opinions, contributing to the maintenance of a person’s cognitive and emotional equilibrium.
Impact on Objectivity: The bias can distort objectivity, impeding the ability to assess situations impartially and fostering a closed-minded approach to information.

Literary Examples:

“To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee: It is evident in the racial prejudices of the characters, such as the biased perceptions of Tom Robinson’s guilt due to ingrained societal beliefs.

“1984” by George Orwell: It is reflected in the citizens’ acceptance of the Party’s propaganda, as they selectively perceive information that aligns with the regime’s narrative while disregarding dissenting views.
“The Crucible” by Arthur Miller: It is portrayed in the Salem witch trials, where characters selectively interpret events to confirm their preconceived notions about witchcraft and religious purity.
“Fahrenheit 451” by Ray Bradbury: The novel explores confirmation bias through the suppression of dissenting ideas, as individuals willingly conform to a society that reinforces their existing beliefs and rejects opposing viewpoints.

“The Lord of the Flies” by William Golding: It is evident in the group dynamics, where characters succumb to preconceived notions about each other, leading to conflict and violence based on biased perceptions.

Confirmation Bias: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance to Confirmation Bias
Psychoanalytic Theory:	Examines how confirmation bias can be rooted in the unconscious mind, influencing characters’ perceptions and actions based on repressed desires, fears, or unresolved conflicts.
Marxist Criticism:	Analyzes how confirmation bias can perpetuate social hierarchies and reinforce class distinctions, influencing characters’ perceptions of power dynamics and justifying existing societal structures.
Feminist Criticism:	Explores how confirmation bias may contribute to the perpetuation of gender stereotypes and the marginalization of certain voices, impacting characters’ attitudes towards gender roles and relationships.
Postcolonialism:	Investigates how confirmation bias can shape characters’ perceptions of the “other,” reinforcing colonial ideologies and influencing narratives that perpetuate stereotypes about colonized or marginalized groups.
Reader-Response Theory:	Examines how readers’ confirmation biases may influence their interpretations of a text, affecting their understanding of characters, themes, and the overall meaning of the narrative.

Confirmation bias is relevant across various literary theories, impacting characters’ perspectives, narrative dynamics, and reader interpretations. Each theory provides a unique lens through which to analyze how confirmation bias operates within literary works and their broader cultural contexts.

Confirmation Bias: Application in Critiques

To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee:
- Analysis: In the novel, the confirmation bias is evident in the prejudiced attitudes of characters, particularly during Tom Robinson’s trial. Characters selectively perceive evidence that aligns with their racial biases, confirming their existing beliefs about the racial hierarchy in the society depicted.
1984 by George Orwell:
- Analysis: Orwell’s novel explores confirmation bias through the citizens’ acceptance of the Party’s propaganda. The characters selectively perceive information that aligns with the regime’s narrative, confirming their loyalty to the Party and disregarding dissenting views as misinformation.

The Crucible by Arthur Miller:
- Analysis: Miller’s play delves into confirmation bias during the Salem witch trials, where characters selectively interpret events to confirm their preconceived notions about witchcraft. The confirmation bias leads to a collective hysteria based on biased perceptions and societal pressures.
Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury:
- Analysis: Bradbury’s novel explores confirmation bias in a dystopian society where individuals willingly conform to a regime that reinforces their existing beliefs. The characters selectively perceive information that aligns with the government’s narrative, confirming their conformity to a censored and controlled worldview.

In each of these literary works, bias becomes a thematic element, shaping characters’ perceptions, influencing societal dynamics, and contributing to the conflicts depicted in the narratives. The critique of these works can involve an analysis of how confirmation bias operates within the context of the story, affecting character development and overarching themes.

Confirmation Bias: Relevant Terms

Theoretical Term	Brief Literary Critique Relevance
1. Cognitive Dissonance:	Explores characters’ internal conflicts.
2. Herd Mentality:	Influences societal pressures and character dynamics.
3. Selective Exposure:	Shapes characters’ perspectives and plot developments.
4. In-Group Bias:	Affects character alliances and conflicts.
5. Illusory Correlation:	Impacts character judgments based on false connections.
6. Groupthink:	Drives collective decision-making and plot developments.
7. Stereotyping:	Influences character interactions and societal representations.
8. Authority Bias:	Shapes characters’ obedience and narrative power dynamics.
9. False Consensus Effect:	Influences character perceptions in social dynamics.
10. Belief Perseverance:	Contributes to characters clinging to initial beliefs.

Confirmation Bias: Suggested Readings

Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford UP, 1957.

Gilovich, Thomas, Dale Griffin, and Daniel Kahneman, editors. Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. Cambridge UP, 2002.
Nickerson, Raymond S. Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises. Review of General Psychology, vol. 2, no. 2, 1998, pp. 175–220.
Sunstein, Cass R., and Reid Hastie. Wiser: Getting Beyond Groupthink to Make Groups Smarter. Harvard UP, 2015.

Tavris, Carol, and Elliot Aronson. Mistakes Were Made (But Not by Me): Why We Justify Foolish Beliefs, Bad Decisions, and Hurtful Acts. Mariner Books, 2008.
Thaler, Richard H., and Cass R. Sunstein. Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness. Penguin Books, 2009.
West, Richard F., and T. D. Brown. Theory of Addiction. Wiley, 2013.

Anti-intentionalism in Literature & Literary Theory

Anti-intentionalism is a theoretical term that challenges the notion that the author’s intentions are essential for understanding the meaning of a work of art or literature.

Introduction: Anti-intentionalism

Anti-intentionalism is a philosophical position that challenges the idea that the meaning or interpretation of a work of art or literature is dependent on the author’s intentions. Instead, anti-intentionalists argue that the meaning of a work of art or literature is independent of the author’s intentions and can be derived solely from the work itself and the way it is received by its audience.

This position emerged in the mid-twentieth century as a response to the dominant view that the author’s intentions were crucial for determining the meaning of a work. Anti-intentionalism has been influential in literary theory, art criticism, and aesthetics, and has led to debates about the nature of interpretation, the role of the author, and the relationship between art and society.

Etymology and Meanings of Anti-intentionalism

The term “anti-intentionalism” derives from the prefix “anti-“ which connotes opposition or contradiction, and the word “intentionalism,” which denotes the belief that the author’s intentions constitute a crucial element for the comprehension of a work of art or literature.

The roots of anti-intentionalism is traced back to the works of literary theorists such as W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley, who, in their seminal essay “The Intentional Fallacy,” posited the argument that the author’s intentions should not be regarded when interpreting a literary text.

This perspective challenged the prevailing New Criticism approach that privileged authorial intention. Since then, anti-intentionalism has emerged as a significant school of thought in literary theory, influencing the manner in which scholars approach the study of literature and other forms of art.

Meanings of Anti-intentionalism

Aspect	Meanings
Rejection of Authorial Intent	Authorial intentions are not the primary source of a text’s meaning; they may be inaccessible or irrelevant.
Focus on Reader Response	Meaning is constructed through diverse reader perspectives and interactions with the text, not authorial intent.
Text-Centered Analysis	Meaning is derived from the text itself, focusing on its features, language, and structure, rather than authorial biography.
Openness to Multiple Interpretations	Recognizes the existence of multiple valid interpretations due to diverse reader backgrounds and contexts.
Historical and Cultural Context	Considers the text’s historical and cultural context but doesn’t limit meaning to the author’s specific context or intent.
Challenges Authorial Authority	Questions the author’s ultimate authority over a work’s meaning, promoting a more inclusive approach to interpretation.

Definition of Anti-intentionalism as a Theoretical Term

Anti-intentionalism is a theoretical term that challenges the notion that the author’s intentions are essential for understanding the meaning of a work of art or literature. According to this perspective, the meaning of a work is determined by its inherent qualities and how it is perceived by the audience, rather than the author’s intentions. Anti-intentionalism has played a significant role in literary theory, art criticism, and aesthetics, leading to debates about the nature of interpretation and the relationship between art and society.

Anti-Intentionalism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Roland Barthes:
- Notable Work: “Death of the Author”
- Argument: Barthes argues that the author’s intentions are irrelevant and that the focus should shift to the reader’s interpretation. He advocates for the idea that texts are created by readers as they engage with the text, rather than being dictated by the author’s intent.

Wolfgang Iser:
- Notable Work: “The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response”
- Argument: Iser emphasizes the role of the reader in shaping a text’s meaning. He suggests that the text’s gaps and ambiguities invite readers to actively participate in constructing meaning.

Hans Robert Jauss:
- Notable Work: “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory”
- Argument: Jauss proposes that the meaning of a text evolves over time as it encounters new readers and cultural contexts. He underscores the dynamic nature of interpretation and the influence of historical and cultural factors.

Notable Works:

“Death of the Author” by Roland Barthes:
- Argument: Barthes challenges the traditional authority of the author in determining a text’s meaning and argues that the text should be detached from the author’s intentions. He promotes the idea that readers should play a central role in interpretation.
“The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response” by Wolfgang Iser:
- Argument: Iser explores the concept of the implied reader, suggesting that the text invites readers to fill in gaps and actively participate in shaping the meaning. He contends that meaning is co-created by the text and the reader.
“Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory” by Hans Robert Jauss:
- Argument: Jauss presents the idea that meaning is not fixed but evolves over time as texts encounter different historical and cultural contexts. He highlights the significance of the reader’s historical perspective in interpretation.

Common Arguments:

Anti-intentionalism asserts that the author’s intentions are often inaccessible or irrelevant, and the focus should shift to the reader’s response and interpretation.
It promotes the idea that meaning is not fixed but subject to change based on historical, cultural, and individual factors.
Anti-intentionalism challenges the traditional notion of the author as the sole authority on a work’s meaning, advocating for a more democratic and inclusive approach to interpretation.

Anti-intentionalism in Literary Theories

Anti-intentionalism has been influential in various literary theories, leading to new approaches to the study of literature. Here are some examples of how anti-intentionalism has been used in different literary theories:

New Criticism: Anti-intentionalism emerged as a challenge to the New Criticism movement, which emphasized close reading and the importance of authorial intention. Scholars such as W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley argued that the author’s intentions should not be considered when interpreting a literary text, and that the meaning of a work should be derived solely from the text itself.
Reader-response theory: Anti-intentionalism has been influential in the development of reader-response theory, which emphasizes the role of the reader in interpreting a literary text. This perspective holds that the meaning of a work is not fixed or predetermined, but rather emerges from the interaction between the text and the reader.

Deconstruction: Anti-intentionalism has played a significant role in deconstruction, a literary theory that emphasizes the instability and ambiguity of meaning. Deconstructionists argue that the meaning of a work cannot be fixed by the author’s intentions, but rather is constantly shifting and open to interpretation.
Postmodernism: Anti-intentionalism has been a key element of postmodern literary theory, which emphasizes the fragmentation and multiplicity of meaning. Postmodernists argue that the meaning of a work is not determined by the author’s intentions, but rather is influenced by the social, historical, and cultural contexts in which it is produced and received.

Anti-Intentionalism and Literary Criticism

Work	Critique
Moby-Dick by Herman Melville	Critique: From an anti-intentionalist perspective, the richness of Moby-Dick‘s symbolism and metaphors takes center stage. Melville’s personal intentions might be elusive, but the novel invites readers to explore the depths of human obsession, the unknown, and the complexities of the human condition. Readers’ interpretations contribute to the meaning of the text, making it a collaborative venture between the author’s text and the reader’s response.
The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger	Critique: In The Catcher in the Rye, Salinger’s intentions and personal life have been subjects of much speculation, but anti-intentionalism allows us to focus on how readers connect with the character of Holden Caulfield. The novel’s resonance lies in readers’ individual experiences, making it a story that speaks to various generations without relying solely on authorial intent.
The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien	Critique: Anti-intentionalism helps us appreciate how Tolkien’s epic is open to diverse interpretations. The richness of Middle-earth and its characters is not confined by Tolkien’s original intentions but rather grows through readers’ engagement. The author’s biography and intent matter less than the collective contributions of readers in building the world of Tolkien.
Ulysses by James Joyce	Critique: Ulysses is a complex and multilayered work that often defies a single, fixed interpretation. Anti-intentionalism allows readers to approach the novel as a puzzle to be collectively solved. Joyce’s intricate wordplay and stream of consciousness style offer myriad entry points for readers to connect with the text, transcending the need for a definitive authorial intent.

Lulu’s Indianness in Love Medicine

Introduction: Lulu’s Indianness

Despite facing various criticisms from society, including being labeled “a flirt” with “tongues less kind” (105), Lulu Lamartine engages with males through various indigenous Indian practices, highlighting Lulu’s Indianness. She articulates her connection by stating, “I was in love with the whole world,” (272), revealing the underlying passion behind her perceived or actual promiscuity. While her actions invite gossip and commentary, Lulu’s feminine power does not reside solely in her supposed promiscuity or affectionate nature. Instead, it lies in her ability to remain unapologetic, never shedding a tear or feeling remorse for her choices (273). This resilience not only reassures herself but also those around her, including her various lovers and her eight sons who are described as “of one soul” (114) with her.

Lulu Lamartine also demonstrates wisdom in choosing between Bev and Henry when they first meet. Her central role in the lives of different characters highlights her multidimensional Indianness. Lulu not only provides essential love medicine to various Indians, showcasing her traditional Indian femininity and empowerment, but she also endeavors to mend connections, especially in her relationships with Bev and Lipsha Morrissey.

Embodiment of Love: Lulu’s Indianness

In matters of love, Lulu Lamartine appears as an embodiment of affection, seeking not only love for herself but also generously showering it on others. She boldly states in her narrative, “I was in love with the whole world” (272), expressing her love for nature and men alike. Lulu’s hunger for love traces back to her childhood when she couldn’t win Nector. This love manifests in ways that attract men, provide them comfort, foster reconnections, and offer healing.

Facing heartbreak with Nector Kashpaw, her “first love” (273), Lulu redirects her affection toward Moses Pillager. She again demonstrates her love by marrying Henry, a strategic move evident in her card game interactions with both brothers (112). Lulu’s subtle gestures, described as “subtle magnets” (113), draw Bev towards her, causing him to forget his mission and enter her bedroom—the “sacred domain of her femininity” (116). Bev remains unaware that he has deviated from his diplomatic mission, showcasing Lulu’s ability to redirect love in a uniquely Indian way, pursuing it through alternative paths.

Lulu’s pursuit of love, despite becoming the talk of the town, reflects her pragmatic approach. In choosing her husbands, she pragmatically seeks love for her survival, marrying one after the other. This decision highlights her courage in dealing with the complexities of love and relationships, showcasing a specific Indian trait of adapting and pursuing love through various avenues.

Courage of Lulu’s Indianness

In matters of courage, Lulu Lamartine exhibits an Indian courage of femininity, evident in her approach to love and her healing touch extended to others. This courage becomes apparent in her interaction with Bev, where she provides a healing touch that almost causes him to forget his mission. Bev, visiting to bring his son, is drawn into her love, automatically entering her bedroom and momentarily setting aside his initial purpose (113). This showcases Lulu’s unique Indian courage in matters of love.

The boldness of Lulu’s femininity is further emphasized when discussing her decisions about marrying the brothers. Bev is taken aback to learn that it was Lulu who decided which brother to marry, a choice considered “bold even for Lulu” (111). This boldness is observed again in her interactions with the boys, where her love is mixed with respect and obedience, as Bev notices that “the younger boys obey her perfectly” (114).

Lulu’s femininity also serves as a healing touch for Lipsha Morrissey, who is unaware of his real mother. When Lulu reveals this truth to him, Lipsha expresses newfound respect and understanding, stating, “I’ll respect her from now on” (299). Lulu’s courageous act not only brings clarity to Lipsha but also provides him with a healing touch, addressing his long-standing ignorance about his true parentage. This bold move reflects Lulu’s courage and unique Indian femininity, leading Lipsha to believe in her “near-divine healing touch” (299), emphasizing the transformative impact of her actions on those she encounters.

Relationships of Lulu’s Indianness

In her relationships with both Bev and Lipsha, Lulu Lamartine serves as a crucial link, facilitating their reconnection with their families and Indian roots. These connections act as healing touches, rekindling family bonds and providing a sense of belonging.

With Bev, Lulu’s presence becomes a source of reconnection, evident when Ben senses a “sweet apprehension of their kinship” upon entering her embrace (114). Despite Bev initially having plans to take his son elsewhere, Lulu’s influence shifts his priorities, leading to a reconnection with his family and nephews. The unity among Lulu and her sons becomes apparent as Bev observes them working together, bound in total loyalty, resembling their youthful period (114). This tradition of reconnection, deeply embedded in Indian femininity, resonates with Bev, who appreciates the strength that binds them together.

Lipsha Morrissey, upon learning about his true parents from Lulu, begins to believe in her near-divine healing touch. He expresses admiration for her perceived power, akin to another lady, Germain, stating, “If she had some kind of power, I wasn’t one to doubt” (299). Lulu’s revelation becomes a powerful force in Lipsha’s life, fostering a reconnection with his family and heritage.

Bev recognizes the strong familial bonds formed by Lulu, acknowledging the interconnectedness of siblings in the same way. Though he doesn’t explicitly mention the femininity that holds them together, it’s implied and appreciated. Both Bev and Lipsha, in their own ways, come to appreciate and understand the deep sense of reconnection that Lulu’s Indian femininity brings to their lives and families.

Conclusion: Lulu’s Indianness

In short, Lulu Nanapush embodies pure Indian character, showcasing her Indianness through expressions of love, attraction, assertion of femininity, and the profound act of reconnecting Indians to their roots. Her love extends to both men and women, evident in her devotion to Nector and later Moses when Nector departs. Despite facing societal criticism, she provides loving comfort to each of her husbands, fostering a sense of unity and familial love among her siblings.

Lulu’s feminine power, often misconstrued as flirtation, serves as a magnetic force, attracting men and patriarchal figures toward her. This power unites Indian males, offering a deeper understanding of family and roots. Lulu’s actions, particularly in dealing with Bev and Lipsha, demonstrate her ability to reconnect individuals with their families, a profound act of restoring lost connections and Indianness. This act proves to be a healing touch for those she reconnects, as seen in Bev’s nostalgic feelings and Lipsha’s gratitude. Lulu Nanapush emerges as a central figure around whom the entire Indian culture revolves, providing it with the necessary subtlety, resilience, and survival power to navigate the challenges posed by the deracination of modern US culture. In her love, strength, and ability to reconnect, Lulu becomes a powerful force in preserving and revitalizing the essence of Indian heritage.

Works Cited: Lulu’s Indianness

Erdrich, Louise. “Love Medicine. 1984.” New and Expanded Version. New York: Holt, 1993.

Relevant Questions about Lulu’s Indianness

How does Lulu Nanapush’s expression of love and her relationships with various men in “Love Medicine” reflect and contribute to her distinct Indianness?
In what ways does Lulu Nanapush’s assertion of femininity, often misunderstood as flirtation, play a crucial role in shaping her relationships and connecting her with other characters in the novel?
How does Lulu Nanapush serve as a symbolic figure in “Love Medicine,” playing a central role in reconnecting characters like Bev and Lipsha to their families and cultural roots, and what does this reveal about her embodiment of Indianness?

The Woman Warrior by Brave Orchid: Real Heroine

Although the book The Woman Warrior seems to be written as an autobiography by Maxine Hong Kingston, it begins with a quote from her mother, Brave Orchid, advising her, “You must not tell anyone,” my mother said, “what I am about to tell you” (Kingston 1).

**Introduction: The Woman Warrior by Brave Orchid**

Although the book The Woman Warrior seems to be written as an autobiography by Maxine Hong Kingston, it begins with a quote from her mother, Brave Orchid, advising her, “You must not tell anyone,” my mother said, “what I am about to tell you” (Kingston 1). The book then concludes with a song from a talk story that her mother tells her. This clearly indicates that the dominating figure in this autobiography is not Maxine Hong Kingston, but her mother. Brave Orchid not only acquires various skills but also endeavors to impart them to her siblings, including the eldest Kingston, so that they can survive in the alien land.

It is true that the cultural shock initially terrifies Maxine, but her resilient nature soon leads her to adapt to the circumstances, just as she did in China when she turned to nursing. Maxine learns laundry and navigates tough circumstances in Stockton, where the very survival of the family is at stake. In the book, Brave Orchid emerges as a caring mother, culturally trained, skilled in survival, hardworking, and a preserver of traditions. She is portrayed as a brave lady who not only dominates as a maternal figure but also plays a crucial role in shaping the family’s fate.

Siblings and The Woman Warrior

Brave Orchid is perhaps aware that her daughters, in particular, need more care. This awareness stems from her experiences in China, where girls were not afforded much significance, as evident from the tragic fate of her father’s sister who took her own life due to an illegitimate child (1). Having faced trials and tribulations herself, Brave Orchid understands that her daughters could face challenges in a new cultural setting.

To ensure the success and well-being of her daughters, she shares different stories with them, including those illustrating the struggles of repressed females, such as her husband’s sister. Brave Orchid is especially attentive to her youngest daughter, who, at only fourteen years old, requires extra care and guidance (32). Her nurturing extends beyond her biological children, as seen in her advice to Moon Orchid about her husband. She encourages Moon Orchid to make her husband feel remorseful for leaving his parents, emphasizing the importance of family unity (71). Brave Orchid further supports Moon Orchid by accompanying her to confront her husband and assert her rights, demonstrating her commitment to the well-being of those around her. In addition to her practical care, Brave Orchid’s storytelling serves as a manifestation of her nurturing nature. Through these stories, she imparts valuable lessons and cultural wisdom to her daughters, contributing to their understanding of life and relationships.

China and The Woman Warrior

Brave Orchid displays remarkable adaptability and resourcefulness. In China, sensing that she cannot succeed in her current circumstances, she promptly secures admission to become a doctor, demonstrating her determination to survive. Her success in this new role reflects her resilience and ability to thrive, even treating her servant with kindness.

Upon reaching the United States with her husband, Brave Orchid recognizes that her medical expertise is not as applicable in the new environment. Undeterred, she takes on various roles, initially working as a tomato picker and later establishing a laundry business. Understanding the need to contribute to the family’s financial stability and support her husband, she embraces different forms of labor. Kingston’s admiration for Brave Orchid as a commendable woman, akin to a scholar, stems from her multifaceted skills and her willingness to do whatever is necessary.

Brave Orchid’s transition to unfamiliar tasks, such as running a laundry, underscores her commitment to providing for her family. It is evident that she undertakes these challenges, even if untrained for them, recognizing the importance of her efforts to complement her husband’s income. The hard work she invests in settling in Stockton highlights her determination to secure a better future for her family, acknowledging that her husband’s sole income would not suffice.

Traditions and The Woman Warrior

Brave Orchid’s role as a preserver of traditions is evident in her storytelling, especially to Kingston, who narrates many of these stories in the book. Through tales of her husband’s sister, her own sister, and mythical figures like Fa Mulan, she passionately imparts the richness of their culture. Recognizing the physical distance from their homeland, she diligently shares these stories daily, emphasizing the importance of maintaining their cultural identity.

Brave Orchid’s commitment to preserving Chinese heritage is further underscored by her actions, such as cutting Kingston’s tongue in childhood to ensure fluency in the language. Nostalgically yearning for the slower pace of time in China, she expresses her deep love for her motherland, stating, “I would still be young if we lived in China” (92). Her concerns extend beyond personal anecdotes to include updates on the political climate in China, such as the Communist onslaughts and the general situation of the people.

Brave Orchid emerges as a brave and intelligent woman in the narrative. She demonstrates courage by taking charge of family matters, confronting her sister’s husband directly, and advising Moon Orchid to leave her husband to avoid trouble. Her use of myths serves as a powerful tool to convey messages and make others understand her perspective. Encouraging her sister to “come out of the dawn” (101) symbolizes her call for liberation, urging Moon Orchid to free herself and her husband, whom she metaphorically refers to as an emperor. In the challenging setting of California, where survival was considered a miracle, Brave Orchid’s resourcefulness and determination shine through in successfully establishing and sustaining her family.

Conclusion: The Woman Warrior

In summary, “The Warrior Woman” appears to focus more on Brave Orchid, Maxine Hong Kingston’s mother, than on Kingston herself. The narrative highlights Brave Orchid’s lifelong dedication and struggles, emphasizing her resilience, bravery, and intelligence. It is not just the story of Kingston growing up in the United States and benefiting from her mother’s efforts; rather, it is a tribute to Brave Orchid’s fierce determination to raise her family, showcasing her ability to adapt and survive in a foreign land while steadfastly preserving her cultural traditions and skills. Kingston pays homage to her mother’s strength and tenacity throughout the book.

Works Cited: The Woman Warrior

Kingston, Maxine Hong. The Woman Warrior. Vintage International. 2010. Print.

Relevant Questions about The Woman Warrior

How does Maxine Hong Kingston’s portrayal of her mother, Brave Orchid, contribute to the overall theme of cultural preservation and adaptation in “The Woman Warrior”?
In “The Woman Warrior,” how does Maxine Hong Kingston use storytelling, particularly myths and family anecdotes, to convey the complexities of her Chinese-American identity and the challenges faced by her mother?

The title “The Woman Warrior” suggests a strong and empowered female figure. How does Maxine Hong Kingston explore the concept of femininity and strength through the characters, especially her mother, in the various stories presented in the book?

Differences Among Languages

The unique feature of human life that beings have ever invented is language, and it is not just one but many, showcasing the rich tapestry of Differences Among Languages.

Introduction

The unique feature of human life that beings have ever invented is language, and it is not just one but many, showcasing the rich tapestry of Differences Among Languages. There are more than 6,500 languages spoken in the world, divided into 136 major families. Despite the existence of numerous language families, no two languages are the same; they differ in various ways. In addition to naturally evolved language families, some artificial languages have been developed for convenience, such as sign languages. Differences encompass a range of aspects, from sounds and sound systems to the number of alphabets, derivation of meanings from script to families, and from the style of writing to the style of reading. Most languages differ in three major areas, including phonetics, script, and grammar, besides the total number of their alphabets.

Phonetics

Languages exhibit variation in their phonetics, encompassing not only the sounds themselves but also their production, combination, description, and the written symbols that represent them. The range of sounds in languages can vary significantly, with some having only a few sounds, while others boast a comprehensive system.

For instance, consider Pashto, spoken in Afghanistan, some areas of Pakistan, and parts of Uzbekistan. Pashto comprises 44 letters borrowed not only from Arabic but also from Persian and Urdu. Despite sharing a linguistic family with Arabic, Pashto’s total sounds, approximately 65, differ considerably from both Urdu and English. Pashto also diverges from Urdu in some sounds absent in Urdu and features some sounds not utilized in Arabic, despite the shared linguistic lineage. While Pashto and English share similarities in vowel sounds, Pashto lacks diphthongs and triphthongs, using single-letter symbols to represent these sounds. Furthermore, Pashto’s combination of sounds distinguishes it from its parent language, Arabic, and its relatives, Urdu and Persian. This example illustrates the diverse phonetic systems found in all languages.

Script and Differences Among Languages

Every language possesses a distinct writing system that sets it apart from others, even those within the same linguistic family. Take Pashto, for instance; it differs significantly in its writing system. Pashto is written in the Arabic script, while its sister languages, Persian and Urdu, utilize the Nastaleeq script, which is a refined version of the Arabic script written in slanting letters. In contrast, English, from a different language family, employs the Roman script, written from left to right. Notably, Pashto, written in the Arabic script, starts from right to left, showcasing a fundamental difference in direction. Additionally, there are variations within the Arabic script itself, with different symbols denoting distinct sounds. This underscores the diversity in scripts among languages.

Grammar and Differences Among Languages

Grammar is a pivotal aspect, and languages vary significantly in this area. In Pashto, detailed rules for nouns and their types are not as extensive as in Persian, which boasts a vast array of nouns, or in Arabic, recognized for having one of the most intricate grammars among all languages. Arabic, for instance, employs distinct words to denote dual and plurals, a feature not mirrored in Pashto, which employs different singulars and plurals.

Arabic grammar stands out for its intricate nature, with over 75 words or symbols representing “camel” and a similar number for “dates.” This language exhibits semantic differences in linguistic features. Urdu, another language with detailed grammar, presents six different ways to denote the past tense. In a comparison of Chinese to English, Chinese grammar reveals simpler rules, often utilizing the same words for plurals and singulars, and featuring a higher occurrence of gerunds than in many other languages.

In essence, no two languages share identical grammar rules, except for Urdu and Punjabi. Although Punjabi predates Urdu and can be written in two scripts—Shahmukhi and Gurmukhi—its grammar remains the same as Urdu’s.

Conclusion: Differences Among Languages

In short, much like the uniqueness of individual human beings, they developed in different regions of the world exhibit variations influenced by factors such as culture, regional distinctions, cuisine, attire, and even local flora and fauna. Like living organisms, they undergo variations from one region to another. These linguistic differences manifest in alphabets, phonetic systems, written scripts, and language rules. While some modern linguists argue for uniformity in grammar rules, attributing it to an inherent human capability, distinctions in grammar rules persist across languages, albeit in rare cases.

Works Cited

Garshol, Lars Marius. “Scripts and Languages.” Ontopia, n.d. Web. 07 December 2013. http://www.ontopia.net/i18n/index.jsp.

Nordquist, Richard. “Ten Types of Grammar.” About.com, n.d. Web. 07 December 2013. http://grammar.about.com/od/basicsentencegrammar/a/tengrammartypes.htm.
R.L.G. “True Untranslatability.” The Economist, 01 December 2011. Web. 07 December 2013. http://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2011/12/differences-among-languages.
Shoebottom, Paul. “Language Families.” FIS ESL, 2013. Web. 07 December 2013. http://esl.fis.edu/grammar/langdiff/family.htm.

Relevant Questions

How does the concept of “True Untranslatability” highlight the inherent differences?
What key factors contribute to the variations in grammar, as discussed in “Ten Types of Grammar,” emphasizing the differences?
How do language families play a crucial role in understanding the diversities and commonalities that contribute to differences ?

Debunking Fast Food Nutrition Myth

Debunking the fast-food myth involves an argument that fast foods are not only consumed quickly but also provide more nutritional value.

Introduction: Debunking Fast Food

Debunking the fast-food myth involves an argument that fast foods are not only consumed quickly but also provide more nutritional value. There is no doubt about it. However, its other side shows telltale signs of an impending health crisis. David Zinczenko has eloquently exposed the adverse effects of fast food addiction. Zinczenko narrates a personal experience as a “latchkey kid” during the 80s when he swelled to “212 pounds of torpid teenage,” but fortunately, he was saved by learning diet management through his association with a health magazine (Zinczenko 195). He believes that several others are not as fortunate and have become permanent couch potatoes. This has led to an increase in type 2 Diabetes, constituting a significant portion of the total $100 billion a year health budget. According to him, this is partly due to a lack of awareness, a shortage of alternative foods, and a lack of nutritional information. He argues that labeling laws in this regard are silent, adding that this could lead to future litigation by parents against fast-food outlets. I agree with Zinczenko that there are limited alternatives to fast food compared to fast-food restaurants and insufficient information about the nutritional value of the food, leading to increased health issues.

Outlets and Debunking Fast Food

It is indeed true that there are now more fast-food outlets than grocery stores selling fruits and vegetables, reflecting a preference for fast foods over organic options. Zinczenko notes that there are limited alternatives for Americans outside of fast-food restaurants, emphasizing their popularity. He points out that during a short journey to any square, “I guarantee that you will see one of our country’s 13,000 McDonald’s,” but not necessarily any vegetable shops (196). He is correct to some extent in arguing that equal alternative food shops are scarce, but I believe people also choose not to seek out other options, as the appeal of fast foods lies in their quick consumption. In this context, he may have overlooked the aspect of a fast-paced lifestyle where people prefer to have food quickly. However, he is accurate in highlighting the limited alternatives available, especially for children.

Less Information and Debunking Fast Food

His second argument, that there is less information, is also very convincing because most fast-food outlets do not bother to list the calorie count on the labels of the food items they serve. The outlets may not find it necessary to provide this information on every food item. This lack of information, as Zinczenko states, is evident in the absence of calorie information charts on fast-food packaging, complicating matters for health-conscious individuals who seek to understand the nutritional value (196). Even if some information is available, it is often relegated to websites that not everyone consults. Zinczenko implies that this, too, is misleading, partly due to the company’s carelessness and partly due to our own negligence. Many people may overlook counting the calories of drinks in addition to the fast-food items they consume.

Facts and Debunking Fast Food

The evidence indicates a significant rise in various diseases among teenagers in recent years, and Zinczenko argues that this can be attributed to the increased consumption of fast foods. He contends that many people neglect to consider the nutritional value of fast foods, resulting in an intake of excess calories beyond what is necessary. This has led to obesity and its associated ailment, Type 2 Diabetes, which, according to him, now accounts for “at least 30 percent of all the new childhood cases” (196). As a consequence, the health budget has surged from $2.6 billion to an “unbelievable $100 billion a year,” Zinczenko notes (196). He is explicit in attributing this increase to the skyrocketing treatment costs for diabetes, a direct result of the substantial consumption of unaccounted calories.

Zinczenko draws an interesting conclusion by comparing the marketing expenditures of fast-food outlets, reaching $1 billion, to the tobacco industry’s advertising budget. He suggests that this comparison will prompt governments to recognize the correlation between the fast-food marketing drive and the subsequent increase in health costs. This conclusion, based on the estimation of the escalating healthcare budget, is indeed alarming.

Conclusion: Debunking Fast Food

In short, Zinczenko rightly emphasizes the flourishing fast-food industry, attributing it in part to indifferent parents allowing their kids to consume such foods. This has led to a surge in obesity and related diseases like diabetes, consequently driving up healthcare costs. The lack of alternatives to fast foods, coupled with inadequate and often misleading nutritional information, underscores the urgency for legislation. Zinczenko correctly asserts that the responsibility now lies with both the fast-food industry and the Food and Drug Administration to enact and enforce laws requiring accurate calorie labeling on fast food items. Such measures would not only safeguard the fast-food industry but also protect the health of the next generation and alleviate the strain on public expenditure in healthcare. This move is crucial in informing consumers about the nature and risks of the food they consume, serving as a preventive legal measure to avert future legal battles, thus benefiting both the nation and the fast-food industry.

Works Cited: Debunking Fast Food

Zinczenko, David. “Don’t Blame the Eater. “They Say, I Say: The Moves that Matter in Academic Writing by Gerald Graff & Birkenstein. W.W.Norton & Company. New York. 2010. pp. 195-197.

Relevant Questions: Debunking Fast Food

What are the main arguments presented by David Zinczenko in “Don’t Blame the Eater” regarding the responsibility of fast food establishments in contributing to health issues?

How does Zinczenko use personal anecdotes and examples to support his claims about the impact of fast food on individuals’ health in “Don’t Blame the Eater”?
In “Don’t Blame the Eater,” what solutions or alternatives does Zinczenko propose to address the issues raised concerning fast food, and how does he argue for personal and corporate accountability in making healthier food choices?

“A Red, Red, Rose” and “Song”: Comparative Analysis

“A Red, Red Rose” and “Song” by Robert Burns and Edmund Waller respectively start with the mention of rose and love.

Introduction to “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song”

“A Red, Red Rose” and “Song” by Robert Burns and Edmund Waller respectively start with the mention of rose and love. However, deeply, they not only demonstrate the life behind the words but also the rich and fertile imagination of the poets. Whereas “A Red, Red Rose” shows the poet’s deep love for his lady and the vows to love more and come back, the “Song” by Edmund Waller also shows the depth of the same love but with a vow of carpe diem or enjoy the moment. It is because everything is to wither away. The desires expressed in both poems are similar in that both the poets have expressed their love for their beloved by using the metaphor of the rose. It happens in Robert Burns that he makes the rose to be a messenger to give a message to the beloved and the same is the case of Edmund Waller. Other than this, the poems are different not only in structure but also in construction and melody, as Burns has used four-lined stanzas with an ABCB rhyme scheme, while Waller has used five-line stanzas throughout his poem with the rhyme scheme of ABABB. However, despite this, both songs, “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song”, not only herald the start of the Romantic movement in literature through their musical quality but also a personal expression of the poet and depiction of love through the symbol of the rose.

Musical Quality in “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song”

As far as musical quality is concerned, this was the hallmark of the Romantic Movement that ensued in English literature following these poets. These two poems, “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song”, show a remarkable feature of that musical quality. Commenting on the musical quality, while tracing this tradition in Major Graham’s song, in her paper, “O My Luve’s Like a Red, Red Rose”: Does Burns’ Melody Really Matter” Kirsteen McCue argues that as the stress is upon the first person “I” in the first line, it appears after regular intervals in the next four lines, too. She further adds that this is “from the physical immediacy of the color of the rose and the sound of the melody to the expanses of time and space” reflected in several images she has put there (76-77). The same musical quality is in the “Song” by Waller. He has started it with the theme of love, equating it with the rose to convey his message, “Tell her that wastes her time and me” (Waller 2), with the metrical rhythm of “thee, and be” respectively in the fourth and fifth lines. Contrary to this, the musical quality on the lines of Scottish traditions as traced by McCue in her article is more personalized and subjective as “So far art thou, my bonnie lass, / So deep in luve am I;” shows the use of not only metrical rhythm but also first person, a specific feature of the Romantic poetry (Burns 5-6).

Expression of Love in “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song”

Both poems, “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song”, are expressions of the personal love of the poets. As McCue has pointed it out in Burns’ poem that there is a good use of first person I, my, and me. It points out that personal expression has been merged into the melody of the poem. However, this personal expression is in the form of an extended simile in that the poet sees his love like that of a rose. The double metaphor of rose and melody merge with the claim of the poet of loving his beloved until “the seas gang dry” (Burns 8) adding that although this love is permanent, he would say farewell to it and come again. With Waller, it, however, is different. It is a personal expression, but he has personified the rose as a carrier to convey his message, “Tell her that’s young, / And shuns to have her graces spied” (Waller 7-8). The idea of the poet is that he should convey it to his beloved that beauty is a fleeting moment, and that it must be admired before it fades away. The personal expression is in the use of the first person and the personification of the rose. Both poets have used the same natural element but with different objectives and in a different way.

Symbolism in “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song”

Although both poets have used the rose as a symbol of love in “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song”, these symbols tell different stories where one is embedded in Scottish folklore traditions, while the other is mired in the personal romantic escapade. As far as Robert Burns is concerned, Kirsteen McCue has pointed it out that this song “A Red, Red Rose” has melodic strains of the Scottish folklore traditions. She claims that its metrical rhythm is also the same (76). However, whereas the case of “Song” by Edmund Waller is concerned, it is more related to his personal history. George Gilfillan has beautifully put that romantic escapade of Edmund Waller saying, “ Waller’s tender ditties, of the incense he offered up–not only to Dorothy, but to her sister Lady Lucy, and even to her maid Mrs. Braughton–his goddess was inexorable, and not only rejected, but spurned him from her feet” (8). This song is also one of those tender ditties that he wrote in the honor of Dorothe.

Conclusion: “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song

In short, both poets have beautifully given hints about the start of the Romantic Movement in their poems, “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song”. Whereas Robert Burns has used post-Scottish melodies to make his beloved feel his love through the comparison and contrast of it with the rose and a melody, Robert Burns has personified this rose as the carrier. Using the rose as a symbol, both poets have given expression to their personal feelings of love. They have used the rose as a vehicle to convey their emotions in verses. The features of musical quality, the use of first-person nouns, and the expression of love have made both the poems historically significant, for a cursory reading of both the poems shows that it is the beginning of the Romantic Movement.

Works Cited: “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song

Burns, Robert. “A Red, Red Rose.” n. d. Poetry Foundation. www.poetryfoundation. Accessed 17 Nov. 2020.

McCue, Kirsteen. “O My Luve’s Like a Red, Red Rose”: Does Burns’s Melody Really Matter”. Studies in Scottish Literature. 37 (1): (2013) 68-82. Web. 10 March 2016.
Waller Edmund & Sir John Denham. The Poetical Works of Edmund Waller and Sir John Denham. Ed. George Gilfillan. Edinburg. James Nisbet & Company. 1857. Print. 7-10.
Waller, Edmund. “Song.” Poetry Foundation. www.poetryfoundation. Accessed 17 Nov. 2020.

Relevant Questions about “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song”

How do the themes of love and transience in “A Red, Red Rose” compare to those in “Song”? What differences and similarities can be observed in the poets’ treatment of these themes, and how do these themes reflect the respective poets’ views on love and relationships?
Both poems employ vivid imagery and metaphorical language. How do Burns and Donne use imagery and metaphor to convey their ideas about love and its fleeting nature? What specific images and metaphors are employed in each poem, and how do they contribute to the overall meaning?
Consider the structure and tone of “A Red, Red Rose” and “Song.” How do the poets’ choices in terms of rhyme scheme, rhythm, and tone affect the way the poems convey their messages about love and desire? How might the form and style of each poem reflect the cultural and literary contexts of their respective periods?

“Letter from Birmingham Jail” by Martin Luther King

“Letter from Birmingham Jail” is a respectful letter written by Martin Luther King on April 16, 1963, to eight clergymen, whom he addresses as his “Dear Fellow Clergymen.”

Introduction: “Letter from Birmingham Jail”

“Letter from Birmingham Jail” is a respectful letter written by Martin Luther King on April 16, 1963, to eight clergymen, whom he addresses as his “Dear Fellow Clergymen” in the salutation of his letter, responding to the letter they wrote to him. In this letter, Martin Luther King concludes, after reading their letter, that his fellow clergymen have raised two main points: first, they oppose the direct action he is leading in Birmingham, and second, they object to “demonstrations by some of our Negro friends,” feeling that such actions are not justified in any way (“Public Statement by Eight Alabama Clergymen”). Since they disapprove of the direct action and demonstrations led by Martin Luther King in Birmingham, he aims to clarify the extent of segregation in Birmingham, emphasizing that it is more oppressive there than in other areas in the South.

Martin Luther King assumes that he is addressing white moderate individuals who are advising him and his friends to exercise restraint and wait for the appropriate time. Based on these realities and assumptions, Martin Luther King utilizes rhetorical devices such as ethos, pathos, logos, figures of speech, and various supporting details to keep his audience engaged and convey his message in the most suitable manner.

Strategies in “Letter from Birmingham Jail”

In terms of strategies, Martin Luther King has employed a comprehensive array of classical devices. He establishes his own leading role as a form of ethos, emphasizing his position as the “President of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference” to counter accusations of inciting hatred and violence by the clergymen (King). This assertion is crucial to maintain his status as an educated and distinguished figure, rather than being perceived as an ordinary individual. Regarding ethos, James D. Williams argues that it encompasses “the character, the customs, the deeds, and the life of those on who do the pleading,” underscoring its significant role (350). King exemplifies ethos according to Williams, aiming to make his audience recognize him as an authority figure.

Secondly, King extensively quotes Christian saints such as Apostle Paul, Jesus Christ, and St. Augustine, among others, to reinforce his arguments. This serves to show that he is not the first to address these issues and that he can support his stance with authoritative figures. Furthermore, he draws parallels between the situation of African Americans and that of early Christians, as well as with the esteemed philosopher Socrates. This incorporation of comparisons and contrasts constitutes the use of logos, strengthening his argument with historical and philosophical references.

In addition, King strategically mentions that the time is right, employing the classical device of kairos, which emphasizes the use of the opportune moment for making an argument. This suggests that he is mindful of choosing the right time to convey his message effectively.

Pathos in “Letter from Birmingham Jail”

Certainly, Martin Luther King effectively employs pathos, appealing to the emotions of his audience, and this is most evident in a paragraph where he vividly describes the emotional impact of racial injustice on children. He paints a poignant picture of a father trying to explain to his six-year-old daughter why she can’t go to the public amusement park, the tears welling up in her eyes, and the ominous clouds of inferiority forming in her mind. This emotional narrative aims to evoke empathy and a visceral response from the reader.

In commenting on King’s use of rhetorical devices, Martin Lee Roy observes that “The reader is forced to concede that serious injustices must be addressed without delay” (Roy). This highlights the effectiveness of King’s emotional appeal in bringing attention to the urgency of addressing racial injustices.

Moreover, King employs figurative language, such as a powerful metaphor, to enhance the beauty and impact of his language. The metaphor “There comes a time when the cup of endurance runs over, and men are no longer willing to be plunged over into an abyss of injustice” conveys the idea that there is a limit to one’s patience and tolerance for injustice. This metaphorical expression adds depth and resonance to his argument, making it more compelling.

In summary, King’s skillful use of pathos, along with figurative language and other rhetorical devices, contributes to the strength and impact of his argument in “Letter from Birmingham Jail.”

Evidences in “Letter from Birmingham Jail”

Martin Luther King strengthens his strategies by incorporating relevant data and quotes, drawing from a diverse range of sources. He not only references Christian figures, priests, and laws but also includes quotes from Grecian sages like Socrates and even cites dictators such as Adolf Hitler to fortify his arguments. This broad use of quotations from various contexts adds depth and authority to King’s discourse.

Steven Lynn aptly captures King’s ability to find and use quotes effectively, likening topics in classical rhetoric to a search engine that guides the speaker or writer to pertinent material (77). King’s adept use of quotes contributes to the persuasive force of his arguments, allowing him to draw on a rich tapestry of perspectives and authorities.

Furthermore, to validate his strategies, King quotes from statutes and laws, referencing the Supreme Court Decision of 1954, which declared segregation at public places illegal. This legal reference serves to counter the clergymen’s suggestion that the cause should be pursued through the courts (“Public Statement by Eight Alabama Clergymen”). King aligns the Supreme Court’s decision with their own recommendation to seek justice in the courts, highlighting the logical consistency of his actions. Additionally, it may serve as a response to legal restrictions imposed on his protests, as Michael Leff notes that the city’s attorneys obtained an injunction forbidding King from sponsoring or participating in demonstrations (Leff).

King’s use of rhetorical questions, such as “Why direct action? Why sit-ins, marches, and so forth?” further bolsters his argument. These questions engage the audience and prompt them to consider the rationale behind his actions, making his argument more compelling and capturing the audience’s attention. Overall, King strategically employs data, quotes, and rhetorical questions to enhance the persuasiveness of his letter.

Audience of “Letter from Birmingham Jail”

The primary audience for Martin Luther King’s letter is indeed the eight clergymen to whom he directly addresses in the salutation. However, it is crucial to recognize that, beyond the clergymen, King extends his message to a broader audience. He implicitly speaks to the common African American population, white moderates who advocate for patience, and essentially, anyone who identifies as a true Christian or American believing in freedom, liberty, and equality as outlined in the Constitution.

While the letter may have the appearance of a public address, S. Jonathan Bass notes that it appears more like a sermon than a direct correspondence and suggests that it was intended for a larger audience than just the eight clergymen who initially wrote to him (120). In this way, King broadens the scope of his message, inviting a wider readership to consider the issues at hand.

Moreover, King provides guidance to his fellow African American activists, emphasizing the importance of non-violence in their pursuit of justice. By doing so, he reinforces the principles of the civil rights movement and encourages unity and discipline among those working towards social change. Overall, while the immediate addressees are the eight clergymen, King’s letter resonates with a more extensive and diverse audience, appealing to those who share his vision of equality and justice.

Conclusion: “Letter from Birmingham Jail”

In short, Martin Luther King strategically employs a combination of classical and contemporary rhetorical strategies to enhance the power of his arguments. The strength of his rhetoric lies not only in the effective use of strategies but also in the validity of his points and the inclusion of quotations from diverse sources and authorities. King utilizes various linguistic features to make his argument both convincing and impactful. He demonstrates a keen understanding of his audience and employs specific elements to tailor his message to resonate with them. King’s language is not only powerful but also convincing, as he carefully considers the timing of his argument. Recognizing the opportune moment for direct action, he emphasizes that the time has come to take a stand against segregation in the United States. This decision is informed by the preceding steps of fact-finding, negotiation, and self-purification that he outlines in his letter. Ultimately, Martin Luther King confronts the pacifism advocated by the eight clergymen, asserting that direct action is the appropriate response to the injustice of segregation. His strategic use of language and timing contributes to the effectiveness of his argument and strengthens his call for civil rights and equality in the United States.

Works Cited: “Letter from Birmingham Jail”

Bass, S. Jonathan. Blessed are the Peacemakers: Martin Luther King, Jr., Eight White Religious Leaders, and the “Letter from Birmingham Jail.” LSU Press. 2001. Print.

King, Martin Luther. “Letter from Birminghan.” UPENN. 16 Apr. 1963. https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html. Accessed on 07 Jun. 2022.
Leff, Michael. “ISSA Proceedings 2002 – Rhetoric and Dialectic in Martin Luther King’s ‘Letter From Birmingham Jail.” Rozenberg Quarterly. n. d. Web. http://rozenbergquarterly.com/issa-proceedings-2002-rhetoric-and-dialectic-in-martin-luther-kings-letter-from-birmingham-jail/. Accessed on 07 Jun. 2022.
Lynn, Steven. Rhetoric and Composition: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. 2010.

Martin, Lee Roy. “Letter from Birmingham City Jail.” Masterplots, Fourth Edition, November 2010, pp. 1-2. EBSCOhost, //search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&AN=103331MP420939820000649&site=ehost-live. Accessed on 07 Jun. 2022.
“Public Statement by Eight Alabama Clergymen.” Mass Resistance. http://www.massresistance.org/docs/gen/09a/mlk_day/statement.html. Accessed on 07 Jun. 2022.
Williams, James D. An Introduction to Classical Rhetoric: Essential Readings. John Wiley & Sons. 2009. Print.

Relevant Questions About “Letter from Birmingham Jail”

How does Martin Luther King Jr. address the criticism of “outsiders” in his “Letter from Birmingham Jail”?
What rhetorical strategies does Martin Luther King Jr. employ to convey his message in “Letter from Birmingham Jail”?
How does Martin Luther King Jr. draw on religious and philosophical references in “Letter from Birmingham Jail” to support his civil rights arguments?

“The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped” by Tim Cushing

Published on the website Techdirt.com, the article “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped” by Tim Cushing is a risk exposig essay regarding the issue of cyberbullying among kids.

Introduction: “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped”

Published on the website Techdirt.com, the article “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped” by Tim Cushing is a risk exposing essay regarding the issue of cyberbullying among kids. The author, Tim Cushing, eloquently places his thesis at the beginning of the article, stating that although administrative and legislative bodies continue to pressure each other to implement measures to end cyberbullying, they lack verifiable statistics to support corresponding policies and laws. This is the reason parents and victims do not receive much assistance from these policies and legislations.

The author follows this with a reference to a Huffington Post writer, Larry Magid, who claimed that more than 70% of kids are victims of cyberbullying. Tim Cushing then presents actual numbers from data provided by the National Center for Educational Statistics, the Centers for Disease Control, and the Cyberbullying Research Center. He also includes statistics listed by Dan Olweus, a respected figure in cyberbullying research, to refute Larry Magid’s claims, asserting that not only is the term’s definition misleading, but the statistics are also unverified and incorrect.

Tim Cushing then highlights sources with vested interests in presenting such statistics. He verifies his claim regarding misleading statistics through a close dissection of the original article from the Hartford Country Examiner, explaining how the statistics have been misquoted and why. Additionally, he provides the definition of the term as defined by the NCPC, emphasizing that both the definition and the statistics are the real reasons behind the escalation of this issue.

By the end of the essay, he quotes criminologist Seoking Jeong to support his claim that antibullying programs are not working. However, he argues that while the problem exists, it is not as pervasive as portrayed, leading to a lack of tangible steps to address it. Tim Cushing not only employs classical rhetorical strategies of logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos to strengthen his argument but also goes a step further by using a unique article design, diction, and style.

Logos in “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped”

The very first quality of this article is the successful use of the classical rhetorical device, logos. Writer Tim Cushing has not only presented statistics but also the complete names of the sources and analyses of the statistics to support his claims. For example, his assertion is that much of the data regarding cyberbullying statistics is exaggerated, incorrect, and misleading. He begins by presenting erroneous data mentioned by a writer from the Huffington Post. Then, he dissects these statistics by comparing them with the data from other reputable institutions responsible for researching cyberbullying and its impacts on school-going kids. The inclusion of respectable and credible names such as the NCPC, the Cyberbullying Research Center, and the European Journal of Development Psychology indicates that their data is verifiable and reliable.

To refute the claims of writer Larry Magid, Tim Cushing immediately challenges them by presenting this verifiable data and stating that i-Safe and other similar websites have vested interests in showcasing inflated statistics to boost the sales of their anti-bullying software. These statistics are further discredited by mentioning that i-Safe “maybe” a nonprofit organization within brackets, and the data “hasn’t been updated in nearly a decade” (Cushing, 2015). This reveals that the given data is not credible, supporting his claim that these are misleading statistics. Hence, his logical appeal resonates with reason.

Ethos in “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped”

Another effective element is the use of ethos, where the author, Tim Cushing, relies on credible sources. The author himself questions the credibility of i-Safe data, which is the focal point of his argument. The statistics listed by the author in 2004, stating that “42% of kids have been bullied,” remain unchanged on the website under the heading “Cyber Bullying: Statistics and Tips” (Cushing, 2015). The website continues to present the same statistics that Tim Cushing has refuted, using credible sources such as the NCPC, Dan Olweus’ research, and the examination of the actual article from the Hartford County Examiner, along with the definition of the term and an analysis of the statistics (“Cyber Bullying: Statistics and Tips”).

Even the author’s credentials, highlighted by his association with the website Techdirt.com, shed light on his intention to present accurate statistics to assist administrations and legislatures in formulating effective policies. Therefore, there is no doubt that his ethos is credible and successful in persuading readers to agree with his reliable sources, his own credentials, and his thorough analysis.

Pathos in “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped”

Regarding pathos, Tim Cushing does not employ emotionally charged language as often seen in fiction. Instead, he appeals to reason by presenting statistics and demonstrating how inaccurate data has needlessly alarmed parents. His argument revolves around the notion that parents are naturally concerned about their children’s well-being. However, companies and individuals selling anti-bullying software are exploiting misleading data to boost sales.

The inclusion of Larry Magid’s statement, where he mentions being told that the software “helps protect kids from strangers who would do them harm,” is used skillfully by Cushing. This statement is strategically placed to resonate with his audience, primarily parents, administrators, and legislators, aiming to convince them that while the threat is real, the presented data is misleading (Cushing, 2015). In essence, he effectively utilizes pathos, albeit to a lesser extent than typically found in tragic novels or fiction.

Kairos in “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped”

Tim Cushing unconsciously employs another persuasive device crucial for his audience – kairos, writing within the existing time. If the article had been presented three or four decades ago, it might not have garnered much attention. The audience might have perceived it as science fiction with fictitious statistics meant to deceive readers into believing such things could happen in the future. However, it’s apparent that Cushing is fully aware of the contemporary times in which he is writing and understands his audience. This awareness contributes to his success in persuading readers by debunking general statistics presented with vested interests.

Regarding the design and format of the article, Cushing employs his unique structure. He places the thesis statement at the top of the article and divides it into three distinct parts with clear headings indicating the focus of each section. For instance, the first part addresses the exaggerated claims about cyberbullying statistics from companies selling anti-bullying software. The next heading, “A Vested Interest,” suggests that certain websites present the same old data to deceive readers and entice parents into purchasing the software (Cushing, 2015). He then introduces his own statistics and analyses them to demonstrate that this is not the case. The final heading addresses the issue, provides a proper understanding, and issues a call to action. Cushing presents the entire article in a conical shape, with the thesis at the top instead of after the introduction and background information. The background information and introduction follow the thesis. Data to be refuted is presented at the very beginning and is systematically debunked with credible statistics from sources such as the NCPC and Dan Olweus (Cushing, 2015). Finally, Cushing concludes by highlighting the issue, offering a proper understanding, and issuing a call to action.

The diction employed by Cushing is versatile. At times, he uses simple language for analysis, such as stating, “This isn’t to say that cyberbullying doesn’t exist and isn’t a problem” (Cushing). Other times, he employs academic language, including proper quotes from sources, contributing to an overall academic and formal style.

Conclusion: “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped”

In conclusion, it can be asserted that the primary audience for the article “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped” is comprised of parents, school administrators, and legislators. Tim Cushing adeptly employs a range of persuasive and rhetorical techniques to effectively reach and convince these audiences about the genuine problem that remains unresolved despite partial measures taken. He provides insights into the reasons why policies and laws have failed to yield positive results.

Cushing’s masterful use of classical rhetorical devices, a conically shaped argument, refutation through credible statistics, timely writing, and an academic writing style collectively make his article remarkably straightforward yet persuasively convincing. By daringly giving a new organization to his article, diving straight into the heart of the problem, and then presenting real statistics along with their refutation, Cushing takes a risk that deviates from traditional academic styles. He acknowledges that he can tackle the issue effectively, and he successfully accomplishes this through his unique format.

References: “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped”

Cyber Bullying: Statistics and Tips (n. d.). Retried from on October 23, 2022 from https://www.isafe.org/outreach/media/media_cyber_bullying
Cushing, Tim. (2015). “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped.” Retrieved on October 23, 2022 from ASU Libraries.

Relevant Questions about “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped”

In Tim Cushing’s article, “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped,” how does he support or justify the claim, and what specific evidence or arguments does he present to back this assertion?

Within the context of Tim Cushing’s work titled “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped,” are there counterarguments or alternative perspectives presented by the author regarding the perceived exaggeration of the cyberbullying issue?
How has the reception of Tim Cushing’s perspective, as outlined in the article “The Cyberbullying Problem is Overhyped,” influenced public discourse or policymaking surrounding the broader issue of online harassment?