August 25, 2024 - English Studies

“Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith: A Critical Analysis

“Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith first appeared in 1952 in her collection Selected Poems.

Introduction: “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

“Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith, first appeared in 1952 in her collection Selected Poems, is a poignant exploration of loneliness, isolation, and misunderstanding. Smith uses stark imagery and a deceptively simple narrative to convey the profound despair of a drowning man who is mistakenly believed to be waving. The poem’s central theme is the disconnect between outward appearances and inner turmoil, highlighting the tragic irony of a person crying out for help but being misinterpreted as a joyful gesture.

Text: “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Nobody heard him, the dead man,

But still he lay moaning:

I was much further out than you thought

And not waving but drowning.

Poor chap, he always loved larking

And now he’s dead

It must have been too cold for him his heart gave way,

They said.

Oh, no no no, it was too cold always

(Still the dead one lay moaning)

I was much too far out all my life

And not waving but drowning.

Annotations: “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Line	Annotation
Nobody heard him, the dead man,	The poem opens with the image of a dead man whose cries for help went unnoticed, setting a tone of isolation and despair.
But still he lay moaning:	Even in death, the man is portrayed as still expressing his anguish, suggesting unresolved pain or a lingering sense of unheeded distress.
I was much further out than you thought	The dead man’s voice suggests that he was in a much more difficult and distant place, emotionally or mentally, than others perceived.
And not waving but drowning.	The central metaphor of the poem: what others mistook for a gesture of joy or playfulness (waving) was actually a desperate plea for help (drowning).
Poor chap, he always loved larking	A voice, likely from others observing, comments on the man’s character, noting his love for fun and carefree behavior, which contrasts with his tragic end.
And now he’s dead	A blunt acknowledgment of the man’s death, reinforcing the finality and perhaps the shock of the loss.
It must have been too cold for him his heart gave way,	The observers rationalize the man’s death, attributing it to physical causes, such as the cold affecting his heart, showing their misunderstanding of his plight.
They said.	The use of “They said” emphasizes the detachment and lack of deeper understanding from those speaking about the dead man.
Oh, no no no, it was too cold always	The dead man refutes the observers’ explanation, suggesting that his suffering was ongoing, not just a result of immediate circumstances.
(Still the dead one lay moaning)	The repetition of the dead man moaning underscores the persistent nature of his distress, which continues to be overlooked.
I was much too far out all my life	The dead man reveals that his sense of being “too far out” was a lifelong condition, indicating a pervasive feeling of alienation or despair.
And not waving but drowning.	The final line repeats the central metaphor, reinforcing the idea that his entire life was misunderstood as something joyful when it was, in fact, filled with struggle.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Device	Definition	Example from Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	The repetition of initial consonant sounds	“Poor chap, he always loved larking”	This creates a musical and rhythmic effect.
Anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses	“I was much further out…”	This emphasizes the speaker’s isolation.
Antithesis	The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas or images	“Not waving but drowning”	This creates a stark contrast between the speaker’s outward appearance and his inner state.
Assonance	The repetition of vowel sounds	“And not waving but drowning”	This creates a musical effect.
Contrast	The juxtaposition of opposing ideas or images	“Poor chap, he always loved larking” vs. “I was much too far out all my life”	This contrast highlights the speaker’s inner turmoil.
Consonance	The repetition of consonant sounds within words	“Poor chap, he always loved larking”	This creates a rhythmic effect.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence or thought beyond the end of a line	“And not waving but drowning.”	This creates a sense of urgency and breathlessness.
Euphemism	The use of mild language to refer to something unpleasant	“They said”	This avoids directly stating the cause of death.
Imagery	The use of vivid language to create mental images	“I was much further out than you thought”	This evokes a sense of isolation and danger.
Irony	A contrast between what is expected or intended and what actually happens	“I was much further out than you thought”	The speaker is drowning, but others believe he is waving.
Metaphor	A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as”	“I was much too far out all my life”	This suggests the speaker’s emotional distance from others.
Metonymy	The use of a name of something to represent something else associated with it	“The dead man”	This refers to the speaker’s state of mind.
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but expresses a truth	“I was much further out than you thought”	This suggests that the speaker’s outward appearance was deceiving.
Personification	Giving human qualities to non-human things	“The dead man”	This creates a sense of empathy for the speaker.
Repetition	The repeated use of words, phrases, or sounds	“Not waving but drowning”	This refrain emphasizes the speaker’s true state.
Symbolism	The use of objects or images to represent abstract ideas	The sea	Represents the speaker’s overwhelming emotions and isolation.
Understatement	Saying less than is meant	“Poor chap, he always loved larking”	This downplays the seriousness of the speaker’s situation.

Themes: “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

1. Isolation and Misunderstanding: “Not Waving but Drowning” portrays the theme of isolation and misunderstanding, emphasizing how the protagonist’s true feelings were never fully grasped by those around him. The line “I was much further out than you thought” reveals the distance between the man’s inner turmoil and others’ perceptions of him. His cries for help were mistaken for “waving,” a gesture of happiness or friendliness, when in fact, he was “drowning” in his suffering. This misunderstanding highlights the loneliness experienced by individuals who feel disconnected from those around them, unable to communicate their true struggles effectively.

2. The Duality of Appearance and Reality: The poem also explores the theme of the duality between appearance and reality. The central metaphor of “waving” versus “drowning” captures this tension. What appears to be a joyful or harmless act is, in reality, a desperate call for help. The line “And not waving but drowning” encapsulates this theme, illustrating how outward appearances can be deceptive, masking the true nature of an individual’s suffering. This duality reflects the broader human experience, where people often hide their pain behind a facade of normalcy or happiness.

3. The Longevity of Suffering: The poem suggests that the protagonist’s suffering was not a sudden occurrence but rather a lifelong struggle. The line “I was much too far out all my life” indicates that the sense of being overwhelmed and misunderstood was a persistent part of the man’s existence. His death is not just the result of an isolated event but the culmination of years of unacknowledged pain. This theme emphasizes the enduring nature of internal struggles that are often unnoticed or ignored by others, leading to a tragic outcome.

4. Indifference of Society: Another significant theme in the poem is the indifference of society to individual suffering. The onlookers’ casual remarks—”Poor chap, he always loved larking” and “It must have been too cold for him his heart gave way”—reflect a superficial understanding of the man’s situation. They attribute his death to external factors like the cold, rather than recognizing the deeper emotional or psychological reasons behind his despair. This theme criticizes the tendency of society to overlook or dismiss the internal struggles of individuals, often only acknowledging their distress when it is too late.

Literary Theories and “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

1. New Criticism

Critique Approach: New Criticism focuses on the text itself, analyzing its elements such as imagery, symbolism, and structure. It emphasizes the poem’s internal coherence and unity.

Application to “Not Waving but Drowning”:

Imagery: The poem’s central image of the drowning man is a powerful symbol of isolation and despair.
Structure: The repeated refrain of “Not waving but drowning” reinforces the poem’s central theme and creates a sense of urgency.

Internal Coherence: The poem’s elements work together to create a unified and meaningful whole.

2. Psychoanalytic Criticism

Critique Approach: Psychoanalytic criticism interprets literary works through the lens of psychology, often focusing on the author’s unconscious mind or the psychological motivations of characters.

Application to “Not Waving but Drowning”:

Author’s Unconscious: The poem can be seen as a reflection of Smith’s own feelings of isolation and despair.
Character’s Psychology: The drowning man can be interpreted as a projection of Smith’s own anxieties and fears.
Oedipal Complex: Some critics might argue that the poem’s themes of isolation and drowning are connected to the Oedipal complex, a Freudian concept that suggests a child’s desire for the opposite-sex parent.

3. Deconstruction

Critique Approach: Deconstruction challenges the idea of a fixed meaning in a text, focusing on the underlying contradictions and ambiguities.

Application to “Not Waving but Drowning”:

Binary Oppositions: The poem plays with the binary opposition of life and death. The speaker is both alive and dead, both waving and drowning.

Ambiguity: The poem’s ending is ambiguous, leaving the reader to question whether the speaker is truly dead or simply trapped in a state of despair.
Subversion of Meaning: Deconstruction would argue that the poem’s meaning is not fixed but constantly shifting and evolving.

Critical Questions about “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

· What is the significance of the repeated refrain “Not waving but drowning”?

The repeated refrain “Not waving but drowning” serves as a stark contrast between the speaker’s outward appearance and his inner turmoil. It emphasizes the tragedy of his situation, as others misinterpret his cries for help as joyous gestures. This repetition also creates a sense of urgency and despair, highlighting the speaker’s isolation. As the poem progresses, the refrain becomes increasingly haunting, echoing the speaker’s desperate pleas for understanding.

· How does the poem’s simple narrative contribute to its emotional impact?

The poem’s deceptively simple narrative enhances its emotional impact by allowing the reader to focus on the speaker’s plight without distractions. The straightforward language and structure create a sense of immediacy and authenticity, making the speaker’s suffering more relatable. By avoiding complex metaphors or convoluted language, Smith allows the reader to fully immerse themselves in the speaker’s experience. This simplicity, combined with the poem’s powerful imagery, makes the speaker’s despair all the more poignant.

· What role does the sea play in the poem’s symbolism?

The sea symbolizes the speaker’s overwhelming emotions and isolation. It represents the vastness of his despair and the feeling of being lost and alone. The sea’s power and indifference further emphasize the speaker’s vulnerability. As the speaker drowns, he becomes increasingly submerged in the sea, reflecting his sinking hopes and diminishing chances of survival. The sea, therefore, becomes a metaphor for the speaker’s internal world, a place of darkness, despair, and ultimate solitude.

· How does the poem’s ending contribute to its overall meaning?

The poem’s ending is ambiguous, leaving the reader to question whether the speaker is truly dead or simply trapped in a state of despair. This ambiguity reinforces the theme of misunderstanding and the tragic irony of the speaker’s situation. It also suggests that the speaker’s suffering may continue even after death. By leaving the ending open-ended, Smith invites the reader to contemplate the speaker’s fate and to consider the broader implications of the poem’s themes. This ambiguity adds a layer of complexity to the poem, making it a more thought-provoking and enduring work of literature.

Literary Works Similar to “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot
Similarity: Like “Not Waving but Drowning,” Eliot’s poem explores the theme of inner turmoil and isolation, with the protagonist struggling to communicate his true feelings to the world, leading to a profound sense of alienation.
“Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost
Similarity: Both poems use imagery of nature to reflect the inner state of the speaker, with Frost’s poem conveying a quiet desperation beneath the surface of a serene, snowy landscape, much like the hidden suffering in Smith’s poem.

“The Hollow Men” by T.S. Eliot
Similarity: Eliot’s depiction of existential despair and the emptiness of modern life resonates with the feelings of futility and unnoticed suffering that are central to Smith’s work.
“Aubade” by Philip Larkin
Similarity: Larkin’s poem, like Smith’s, delves into the fear and inevitability of death, portraying a sense of dread and the inability to escape one’s existential crisis, reflecting a deep internal struggle.
“Lady Lazarus” by Sylvia Plath
Similarity: Plath’s exploration of death, rebirth, and the misunderstood persona aligns with the themes of Smith’s poem, where the protagonist’s real plight is overlooked by those around them, leading to a tragic end.

Representative Quotations of “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Nobody heard him, the dead man,”	The speaker is drowning, but others are unaware of his plight.	Deconstruction: This line challenges the idea of a fixed meaning, as the speaker is both alive and dead.
“I was much further out than you thought”	The speaker’s internal state is vastly different from his outward appearance.	Psychoanalytic Criticism: This line suggests the speaker’s hidden anxieties and fears.
“And not waving but drowning”	The repeated refrain emphasizes the speaker’s true state and contrasts with the misperception of others.	New Criticism: This line highlights the poem’s internal coherence and unity.
“Poor chap, he always loved larking”	The speaker is mistakenly believed to be enjoying himself.	Irony: This line creates a stark contrast between the speaker’s true state and the perceived image of him.
“It must have been too cold for him his heart gave way”	The speaker’s death is attributed to a physical cause, but the true reason is his emotional distress.	Psychoanalytic Criticism: This line suggests the speaker’s underlying emotional pain.
“Oh, no no no, it was too cold always”	The speaker’s constant suffering is emphasized.	New Criticism: This line reinforces the poem’s central theme of despair.
“I was much too far out all my life”	The speaker’s isolation and alienation are highlighted.	Deconstruction: This line challenges the binary opposition of life and death.
“And not waving but drowning”	The final repetition reinforces the speaker’s tragic fate.	New Criticism: This line emphasizes the poem’s central theme and provides a sense of closure.
“Still the dead one lay moaning”	The speaker’s suffering continues even after death.	Psychoanalytic Criticism: This line suggests the speaker’s unresolved emotional issues.
“I was much further out than you thought”	The speaker’s internal state is vastly different from his outward appearance.	Deconstruction: This line challenges the idea of a fixed meaning, as the speaker is both alive and dead.

“Musee des Beaux Arts” by W.H. Auden: A Critical Analysis

“Musée des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden was first published in 1940 in the collection “Another Time”.

Introduction: “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

“Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden, published in 1940 in the collection “Another Time,” is a meditation on suffering and indifference, exploring the idea that human suffering often occurs unnoticed and unacknowledged while life goes on. Auden uses the imagery of classical paintings to illustrate this concept, such as the fall of Icarus, which is depicted as a minor event in the grand scheme of things. The poem’s tone is contemplative and reflective, with a hint of melancholy and irony.

Text: “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

About suffering they were never wrong,
The old Masters: how well they understood
Its human position: how it takes place
While someone else is eating or opening a window or just walking dully along;
How, when the aged are reverently, passionately waiting
For the miraculous birth, there always must be
Children who did not specially want it to happen, skating
On a pond at the edge of the wood:
They never forgot
That even the dreadful martyrdom must run its course
Anyhow in a corner, some untidy spot
Where the dogs go on with their doggy life and the torturer’s horse
Scratches its innocent behind on a tree.

In Breughel’s Icarus, for instance: how everything turns away
Quite leisurely from the disaster; the ploughman may
Have heard the splash, the forsaken cry,
But for him it was not an important failure; the sun shone
As it had to on the white legs disappearing into the green
Water, and the expensive delicate ship that must have seen
Something amazing, a boy falling out of the sky,
Had somewhere to get to and sailed calmly on

Annotations: “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Line	Annotation
About suffering they were never wrong,	The “old Masters” refers to classical artists who accurately depicted human suffering in their art.
The old Masters: how well they understood	Emphasizes the depth of understanding these artists had about human nature and suffering.
Its human position: how it takes place	Suggests suffering occurs amid everyday activities, often unnoticed.
While someone else is eating or opening a window or just walking dully along;	Illustrates the normalcy of life continuing for others while suffering happens.
How, when the aged are reverently, passionately waiting	Shows the intense emotions and expectations of the elderly, possibly for miraculous events.
For the miraculous birth, there always must be	Could allude to a biblical scene, juxtaposing significant events with mundane ones.
Children who did not specially want it to happen, skating	Introduces children, indifferent to the awaited miracle, engaged in their own pleasures.
On a pond at the edge of the wood:	Locates the children’s activity in a serene, natural setting, away from the main event.
They never forgot	Refers back to the old Masters, emphasizing their awareness of human dynamics.
That even the dreadful martyrdom must run its course	Suggests that extreme suffering or sacrifice is often overlooked or accepted as inevitable.
Anyhow in a corner, some untidy spot	Indicates that significant events may occur in neglected or overlooked places.
Where the dogs go on with their doggy life and the torturer’s horse	Life goes on for the animals, oblivious to human tragedies around them.
Scratches its innocent behind on a tree.	Adds a touch of mundane detail to the scene, highlighting the indifference of nature.
In Breughel’s Icarus, for instance: how everything turns away	References Pieter Bruegel’s painting where Icarus’s fall is ignored by those around him.
Quite leisurely from the disaster; the ploughman may	Suggests a casual disregard or unawareness of the tragedy by ordinary people.
Have heard the splash, the forsaken cry,	Implies the ploughman might be aware of Icarus’s fall but remains detached.
But for him it was not an important failure; the sun shone	Emphasizes the ploughman’s indifference, as life and nature continue unaffected.
As it had to on the white legs disappearing into the green	Vivid imagery of Icarus’s legs as he falls into the sea, unnoticed.
Water, and the expensive delicate ship that must have seen	Suggests that even those capable of acknowledging the tragedy (the ship) are indifferent.
Something amazing, a boy falling out of the sky,	Describes the extraordinary event of Icarus falling from the sky.
Had somewhere to get to and sailed calmly on	Conveys the ship’s indifference as it has its own agenda, continuing despite the tragedy.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Device	Definition	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words.	“While someone else is eating or opening a window or just walking dully along”	The repetition of the “w” sound creates a sense of rhythm and emphasizes the actions of the people.
Allusion	A reference to a famous person, place, event, or work of literature.	“Breughel’s Icarus”	The poem alludes to the painting “Landscape with the Fall of Icarus” by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, which depicts the myth of Icarus falling from the sky.
Antithesis	The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas or images.	“How, when the aged are reverently, passionately waiting / For the miraculous birth, there always must be / Children who did not specially want it to happen”	The poem contrasts the anticipation of the elderly with the indifference of the children.
Consonance	The repetition of consonant sounds within words.	“How it takes place / While someone else is eating or opening a window”	The repetition of the “t” sound emphasizes the actions of the people.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence or thought beyond the end of a line of poetry.	“The sun shone / As it had to on the white legs disappearing into the green”	The enjambment creates a sense of urgency and momentum.
Imagery	The use of vivid language to create mental images.	“The expensive delicate ship that must have seen / Something amazing, a boy falling out of the sky”	The imagery of the ship sailing calmly on while Icarus falls creates a stark contrast.
Irony	A contrast between what is expected or intended and what actually happens.	“The torturer’s horse / Scratches its innocent behind on a tree”	The irony lies in the contrast between the horse’s innocent action and the torturer’s cruel deed.
Metaphor	A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“Its human position”	The poem metaphorically compares suffering to a human position, suggesting that it is a common and unavoidable part of life.
Meter	The rhythmic pattern of a poem.	The poem is written in iambic pentameter, which consists of five unstressed syllables followed by five stressed syllables.	The meter contributes to the poem’s formal and reflective tone.
Oxymoron	A figure of speech combining contradictory terms.	“Dreadful martyrdom”	The phrase “dreadful martyrdom” combines the ideas of suffering and sacrifice.
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but expresses a truth.	“They never forgot / That even the dreadful martyrdom must run its course”	The paradox suggests that even the most terrible suffering must eventually end.
Personification	Giving human qualities to non-human things.	“The sun shone / As it had to”	The poem personifies the sun by suggesting that it has an obligation to shine.
Repetition	The repeated use of words, phrases, or sounds.	“The old Masters: how well they understood”	The repetition of the phrase emphasizes the importance of the old Masters’ understanding of suffering.
Simile	A comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as.”	“How it takes place / While someone else is eating or opening a window or just walking dully along”	The simile compares suffering to the everyday actions of others.
Symbolism	The use of objects, characters, or events to represent something else.	The painting of Icarus	The painting symbolizes the indifference of the world to human suffering.
Tone	The author’s attitude toward the subject matter.	Contemplative, reflective, and melancholy	The tone is created through the use of imagery, symbolism, and language.
Understatement	A figure of speech in which something is expressed less strongly than it could be.	“The sun shone / As it had to”	The understatement suggests that the sun’s shining is a matter of course, even in the face of tragedy.
Verbal irony	A figure of speech in which what is said is different from what is meant.	“The torturer’s horse / Scratches its innocent behind on a tree”	The verbal irony lies in the contrast between the horse’s innocent action and the torturer’s cruel deed.
Visual imagery	The use of words to create mental images.	“The white legs disappearing into the green”	The visual imagery of Icarus falling into the water creates a sense of loss and despair.
Word choice	The selection of specific words to achieve a particular effect.	“Dully,” “Indifference,” “Disaster”	The word choice contributes to the poem’s somber and reflective tone.

Themes: “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Human Indifference to Suffering
Auden explores how individuals often remain indifferent to the suffering of others. This theme is vividly illustrated in the lines where everyday activities continue unaffected by tragedies: “While someone else is eating or opening a window or just walking dully along.” The poem portrays this detachment through various scenarios, emphasizing the ongoing nature of life irrespective of others’ distress.
The Isolation of Individual Experience

The poem reflects on the isolation of personal experiences, particularly suffering, which goes unnoticed by the world at large. This is highlighted through the depiction of the children skating oblivious to the miraculous birth: “Children who did not specially want it to happen, skating / On a pond at the edge of the wood.” The separation of individual experiences from the collective awareness underscores a profound existential solitude.
The Juxtaposition of the Mundane and the Extraordinary
Auden masterfully juxtaposes mundane daily life with significant events. This juxtaposition is encapsulated in the portrayal of Icarus’s fall as a minor backdrop to ordinary life: “the ploughman may / Have heard the splash, the forsaken cry, / But for him it was not an important failure; the sun shone / As it had to on the white legs disappearing into the green / Water.” The contrast between the dramatic and the everyday highlights how extraordinary events are often submerged in the flow of normal life.

The Role of Art in Reflecting Life
The reference to the old Masters and the specific mention of Breughel’s painting of Icarus serve to explore the role of art in capturing and reflecting human life and emotions. Art is shown as a medium that remembers and records human suffering and indifference in ways that life itself may not acknowledge: “In Breughel’s Icarus, for instance: how everything turns away / Quite leisurely from the disaster.” Through this, Auden suggests that while life may overlook suffering, art retains and communicates these profound human truths.

Literary Theories and “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Literary Theory	Description	Application to “Musée des Beaux Arts”	References from the Poem
Formalism	Focuses on a close reading of the text itself, analyzing form, style, and structure without considering external contexts.	Formalist analysis would concentrate on Auden’s use of structure, imagery, and tone to convey themes of indifference and suffering. The poem’s layout, rhyme scheme, and choice of words are all key to understanding its emotional impact.	“About suffering they were never wrong, / The old Masters” – The poem begins by directly engaging with art’s portrayal of human conditions, setting the formal tone and theme.
Marxist Criticism	Examines literature based on its portrayal of social classes, economic conditions, and power dynamics.	A Marxist approach might explore how the poem comments on the indifference of those in comfortable or privileged positions towards the suffering of others. It highlights the social disconnect and the normalization of suffering by those unafflicted.	“the expensive delicate ship that must have seen / Something amazing, a boy falling out of the sky, / Had somewhere to get to and sailed calmly on” – Represents the elite’s disregard for tragedy that does not directly affect their goals or lives.
Reader-Response Criticism	Focuses on the reader’s experience and interpretation of the text, suggesting that meaning is created in the interaction between the reader and the text.	This theory would analyze how different readers might perceive the poem’s themes of suffering and human indifference based on their personal experiences and feelings. The poem invites the reader to reflect on their own reactions to suffering and indifference.	“In Breughel’s Icarus, for instance: how everything turns away / Quite leisurely from the disaster” – This line might evoke different feelings and thoughts about personal and societal responses to others’ misfortunes.

Critical Questions about “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

· How does Auden use imagery to convey the theme of indifference in the face of suffering?

Auden employs vivid imagery to illustrate the contrast between the suffering of individuals and the seemingly indifferent world around them. In the poem, Icarus’s tragic fall is depicted as a minor event in the grand scheme of things. The ploughman, oblivious to the disaster, continues his work, and the ship sails on calmly, seemingly unaffected by the boy’s plight. This juxtaposition of the extraordinary and the ordinary underscores the theme of indifference, highlighting how even in the face of great suffering, life goes on.

· What is the significance of the old Masters’ understanding of suffering as presented in the poem?

The old Masters, as represented by the paintings referenced in the poem, possess a profound understanding of human suffering. They capture the “human position” of pain, acknowledging that it is a common and unavoidable aspect of life. Their art serves as a testament to this understanding, offering a timeless perspective on the nature of suffering.

· How does Auden use the contrast between the elderly and the children to explore the theme of life and death?

The poem contrasts the elderly, who are “reverently, passionately waiting” for the miraculous birth, with the children, who are “skating / On a pond at the edge of the wood.” This juxtaposition highlights the cyclical nature of life, as the anticipation of new life is juxtaposed with the carefree innocence of childhood. It suggests that while death is a natural part of life, it is often met with a sense of hope and renewal.

· What is the overall message or takeaway from the poem?

“Musée des Beaux Arts” ultimately suggests that suffering is a universal human experience, and that it often occurs unnoticed and unacknowledged. While the poem acknowledges the pain and tragedy of human existence, it also offers a sense of perspective. By understanding the inevitability of suffering, we can perhaps find solace in the beauty and resilience of life. The poem serves as a reminder that even in the darkest moments, there is hope and meaning to be found.

Literary Works Similar to “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

“The Shield of Achilles” by W. H. Auden: Similar to “Musée des Beaux Arts,” this poem also combines historical and mythical imagery to explore themes of human suffering and indifference.
“Landscape with the Fall of Icarus” by William Carlos Williams: This poem also reflects on Pieter Bruegel’s painting of Icarus, focusing on the unnoticed fall of Icarus, akin to Auden’s treatment of human indifference to suffering.

“Dover Beach” by Matthew Arnold: Arnold’s reflection on human misery and the retreat of faith echoes Auden’s contemplation of suffering amidst the mundane.
“Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith: This poem portrays the theme of misunderstanding and indifference towards an individual’s distress, resonating with Auden’s depiction of unnoticed suffering.
“An Irish Airman Foresees His Death” by W. B. Yeats: Yeats’ poem about the detached reflection on life and death by an airman parallels Auden’s portrayal of existential isolation and the overlooked tragedies in human life.

Representative Quotations of “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“About suffering they were never wrong, / The old Masters”	These opening lines introduce the theme of the poem: the profound understanding of human suffering by the old Masters, specifically referring to the European painters.	Formalism – Focuses on the text itself, analyzing how the structure and choice of words set the thematic tone of understanding suffering.
“how it takes place / While someone else is eating or opening a window or just walking dully along;”	This passage highlights the everyday backdrop against which significant personal tragedies unfold, unnoticed.	Marxist Criticism – Examines the social dynamics and indifference of individuals absorbed in their own routine lives, oblivious to others’ suffering.
“In Breughel’s Icarus, for instance: how everything turns away / Quite leisurely from the disaster;”	Refers directly to Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s painting, illustrating the indifference of the world to the tragedy of Icarus falling into the sea.	New Historicism – Links the text to historical and cultural artworks, analyzing how Auden embeds art within poetry to critique societal attitudes.
“the expensive delicate ship that must have seen / Something amazing, a boy falling out of the sky,”	This describes the ship’s potential witness to Icarus’s fall, suggesting its indifference despite the remarkable nature of the event.	Reader-Response Criticism – Invites readers to ponder why the ship, representative of society, chooses to ignore the remarkable yet tragic event, reflecting on societal values.
“But for him it was not an important failure; the sun shone / As it had to on the white legs disappearing into the green / Water,”	The ploughman’s indifference to Icarus’s plight is underscored by his return to work, as nature itself remains unaffected by human tragedy.	Ecocriticism – Considers how human events are portrayed as insignificant in the larger context of natural and ongoing life processes, highlighting the poem’s environmental consciousness.

“The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich: Summary and Critique

“The Subjective Character of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich was first published in 1975 within the collection Readings and Feelings.

Introduction: “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich

“The Subjective Character of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich was first published in 1975 within the collection Readings and Feelings. This work significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory by challenging traditional notions of objective interpretation. Bleich’s argument, which emphasized the primacy of the reader’s subjective experience in shaping meaning, marked a significant departure from the dominant critical approaches of the time.

Summary of “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich

Reaction Against Impressionism and New Criticism’s Aims: The New Criticism arose as a response to the unsystematic nature of ‘Impressionism,’ seeking to establish a more rigorous intellectual foundation for aesthetic discussions. The movement aimed to ensure that discussions about literature were recognized as genuine knowledge rather than mere personal observations. As stated, “The aim was to present aesthetic discussions so that they would be more intellectually informative and less easily dismissible.”
The Nature of Interpretive Knowledge: Interpretive knowledge in literature is distinct from the formulaic knowledge found in the physical sciences. It is shaped by the interpreter’s uncontrolled experiences and is inherently subjective. “Interpretive knowledge is neither deduced nor inferred from a controlled experience… Rather, it is constructed from the uncontrolled experience of the interpreter.”

The Illusion of Objectivity in Criticism: Critics often maintain the appearance of objectivity in their interpretations, though they recognize the subjective nature of their work. This recognition allows for the coexistence of multiple interpretations, known as critical pluralism. “The assumption of objectivity is almost a game played by critics… most critics will admit to the fallacy in this ritual, and they will point out that they believe in critical pluralism.”
Psychoanalysis and the Subjectivity of Rationality: The essay links the subjective nature of interpretive knowledge to Freud’s later epistemological views, which recognized that even rationality is not purely objective. “The most important epistemological contribution of psychoanalysis is precisely the spectacular demonstration that rationality is itself a subjective phenomenon.”
The Observer’s Role in Interpretation: In both human and physical sciences, the observer’s presence influences the interpretation, making it impossible to fully separate the observer from what is being observed. “The observer is always part of what is being observed… detailed knowledge of the mind is likewise not possible without taking into account the effects of observing one’s own mind.”

The Symbolic Nature of Literary Objects: Literary works are not merely physical objects; they are symbolic and their meaning is entirely dependent on the perception and interpretation of individuals or communities. “A symbolic object is wholly dependent on a perceiver for its existence… An object becomes a symbol only by being rendered so by a perceiver.”
The Fallacy of Objectivity in New Criticism: The New Criticism’s main flaw lies in its assumption that literary works, as symbolic objects, can be treated as objective entities. “The fallacy of the New Criticism is its assumption that a symbolic object is an ‘objective’ object.”
The Role of Community in Defining Truth:The truth in literary interpretation is determined by the community’s consensus, not by any objective standard. “The test of truth in critical interpretation is its social viability… interpretations accepted as ‘true’ achieve this status because they reflect an area of common subjective value.”

Interdependence of Literary Study and Self-Knowledge: The study of literature is inherently linked to the study of the individuals involved in its interpretation. Literary interpretation and self-knowledge are thus part of a unified intellectual endeavor. “The study of art and the study of ourselves are ultimately a single enterprise.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich

Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation
New Criticism	A literary movement that aimed to present aesthetic discussions in a more intellectually rigorous manner, reacting against the unsystematic approach of Impressionism.	“The aim was to present aesthetic discussions so that they would be more intellectually informative and less easily dismissible.”
Interpretive Knowledge	The understanding that knowledge in literature is constructed from the subjective experiences of the interpreter, distinct from the formulaic knowledge of the physical sciences.	“Interpretive knowledge is neither deduced nor inferred from a controlled experience… Rather, it is constructed from the uncontrolled experience of the interpreter.”
Critical Pluralism	The belief that multiple interpretations of a literary work can coexist, reflecting the subjective nature of interpretive knowledge.	“Most critics will admit to the fallacy in this ritual, and they will point out that they believe in critical pluralism.”
Subjectivity	The notion that interpretive knowledge is a product of individual perception and values, and not an objective truth.	“The assumption of objectivity is almost a game played by critics… it is the motivated construction of someone’s mind.”
Freudian Epistemology	The idea, drawn from Freud’s later work, that even rationality and knowledge are subjective, challenging the earlier Newtonian, objectivist perspective.	“The most important epistemological contribution of psychoanalysis is precisely the spectacular demonstration that rationality is itself a subjective phenomenon.”
Involved Observer	The principle that the observer is always part of what is being observed, influencing the interpretation and knowledge gained, particularly in the context of literary analysis.	“The observer is always part of what is being observed… detailed knowledge of the mind is likewise not possible without taking into account the effects of observing one’s own mind.”
Symbolic Object	The concept that literary works are symbolic rather than purely physical objects, dependent on the perceiver for their existence and meaning.	“A symbolic object is wholly dependent on a perceiver for its existence… An object becomes a symbol only by being rendered so by a perceiver.”
Fallacy of Objectivity	The critique of New Criticism’s assumption that literary works, as symbolic objects, can be treated as objective entities, ignoring the subjective nature of interpretation.	“The fallacy of the New Criticism is its assumption that a symbolic object is an ‘objective’ object.”
Social Viability	The idea that the truth of literary interpretations is determined by their acceptance within a community, rather than by any objective standard.	“The test of truth in critical interpretation is its social viability… interpretations accepted as ‘true’ achieve this status because they reflect an area of common subjective value.”
Literary Transaction	The interaction between the reader and the text, where the meaning of the literary work is created through the reader’s interpretation, influenced by personal and social factors.	“For the author, the work of literature is a response to his life experience. For the reader, the interpretation is the response to his reading experience.”
Unified Intellectual Endeavor	The notion that the study of literature is intertwined with the study of the individuals involved in its interpretation, suggesting that literary interpretation and self-knowledge are part of a single intellectual pursuit.	“The study of art and the study of ourselves are ultimately a single enterprise.”

Contribution of “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich to Literary Theory/Theories

· David Bleich’s Contribution to Literary Theory: David Bleich’s “The Subjective Character of Critical Interpretation” significantly contributed to the evolution of literary theory by challenging traditional notions of objective interpretation and emphasizing the primacy of the reader’s subjective experience. Bleich’s work can be seen as a major contribution to several specific theories, including:

· New Criticism: Bleich’s critique of New Criticism’s emphasis on objective analysis and its dismissal of subjective responses is central to his argument. As he states, “Part of the original energy of the New Criticism was a reaction against unsystematic ‘Impressionism.'” Bleich, however, argues that interpretive knowledge is inherently subjective and cannot be reduced to a set of objective facts.

· Reader-Response Criticism: Bleich’s essay is a foundational text in reader-response criticism, a theory that emphasizes the reader’s role in creating meaning. Bleich argues that “the truth about literature has no meaning independent of the truth about the reader.” This idea positions the reader as a co-creator of the literary experience, rather than a passive recipient of meaning.

· Psychoanalysis: Bleich draws heavily on psychoanalytic concepts to support his argument. He suggests that the subjective nature of interpretation is rooted in the human psyche and its processes of perception and meaning-making. Bleich’s use of psychoanalysis helps to explain how personal experiences, values, and motivations shape the reader’s understanding of a text.

· Poststructuralism: Bleich’s critique of the idea of a fixed, objective meaning within a text aligns with poststructuralist theories. By emphasizing the multiplicity of meanings and the instability of language, Bleich contributes to the poststructuralist understanding of literary interpretation as a subjective and socially situated process.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich

Literary Work	Critique
Shakespeare’s Hamlet	A reader’s interpretation of Hamlet’s indecision might be influenced by their own experiences with grief, loss, or uncertainty. Bleich’s theory suggests that Hamlet’s meaning is not solely contained within the text, but is also shaped by the reader’s subjective responses, such as their own emotional journey through loss and the search for meaning.
Toni Morrison’s Beloved	A reader’s understanding of the novel’s exploration of trauma and healing might be deeply affected by their own experiences with violence or loss. Bleich’s theory would emphasize how these personal experiences can influence the reader’s emotional response to the text, leading to unique interpretations of the characters and themes.
Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway	A reader’s perception of Mrs. Dalloway’s character and the novel’s stream-of-consciousness narrative might be influenced by their own experiences with mental health or feelings of isolation. Bleich’s theory would highlight how these subjective factors can shape the reader’s understanding of the text, leading to different interpretations of Mrs. Dalloway’s inner life and the novel’s exploration of consciousness.
James Joyce’s Ulysses	A reader’s engagement with the novel’s complex language and experimental structure might vary greatly depending on their familiarity with literary techniques and their willingness to invest time and effort in the text. Bleich’s theory would suggest that the novel’s meaning is co-created by the reader and the text, and that the reader’s subjective experience, including their literary background and personal preferences, plays a crucial role in their interpretation.

Criticism Against “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich

Overemphasis on Subjectivity: Critics may argue that Bleich’s focus on the subjective nature of interpretation undermines the possibility of any objective or universal understanding of literature, potentially leading to relativism where all interpretations are equally valid, regardless of their rigor or insight.
Neglect of Authorial Intent: By emphasizing the reader’s role in creating meaning, Bleich’s perspective might be criticized for downplaying the importance of the author’s intentions and the context in which a work was created, which can be crucial for understanding the text’s meaning and significance.
Challenges to Critical Standards: Some may argue that Bleich’s rejection of objective standards in literary criticism could lead to a weakening of critical standards, making it difficult to evaluate the quality or validity of different interpretations in a meaningful way.

Potential for Interpretive Anarchy: The acceptance of multiple, potentially conflicting interpretations without a clear framework for evaluating them could lead to what some critics might describe as “interpretive anarchy,” where the coherence and value of literary criticism are diminished.
Risk of Oversimplification: Bleich’s distinction between interpretive knowledge and scientific knowledge might be seen as an oversimplification, ignoring the ways in which interpretation in both literature and science can involve complex reasoning, evidence, and argumentation.
Limited Practical Application: The highly theoretical nature of Bleich’s arguments may be criticized for offering limited practical guidance for literary critics and educators, who need concrete methods for evaluating and discussing literary works.

Dismissal of New Criticism’s Contributions: Bleich’s critique of New Criticism might be seen as too dismissive, overlooking the valuable contributions that New Criticism made to literary analysis, such as the focus on close reading and the text itself, which have been foundational to modern literary studies.

Representative Quotations from “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The aim was to present aesthetic discussions so that they would be more intellectually informative and less easily dismissible.”	Bleich explains the New Criticism’s goal to transform aesthetic discussions into intellectually rigorous debates, moving away from unsystematic approaches like Impressionism.
“Interpretive knowledge is neither deduced nor inferred from a controlled experience. Rather, it is constructed from the uncontrolled experience of the interpreter.”	This highlights the subjective nature of literary interpretation, where knowledge is formed through the personal and uncontrolled experiences of the interpreter, unlike the controlled processes in the sciences.
“The assumption of objectivity is almost a game played by critics, a necessary ritual to help maintain the faith that if criticism presents its knowledge in the same form as the exact sciences, it will have the same authority.”	Bleich criticizes the assumption of objectivity in literary criticism, suggesting that it is more of a ritualistic pretense rather than a true reflection of the interpretive process, which is inherently subjective.
“Rationality is itself a subjective phenomenon.”	This statement, linked to Freudian psychoanalysis, underlines the idea that even rationality is not purely objective, further supporting the argument that literary interpretation is inherently subjective.
“The observer is always part of what is being observed.”	Bleich adopts a modern scientific attitude, asserting that the observer’s influence is inescapable in both human and physical sciences, which complicates any claims of objective knowledge, including in literary criticism.
“A symbolic object is wholly dependent on a perceiver for its existence.”	This emphasizes that literary works, as symbolic objects, do not exist independently of their readers or interpreters; their meaning is created by the interaction between the text and its audience.
“The fallacy of the New Criticism is its assumption that a symbolic object is an ‘objective’ object.”	Bleich points out the main flaw of New Criticism, which is its mistaken belief that literary texts, being symbolic objects, can be treated as if they have objective, inherent meanings.
“The truth of literature has no meaning independent of the truth about the reader.”	Bleich argues that the meaning of a literary work is intrinsically linked to the reader’s interpretation, making it a subjective truth rather than an objective one.
“The test of truth in critical interpretation is its social viability.”	This statement suggests that the validity of an interpretation is determined by its acceptance within a community, rather than by any objective criteria, aligning with the idea of interpretive knowledge being socially constructed.
“The study of art and the study of ourselves are ultimately a single enterprise.”	Bleich concludes by stating that literary criticism and self-knowledge are intertwined, reinforcing the idea that understanding literature is deeply connected to understanding the individuals engaged in its interpretation.

“Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield: Summary and Critique

“Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield was first published in 1992 as part of the influential collection “Faultlines: Cultural Materialism and the Politics of Dissident Reading.”

Introduction: “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield

“Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield was first published in 1992 as part of the influential collection “Faultlines: Cultural Materialism and the Politics of Dissident Reading.” This essay has significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory by challenging traditional approaches to reading and analyzing texts. Sinfield argues for a more politically conscious and socially engaged interpretation, focusing on how literary works can resist dominant ideologies and promote marginalized voices. His work has been instrumental in shaping the development of cultural materialism and new historicism, inspiring scholars to explore the intersections between literature, culture, and power.

Summary of “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield

Interinvolvement of Resistance and Control: Sinfield argues that dissidence in literature is inextricably linked to the dominant structures it seeks to challenge. To oppose these structures, dissidence must reference them, leading to a complex relationship where resistance and control are mutually dependent. This interinvolvement arises from the way language and culture are articulated, with every utterance shaped by the possibilities and limitations imposed by the dominant discourse. As a result, dissidence often inadvertently reinscribes the very norms it seeks to critique.
Dissidence and the Dominant: Dissident texts gain their power from engaging with the dominant discourse, often appropriating its concepts and imagery to challenge prevailing norms. This engagement allows dissidence to undermine the dominant from within, using its language and categories against it. Sinfield notes that dissident texts, by partially implicating themselves with the dominant, can embarrass and subvert the status quo, as seen in historical examples where marginalized groups used the vocabulary of their oppressors to assert their legitimacy and challenge their marginalization.

Role of Historical Context in Literary Criticism: Sinfield emphasizes that the effectiveness of dissidence or incorporation within a text is not determined by the text’s inherent qualities but by the historical context in which it is received. The balance of power at a particular historical moment influences whether dissidence succeeds or is contained. He argues that literary criticism must take into account these historical conditions, as they are decisive in determining the impact of a text. This perspective challenges the notion that texts have intrinsic subversive qualities, suggesting instead that their potential for resistance is context-dependent.
Challenges to Traditional Literary Criticism: Traditional literary criticism, which seeks to impose coherence and unity on texts, can inadvertently reinforce regressive ideologies by aligning with dominant cultural norms. Sinfield critiques this approach, arguing that it often overlooks the contested nature of texts and fails to account for the ways in which they engage with broader cultural and historical forces. He advocates for a cultural materialist approach that recognizes the inherently political nature of literary interpretation and the need to consider the social and historical contexts in which texts are produced and read.
Dissidence vs. Subversion: Sinfield distinguishes between “dissidence” and “subversion,” preferring the former term because it suggests an ongoing refusal of dominant norms without assuming a definitive overthrow. Dissidence represents a continuous struggle, where the outcome is never guaranteed and depends on the specific historical and cultural context. This ongoing contest, Sinfield argues, is more reflective of the real dynamics of cultural resistance than the term “subversion,” which implies a completed act of overthrow that rarely occurs.

Implications for Shakespearean Criticism: Sinfield extends his analysis to Shakespearean criticism, arguing that Shakespeare’s plays, like all cultural texts, are part of an ongoing contest of stories that shape and reflect societal norms. These plays, depending on how they are read and interpreted, can either reinforce or challenge prevailing notions of the world. Sinfield suggests that the cultural impact of Shakespeare’s works is not fixed but varies according to the historical and cultural contexts in which they are engaged.
The Limits of Textual Control: Both dissident and dominant texts are limited in their ability to control meaning. Sinfield argues that readers can draw unintended interpretations, which undermines the idea that any text can fully dictate its meaning. This unpredictability reveals that textual meaning is contingent on the interplay of various cultural forces, rather than being a fixed or intrinsic quality of the text itself. Dissident texts, therefore, cannot guarantee that their subversive intentions will be realized, just as dominant texts cannot ensure that they will fully contain or neutralize resistance.
Cultural Materialism and the Challenge to Criticism: Sinfield advocates for cultural materialism as a necessary challenge to traditional literary criticism, which he argues is often limited by its focus on textual coherence and interpretive unity. Cultural materialism, by contrast, emphasizes the importance of understanding texts within their specific historical and social contexts, requiring knowledge and approaches that traditional literary criticism may lack. This approach, Sinfield argues, is essential for uncovering the full cultural and political significance of literary texts, and for resisting the tendency of criticism to reinforce dominant ideologies.

Text as a Site of Contest: Finally, Sinfield concludes that texts should be understood as sites of cultural contest, where meaning is always negotiated and never fully determined by the text alone. This view challenges the traditional critical notion that meaning can be deduced entirely from the text itself. Instead, Sinfield argues that texts are always engaged in a broader cultural struggle, and their meanings are shaped by the ongoing interactions between different cultural forces, making them dynamic rather than static entities.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield

Term	Explanation
Dissidence	A refusal of an aspect of the dominant ideology or culture, without necessarily implying a successful subversion.
Dominant Structures	The prevailing ideologies, social norms, and power relations in a society.
Cultural Materialism	A theoretical approach that emphasizes the relationship between literature and its historical and social context, focusing on power, ideology, and class.
New Historicism	A theoretical approach that views literary texts as products of their historical and cultural contexts, emphasizing the interrelationship between the text and the world it represents.
Interinvolvement of Resistance and Control	The idea that resistance to dominant structures is always intertwined with those structures, as any act of resistance must necessarily reference and engage with them.
Power Relations	The distribution of power and authority within a society, including the ways in which power is exercised and resisted.
Subordinate	A person or group that is subject to the power and control of others.
Dominant Discourse	The prevailing ways of speaking and thinking about a particular subject or issue.
Reverse Discourse	A discourse that challenges the dominant discourse and offers alternative perspectives.
Incorporation	The process by which dissenting voices or ideas are absorbed or co-opted by the dominant culture.
Resistance	The act of opposing or challenging dominant structures and ideologies.
Entrapment Model	A theoretical perspective that suggests that resistance is ultimately contained or neutralized by dominant power structures.
Cultural Contest	The ongoing struggle between different cultural perspectives and ideologies.
Historical Specificity	The importance of considering the specific historical context in which a literary text was produced and received.
Plausibility	The degree to which a literary text seems believable or realistic within its historical and cultural context.
Coherence	The degree to which a literary text is unified and consistent in its meaning and structure.
Socialization	The process of learning and internalizing the norms, values, and beliefs of a society.

Contribution of “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Cultural Materialism

Contribution: Sinfield’s work is a cornerstone of cultural materialism, emphasizing the importance of analyzing literary texts within their specific historical and social contexts. He challenges the traditional view that texts have intrinsic meanings that can be uncovered through close reading alone. Instead, he argues that texts are sites of cultural contest where meaning is contingent on historical forces and power relations.

Example Quotation: “The specific historical conditions in which institutions and formations organize and are organized by textualities must be addressed.”

2. New Historicism

Contribution: Sinfield’s approach aligns with New Historicism in its focus on the interplay between texts and the historical conditions in which they are produced and received. He argues against the idea that meaning is fixed or inherent in a text, suggesting instead that it is shaped by the balance of power at a given historical moment. This perspective challenges the notion of texts as self-contained entities and emphasizes their role in broader cultural and political dynamics.

Example Quotation: “Nothing can be intrinsically or essentially subversive in the sense that prior to the event subversiveness can be more than potential; in other words, it cannot be guaranteed a priori, independent of articulation, context, and reception.”

3. Post-Structuralism

Contribution: Sinfield engages with post-structuralist ideas by questioning the stability and control of meaning in texts. He emphasizes that both dominant and dissident texts are unable to fully dictate their meanings, as readers can draw unintended interpretations. This aligns with the post-structuralist view that meaning is not fixed but is instead fluid and contingent on the interplay of various cultural and linguistic factors.

Example Quotation: “There can be no security in textuality: no scriptor can control the reading of his or her text.”

4. Reader-Response Theory

Contribution: While not strictly a reader-response theorist, Sinfield’s work acknowledges the role of the reader in constructing meaning. He argues that readers do not have to accept the closures imposed by texts and that they can resist dominant interpretations. This perspective aligns with the reader-response theory’s emphasis on the active role of the reader in creating meaning.

Example Quotation: “Readers do not have to respect closures – we do not, for instance, have to accept that the independent women characters in Shakespearean comedies find their proper destinies in the marriage deals at the ends of those plays.”

5. Marxist Literary Criticism

Contribution: Sinfield’s cultural materialist approach is heavily influenced by Marxist literary criticism, particularly in its focus on how literature reflects and participates in power struggles within society. He emphasizes the need to understand texts in relation to the material conditions and power relations that shape their production and reception. This approach challenges the idea of literature as an autonomous or purely aesthetic domain, highlighting its role in the ideological reproduction of social structures.

Example Quotation: “Cultural materialism calls for modes of knowledge that literary criticism scarcely possesses, or even knows how to discover – modes, indeed, that hitherto have been cultivated distinctively within that alien other of essentialist humanism, Marxism.”

6. Feminist Literary Theory

Contribution: Sinfield’s analysis of dissidence and the limits of textual control can be applied to feminist literary theory, particularly in his discussion of how texts might unintentionally reinforce or challenge dominant gender norms. His work suggests that feminist readings can uncover the ways in which texts participate in the cultural contest over gender roles, even if those texts were not originally intended to be subversive.

Example Quotation: “We can insist on our sense that the middle of such a text arouses expectations that exceed the closure.”

7. Queer Theory

Contribution: Sinfield’s discussion of “reverse discourse” in relation to nineteenth-century discourses on homosexuality anticipates key ideas in queer theory. He explores how marginalized identities can use the language of the dominant to assert their legitimacy, a concept central to queer theory’s critique of normative sexualities and identities.

Example Quotation: “Deviancy returns from abjection by deploying just those terms that relegated it there in the first place.”

8. Critical Theory (Frankfurt School)

Contribution: Sinfield’s critique of traditional literary criticism’s role in reinforcing dominant ideologies echoes the concerns of the Frankfurt School’s critical theory, which seeks to expose the ideological functions of culture and literature. His emphasis on the contested nature of texts and their potential to either reinforce or challenge social norms aligns with the critical theory’s focus on the cultural dimensions of power and domination.

Example Quotation: “Education has taken as its brief the socialization of students into these criteria, while masking this project as the achievement by talented individuals…of a just and true reading of texts that are just and true.”

9. Postcolonial Theory

Contribution: Sinfield’s work contributes to postcolonial theory through its emphasis on the interplay between dominant and dissident voices, particularly in how colonial and postcolonial texts might resist or reinforce colonial power structures. His analysis of dissidence provides a framework for understanding how postcolonial texts can engage with and subvert colonial discourses from within.

Example Quotation: “A dominant discourse cannot prevent ‘abuse’ of its resources. Even a text that aspires to contain a subordinate perspective must first bring it into visibility; even to misrepresent, one must present.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield

Literary Work	Critique Based on “Reading Dissidence”
Shakespeare’s Othello	The play’s portrayal of Othello as a gullible and passionate figure can be seen as reinforcing stereotypes about black men. Additionally, Desdemona’s submissive nature can be interpreted as a reinforcement of patriarchal norms.
Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice	Austen’s depiction of marriage as the ultimate goal for women can be criticized as reinforcing traditional gender roles and expectations. Furthermore, the novel’s focus on class and social status can be seen as perpetuating a hierarchical social structure.
Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist	Dickens’ portrayal of poverty and crime can be seen as reinforcing the idea that the poor are responsible for their own misfortunes. Additionally, the novel’s sentimental tone and emphasis on individual morality can be criticized for overlooking the systemic causes of social problems.
Virginia Woolf’s To the Lighthouse	Woolf’s exploration of consciousness and subjectivity can be seen as challenging traditional narrative structures and offering a more fragmented and subjective perspective. However, the novel’s focus on the experiences of middle-class women can be criticized for limiting its scope and failing to address broader social issues.

Criticism Against “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield

Overemphasis on Dominant Structures: Sinfield’s approach can sometimes prioritize the analysis of dominant structures over the nuances and complexities of individual texts.
Reductionist View of Texts: Some critics argue that Sinfield’s framework can reduce literary works to mere reflections of social and political power dynamics, neglecting their aesthetic and artistic qualities.

Limited Attention to Subjectivity and Agency: While Sinfield emphasizes the role of power and ideology, he may sometimes overlook the agency of individuals and their ability to resist or subvert dominant structures.
Overreliance on Historical Context: Sinfield’s focus on historical context can sometimes lead to a neglect of the text’s internal dynamics and its ability to transcend its specific historical moment.
Difficulty in Applying the Framework: Some critics find it challenging to apply Sinfield’s framework to a wide range of texts, particularly those that do not explicitly address social or political issues.

Potential for Oversimplification: The emphasis on dominant structures and power relations can sometimes lead to oversimplified or reductive interpretations of literary works.
Limited Attention to Other Theoretical Approaches: Sinfield’s framework, while valuable, may not adequately account for other theoretical perspectives that can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of literary texts.

Representative Quotations from “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Dissidence operates, necessarily, with reference to dominant structures.”	Dissident texts must engage with and challenge existing power structures in order to be effective.
“Power relations are always two-way.”	Resistance and control are interconnected, and both parties in a power relationship exert some degree of influence.
“Any utterance is bounded by the other utterances that the language makes possible.”	Language shapes our understanding of the world and limits the possibilities for expression.
“All stories comprise within themselves the ghosts of the alternative stories they are trying to exclude.”	Texts often contain implicit or suppressed narratives that challenge their dominant message.
“There is no ‘great Refusal.'”	Resistance to dominant power structures is not a singular, unified act but rather a series of dispersed and varied actions.
“A dissident text may derive its leverage, its purchase, precisely from its partial implication with the dominant.”	Dissident texts can be effective by appropriating and subverting the language and concepts of the dominant culture.
“Readers do not have to respect closures.”	Readers are not limited to the intended meanings of a text but can interpret it in their own ways.
“There can be no security in textuality.”	The meaning of a text is not fixed but is subject to multiple interpretations and contestations.
“The historical conditions in which it is being deployed are decisive.”	The historical context of a text is crucial for understanding its meaning and significance.
“The text is always a site of cultural contest.”	Texts are not simply passive objects but are actively engaged in shaping and contesting cultural meanings.

“Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose: Summary and Critique

“Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” by Louis A. Montrose first appeared in 1986 as part of the collection Shakespearean Studies.

Introduction: “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose

“Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” by Louis A. Montrose first appeared in 1986 as part of the collection Shakespearean Studies. This seminal essay has been instrumental in shaping the field of Renaissance studies, offering a groundbreaking approach that explores the intricate relationship between literature, culture, and power. Montrose argues that literary texts are not merely products of individual genius but rather are deeply embedded in the social and political contexts of their production. By examining how Renaissance authors engaged with and challenged prevailing cultural norms, Montrose revolutionized our understanding of the period and its literature, leaving a lasting impact on literary theory and criticism.

Summary of “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose

Emergence of New Historicism in Renaissance Studies

Renaissance studies have seen a shift towards examining the historical, social, and political conditions influencing literary production. This approach challenges the traditional view of literature as an autonomous aesthetic activity.

Montrose highlights this shift: “The writing and reading of texts, as well as the processes by which they are circulated and categorized, analyzed and taught, are being reconstrued as historically determined and determining modes of cultural work.”
Interplay Between Literature and Social Contexts

New Historicism repositions literary works within their socio-cultural contexts, considering the influence of social institutions and non-discursive practices on literary production.

This approach reorients the focus from a purely textual analysis to understanding texts as part of a broader cultural system, as Montrose notes: “The axis of inter-textuality, substituting for the diachronic text of an autonomous literary history the synchronic text of a cultural system.”
Rejection of Traditional Interpretations

The traditional approach to Renaissance literature, which focused on formalist analysis and self-contained histories of ideas, is criticized for its abstraction from social contexts. Montrose argues against this by stating that New Historicism resists “unproblematized distinctions between ‘literature’ and ‘history,’ between ‘text’ and ‘context.'”

This new approach refuses to treat literary works as separate from the socio-political environment in which they were created.
Challenges and Complexities of New Historicism

Montrose discusses the complex issues that New Historicism confronts, including the relationship between cultural practices and social processes, and the impact of post-structuralist theories on historical criticism.

He emphasizes that New Historicism is not about providing definitive answers but about engaging with these issues: “The term ‘New Historicism’ is currently being invoked in order to bring such issues into play and to stake out…specific positions within the discursive spaces mapped by these issues.”
Historicity of Texts and Textuality of History

Montrose introduces the idea that texts are historically specific and socially embedded, and that history itself is mediated through texts. This notion challenges the possibility of accessing an “authentic” past without the mediation of texts.

He articulates this concept: “We can have no access to a full and authentic past, a lived material existence, unmediated by the surviving textual traces of the society in question.”
New Socio-Historical Criticism

The goal of New Historicism is to analyze the interaction of culture-specific discursive practices, recognizing that such analysis is also a cultural practice influenced by its historical and social context.

Montrose calls for a recognition of the historian’s role in shaping history: “The histories we reconstruct are the textual constructs of critics who are, ourselves, historical subjects.”
Continuous Dialogue Between Poetics and Politics

Montrose concludes that historical criticism today must acknowledge the critic’s own historical context and the dynamic relationship between past and present. This ongoing dialogue shapes both the interpretation of Renaissance texts and contemporary understanding of history.

He summarizes this approach: “Such a critical practice constitutes a continuous dialogue between a poetics and a politics of culture.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose

Term	Definition
New Historicism	A critical approach that examines literature within its historical and cultural context, emphasizing the interconnectedness of texts and the social, political, and economic forces that shaped them.
Cultural Materialism	A similar approach to New Historicism, focusing on the material conditions and social practices that influence the production and reception of literature.
Cultural Poetics	A term coined by Stephen Greenblatt to describe the intersection of formalist and historical concerns in literary analysis.
Intertextuality	The interconnectedness of texts, where one text references or is influenced by another.
Cultural System	The network of discourses, practices, and institutions that constitute a particular culture.
Discursive Construction	The idea that social reality is shaped through language and discourse.
Dialogical Language-Use	The understanding that language is always situated within a social context and involves interaction with others.
Historicity of Texts	The recognition that texts are products of their specific historical and cultural contexts.
Textuality of History	The idea that history is constructed through textual traces and interpretations, and that our understanding of the past is mediated by these texts.
Subjectivity	The socially and historically constructed identity of an individual.
Agency	The capacity of individuals to act and influence their circumstances, while also being constrained by social structures.
Ideology	A system of beliefs and values that shape social and political structures.
Subject Position	The various roles and identities that individuals occupy within society.
Referentiality	The relationship between a linguistic sign and its referent in the real world.
Social Production of Literature	The idea that literature is shaped by social and cultural forces, and that it also performs work within society.
Stratification	The hierarchical arrangement of social groups based on factors like class, race, and gender.
Cultural Politics	The struggle over the meaning and control of cultural representations and practices.

Contribution of “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose to Literary Theory/Theories

New Historicism:

Historical Contextualization: Montrose’s essay emphasized the importance of examining literary texts within their specific historical and cultural contexts, challenging the traditional focus on autonomous literary works.

Interconnectedness of Text and Context: He argued that texts are not merely products of individual genius but are deeply embedded in the social and political structures of their time.
Deconstruction of Authorial Authority: Montrose questioned the notion of the author as a unified, autonomous individual, instead focusing on the social and cultural factors that shaped their writing.

Cultural Materialism:

Material Conditions and Social Practices: Montrose’s work highlighted the influence of material conditions and social practices on literary production and reception, aligning with the core tenets of Cultural Materialism.
Power and Ideology: He explored the ways in which literature can be used to reinforce or challenge dominant ideologies and power structures.
Resistance and Subversion: Montrose examined how literary texts can be sites of resistance and subversion against oppressive social and political forces.

Intertextuality:

Interconnectedness of Texts: Montrose’s essay explored the interconnectedness of literary texts, emphasizing their relationship to other genres, modes of discourse, and social institutions.
Cultural System: He argued that texts are part of a larger cultural system, and their meaning is shaped by their relationship to other texts within that system.

Cultural Studies:

Interdisciplinary Approach: Montrose’s work embraced an interdisciplinary approach to literary studies, incorporating insights from history, sociology, anthropology, and other fields.
Power and Representation: He examined the ways in which literature is involved in the production and circulation of power and knowledge.

Subjectivity and Agency: Montrose explored the ways in which individuals are shaped by social and cultural forces, while also possessing agency to resist or challenge these forces.

Post-Structuralism:

Deconstruction of Authorial Authority: Montrose’s critique of the author as a unified, autonomous individual aligns with post-structuralist theories that challenge the concept of the author.

Language and Meaning: He explored the ways in which language and meaning are socially and historically constructed, challenging the notion of a fixed or stable meaning.
Deconstruction of Binary Oppositions: Montrose questioned the binary oppositions that have traditionally dominated literary criticism, such as literature versus history or high culture versus popular culture.

Examples of Critiques Through “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose

Literary Work	Critique Through Montrose’s Lens	Key Concepts
William Shakespeare’s Hamlet	Hamlet is analyzed not merely as a psychological drama but as a text deeply embedded in the sociopolitical conflicts of the Elizabethan era. Montrose would emphasize the cultural and ideological forces shaping the play’s themes of power, authority, and madness.	Cultural Poetics, Socio-political context, Historical specificity
Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus	Doctor Faustus is critiqued as a reflection of the tensions between emerging Renaissance individualism and the traditional religious ideologies. Montrose would focus on how the text negotiates these conflicting forces within its cultural moment.	Conflict of ideologies, Social and religious context, Individualism
Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene	Through Montrose’s perspective, The Faerie Queene would be examined as a politically charged text that reinforces and challenges the dominant Elizabethan ideologies, particularly in relation to national identity and moral order.	National identity, Ideological reinforcement, Cultural production
John Milton’s Paradise Lost	Paradise Lost would be analyzed as a text that engages with the political turmoil of the English Civil War, reflecting Milton’s own ideological struggles and the broader cultural debates about authority, freedom, and divine justice.	Political turmoil, Authority and freedom, Ideological struggle

Criticism Against “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose

Overemphasis on Historical Context: Critics argue that Montrose’s focus on the socio-political and historical context can overshadow the literary and aesthetic qualities of the texts, reducing literature to merely a reflection of its time rather than appreciating its artistic value.

Reductionism: There is a concern that Montrose’s approach might lead to a reductive interpretation of literature, where complex literary works are boiled down to their socio-political dimensions, neglecting other interpretive possibilities.
Neglect of Authorial Intent: Some scholars criticize Montrose for downplaying or ignoring the role of authorial intent, focusing instead on external cultural forces. This can be seen as dismissive of the creative agency of the author.
Potential for Anachronism: Montrose’s method of linking Renaissance texts to contemporary socio-political concerns might lead to anachronistic readings, where modern concepts and ideologies are retroactively imposed on historical texts.

Ambiguity in Theory Application: Critics point out that while Montrose advocates for a blend of formalist and historicist analysis, there is sometimes ambiguity in how these approaches should be applied in practice, leading to inconsistencies in critical interpretation.
Marginalization of Literary Form: By prioritizing historical and cultural contexts, Montrose’s approach can marginalize the importance of literary form and stylistic innovation, which are essential aspects of literary studies.

Representative Quotations from “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The writing and reading of texts, as well as the processes by which they are circulated and categorized…are being reconstrued as historically determined and determining modes of cultural work.”	Montrose emphasizes that literary texts and their interpretation are deeply influenced by historical and cultural contexts, challenging the notion of literature as an autonomous entity.
“The axis of inter-textuality, substituting for the diachronic text of an autonomous literary history the synchronic text of a cultural system.”	This highlights Montrose’s shift from viewing literary works in isolation (diachronic) to seeing them as part of a larger, contemporary cultural system (synchronic).
“Formal and historical concerns are not opposed but rather are inseparable.”	Montrose argues against the dichotomy between formalist and historicist approaches, advocating for an integrated method that considers both aspects as mutually reinforcing.
“New Historicism is new in its refusal of unproblematized distinctions between ‘literature’ and ‘history,’ between ‘text’ and ‘context’.”	This quotation reflects the New Historicist approach, which challenges the separation between literary texts and their historical contexts, treating them as interconnected.
“We can have no access to a full and authentic past, a lived material existence, unmediated by the surviving textual traces of the society in question.”	Montrose underscores the idea that our understanding of history is always mediated through texts, and thus we can never fully access an unmediated historical reality.
“The freely self-creating and world-creating Individual of so-called bourgeois humanism is – at least, in theory – now defunct.”	This statement critiques the Enlightenment concept of the autonomous individual, suggesting that subjectivity is socially and historically constructed rather than innate.
“The histories we reconstruct are the textual constructs of critics who are, ourselves, historical subjects.”	Montrose acknowledges that historians and critics are themselves products of their historical contexts, influencing their interpretations of the past.
“The project of a new socio-historical criticism is…to analyze the interplay of culture-specific discursive practices.”	Montrose defines the aim of New Historicism as studying the interaction of different cultural discourses within their specific historical contexts.
“Such a critical practice constitutes a continuous dialogue between a poetics and a politics of culture.”	Montrose concludes that literary criticism should engage in a dynamic exchange between the artistic (poetics) and the societal (politics) aspects of culture.
“Recent theories of textuality have argued persuasively that the referent of a linguistic sign cannot be fixed; that the meaning of a text cannot be stabilized.”	This quotation reflects post-structuralist influences on Montrose’s thinking, emphasizing the fluidity of meaning in texts and the instability of linguistic signs.

“Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan: Summary and Critique

“Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” by Josephine Donovan first appeared in the 1983 Winter issue of Denver Quarterly.

Introduction: “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan

“Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” by Josephine Donovan first appeared in the 1983 Winter issue of Denver Quarterly. This essay explores the crucial role of literature and literary theory in shaping societal values and understanding. Donovan argues that feminist criticism, by examining the portrayal of women in literature, can serve as a powerful moral critique. She emphasizes the importance of literature in reflecting and influencing societal attitudes, and how feminist criticism can challenge harmful stereotypes and promote a more equitable understanding of gender.

Summary of “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan

Return to the ‘Images of Women’ Approach in Feminist Criticism

The article emphasizes a return to the ‘images of women’ approach that was central to feminist literary studies in the early 1970s and continues to play a significant role in the pedagogy of Women’s Studies. This approach involves analyzing how women characters are portrayed in literature, often revealing that these portrayals are alien and objectifying. “Women in literature written by men are for the most part seen as Other, as objects, of interest only insofar as they serve or detract from the goals of the male protagonist.”

Authenticity as a Critical Criterion in Feminist Criticism

Authenticity is highlighted as a key concept in evaluating female characters, borrowed from Existentialist theory, particularly the works of Heidegger and Sartre. A character’s authenticity is determined by their reflective, critical consciousness, as opposed to a stereotypical identity. “Such judgments enable the feminist critic to determine the degree to which sexist ideology controls the text.”

Aesthetic Exploitation of Women in Literature and Film

The article discusses how women are aesthetically exploited in literature and film, using Ingmar Bergman’s Cries and Whispers as an example. Women in such works are treated as mere objects within an aesthetic vision, lacking moral importance. “The women are used aesthetically as if they were on the same level of moral importance as the red decor of their surroundings.”

The Inseparability of Aesthetic and Moral Dimensions

The argument is made that the aesthetic and moral dimensions of literature cannot be divorced. Western literature, rooted in a moral order, often justifies the suffering of characters within this moral framework. However, when suffering is exploited beyond moral justification, the aesthetic continuity is disrupted. “The aesthetic dimension of literature and of film cannot be divorced from the moral dimension, as we have facilely come to assume under the influence of technique-oriented critical methodologies.”

Stereotypical Images of Women in Western Literature

The article critiques the prevalence of stereotypical images of women in Western literature, which are often divided into ‘good’ and ‘evil’ categories, reflecting a Manichean dualism. These stereotypes serve to define women in relation to men, either as supporters or obstacles to male protagonists. “Much of our literature in fact depends upon a series of fixed images of women, stereotypes. These reified forms, surprisingly few in number, are repeated over and over again through much of Western literature.”

The Alienation of Female Readers

Women readers may find themselves alienated from much of Western literature, as it often fails to present the ‘inside’ of women’s experiences. Instead, female characters are used as vehicles for the growth and salvation of male protagonists. “The women are Other in Beauvoir’s sense of the term, and therefore this literature must remain alien to the female reader who reads as a woman.”

The Moral and Political Nature of Feminist Criticism

Feminist criticism is described as inherently moral, addressing the central problem in Western literature where women are not depicted as full human beings but as objects for male projects. Furthermore, feminist criticism becomes political when it calls for changes in literature and academic standards to eliminate sexist ideology. “Feminist criticism becomes political when it asserts that literature, academic curricula, and the standards of critical judgment should be changed, so that literature will no longer function as propaganda furthering sexist ideology.”

The Need for Moral Evaluations in Literary Criticism

The article critiques formalist analysis for ignoring the moral implications of literature, leading to a dehumanized approach. It argues that literature should be evaluated not just on style but also on the moral views of women presented by the author or the culture. “Criticism, by ignoring central questions of content, has become dehumanized in the same way as modern art did when it gave way to exclusively formal concerns.”

Literature as a Form of Learning

Ultimately, the article asserts that literature should be understood as a profound form of learning, offering insights into life, psychology, human behavior, and relationships. This learning is essential for growth and understanding, which should be a central focus of literary criticism. “We learn, we grow from the knowledge of life, of psychology, of human behavior and relationships that we discover in worthwhile works of art.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan

Term	Explanation
Images of women	The way women characters are presented in literature.
Other	A concept used to describe women characters who are seen as objects or secondary to male characters.
Negative criticism	A critique that challenges reified perceptions, structures, and models that deny full humanity to women.
Authenticity	The ability of a character to have a self-defined critical consciousness, as opposed to a mass-produced or stereotypical identity.
En-soi	The in-itself or the object-self, as opposed to the authentic pour-soi or for-itself.
Pour-soi	The critical or reflective consciousness capable of forming projects.
Aesthetic exploitation	The use of women characters for visual pleasure or to serve the aesthetic vision of the author.
Moral order	The underlying moral framework within which the events of a literary work take place.
Stereotypes	Fixed images of women that are repeated throughout Western literature.
Manicheistic dualism	The division of the world into opposing forces of good and evil.
Mary	A symbol of spiritual goodness and the patient wife.
Eve	A symbol of evil physicality and the seductress.
Alien	Literature that is foreign or unfamiliar to the female reader because it denies her essential selfhood.
Moral atmosphere	The overall moral tone or climate created by a work of literature.
Formalist analysis	A critical approach that focuses on the form and structure of a literary work, often ignoring questions of content.
Dehumanized	A critique of criticism that has become overly focused on technical aspects and has neglected the human element of literature.

Contribution of “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan to Literary Theory/Theories

Feminist Theory

Challenges traditional gender roles and stereotypes: Donovan argues that feminist criticism can expose and challenge the harmful stereotypes and objectification of women in literature.

Redefines literary canon: By focusing on the experiences and perspectives of women, feminist criticism has expanded the literary canon to include works by female authors and those that address women’s issues.
Promotes intersectionality: Donovan’s work highlights the importance of considering race, class, and other factors in addition to gender when analyzing literature.

Existentialism

Emphasizes the importance of individual consciousness and agency: Donovan borrows the concept of authenticity from Existentialism to evaluate the degree to which female characters have a reflective, critical consciousness and can act as moral agents.
Critiques the objectification of women: Donovan argues that many women characters in Western literature are presented as objects or “Others,” denying their individual agency and consciousness.

Marxism

Examines the relationship between literature and society: Donovan’s analysis of how literature reflects and reinforces societal attitudes towards women aligns with Marxist ideas about the social and political functions of art.
Critiques the exploitation of women: Donovan’s discussion of the aesthetic exploitation of women in literature echoes Marxist critiques of capitalist exploitation.

New Criticism

Challenges the focus on formal elements: Donovan argues that New Criticism’s emphasis on form and technique can neglect important questions of content and moral evaluation.
Reasserts the importance of moral and social dimensions: Donovan emphasizes the moral and social dimensions of literature, arguing that they cannot be divorced from the aesthetic experience.

Cultural Studies

Examines the relationship between literature and culture: Donovan’s analysis of how literature reflects and reinforces cultural ideologies aligns with the goals of cultural studies.
Highlights the importance of context: Donovan emphasizes the importance of considering the historical and cultural context of a literary work to understand its meaning and significance.

Examples of Critiques Through “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan

Literary Work	Critique Through Donovan’s Lens	Supporting Quote from Donovan’s Article
“The Odyssey” by Homer	The female characters in “The Odyssey” are objectified and used as tools for the hero’s journey, reflecting sexist ideology. The women serve as obstacles or aids to Odysseus but lack their own narrative agency.	“These works, central to the Western tradition – the Odyssey, the Commedia, and Faust – do not present the ‘inside’ of women’s experience.”
“Hamlet” by William Shakespeare	Ophelia is portrayed as a passive object, her existence revolving around Hamlet’s decisions. She lacks authentic selfhood, serving as a reflection of Hamlet’s internal struggles rather than having her own narrative.	“Isn’t it morally misleading to encourage a person who is barred from action to identify with an individual whose dilemma… is simply whether to act?”
“Cries and Whispers” by Ingmar Bergman	The women in the film are used aesthetically, devoid of moral depth. They are depicted as part of the visual scenery, their suffering and experiences treated with detachment, which reflects their objectification.	“The women are used aesthetically as if they were on the same level of moral importance as the red decor of their surroundings.”
“Faust” by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe	Gretchen is portrayed as a sacrificial figure whose purpose is to further Faust’s redemption. Her character is objectified, serving as a moral tool rather than being depicted as a fully realized human being.	“Western projects of redemption almost always depend upon a salvific woman. On the other hand, in some Western literature women are the objects, the scapegoats, of much cruelty and evil.”

Criticism Against “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan

Oversimplification of gender roles: Some critics argue that Donovan’s analysis oversimplifies the complexities of gender roles and stereotypes in literature.

Essentialism: Critics have accused Donovan of essentialism, suggesting that she assumes all women have a shared experience and perspective.
Neglect of male-authored works: Some critics argue that Donovan’s focus on “images of women” in male-authored works neglects the ways in which these works can also challenge patriarchal norms.
Moral absolutism: Critics may argue that Donovan’s moral framework is too absolute and does not account for the complexities of literary interpretation.

Limited scope: Some critics argue that Donovan’s analysis is limited in its scope and does not address more recent developments in feminist literary theory.
Eurocentric perspective: Some critics argue that Donovan’s analysis is Eurocentric and does not adequately account for the experiences of women from diverse cultural backgrounds.
Overemphasis on negative criticism: Critics may argue that Donovan’s focus on “negative criticism” can overshadow the positive contributions that some literature can make to feminist thought.

Quotation	Explanation
“Women in literature written by men are for the most part seen as Other, as objects, of interest only insofar as they serve or detract from the goals of the male protagonist.”	This quotation highlights Donovan’s central argument that women are often portrayed as secondary characters whose roles are defined by their relationships to men.
“The concept of authenticity in feminist criticism is therefore not a free-floating, ‘impressionistic’ notion… Judgments which evaluate a character’s authenticity are rooted in the extensive body of Existentialist theory.”	Donovan explains that feminist criticism evaluates the authenticity of female characters based on existentialist theory, focusing on whether they possess self-defined critical consciousness.
“The women are used aesthetically as if they were on the same level of moral importance as the red decor of their surroundings.”	This quotation criticizes how women in certain works, like Ingmar Bergman’s Cries and Whispers, are objectified and reduced to mere aesthetic elements rather than being treated as fully realized human beings.
“The aesthetic dimension of literature and of film cannot be divorced from the moral dimension, as we have facilely come to assume under the influence of technique-oriented critical methodologies.”	Donovan argues that separating aesthetics from morals in literary criticism is a flawed approach, as moral considerations are integral to the aesthetic value of a work.
“Much of our literature in fact depends upon a series of fixed images of women, stereotypes.”	Donovan critiques the reliance on stereotypical portrayals of women in literature, which perpetuates narrow and often harmful images of women.
“The women are Other in Beauvoir’s sense of the term, and therefore this literature must remain alien to the female reader who reads as a woman.”	Donovan references Simone de Beauvoir’s concept of “Otherness” to explain why literature that objectifies women alienates female readers.
“Feminist criticism becomes political when it asserts that literature, academic curricula, and the standards of critical judgment should be changed, so that literature will no longer function as propaganda furthering sexist ideology.”	This quotation emphasizes the political nature of feminist criticism, advocating for changes in how literature is taught and critiqued to challenge sexist ideologies.
“Criticism, by ignoring central questions of content, has become dehumanized in the same way as modern art did when it gave way to exclusively formal concerns.”	Donovan criticizes modern criticism that focuses solely on form and technique, arguing that it neglects the human and moral dimensions of literature.
“Literature on its most profound level is a form of learning. We learn, we grow from the knowledge of life, of psychology, of human behavior and relationships that we discover in worthwhile works of art.”	Donovan underscores the educational value of literature, asserting that it should teach us about human experience, not just entertain or display technical prowess.
“Western projects of redemption almost always depend upon a salvific woman. On the other hand, in some Western literature women are the objects, the scapegoats, of much cruelty and evil.”	Donovan critiques the trope of the “salvific woman” in Western literature, where women are either idealized as redeemers or demonized as embodiments of evil.

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Introduction: “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Text: “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Annotations: “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Themes: “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Literary Theories and “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

1. New Criticism

2. Psychoanalytic Criticism

3. Deconstruction

Critical Questions about “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Literary Works Similar to “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Suggested Readings: “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Representative Quotations of “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith

Introduction: “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Text: “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Annotations: “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Themes: “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Literary Theories and “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Critical Questions about “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Literary Works Similar to “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Suggested Readings: “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Representative Quotations of “Musee des Beaux Arts” by W. H. Auden

Introduction: “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich

Summary of “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich

Contribution of “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich

Criticism Against “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich

Suggested Readings: “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich

Representative Quotations from “The Subjective Character Of Critical Interpretation” by David Bleich with Explanation

Introduction: “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield

Summary of “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield

Contribution of “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield

Criticism Against “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield

Suggested Readings: “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield

Representative Quotations from “Reading Dissidence” by Alan Sinfield with Explanation

Introduction: “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose

Summary of “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose

Contribution of “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose

Criticism Against “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose

Suggested Readings: “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose

Representative Quotations from “Professing The Renaissance: The Poetics And Politics Of Culture” By Louis A. Montrose with Explanation

Introduction: “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan

Summary of “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan

Contribution of “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan

Criticism Against “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan

Suggested Readings: “Beyond The Net: Feminist Criticism As A Moral Criticism” By Josephine Donovan